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Akintoye SO, Adisa AO, Okwuosa CU, Mupparapu M. Craniofacial disorders and dysplasias: Molecular, clinical, and management perspectives. Bone Rep 2024; 20:101747. [PMID: 38566929 PMCID: PMC10985038 DOI: 10.1016/j.bonr.2024.101747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
There is a wide spectrum of craniofacial bone disorders and dysplasias because embryological development of the craniofacial region is complex. Classification of craniofacial bone disorders and dysplasias is also complex because they exhibit complex clinical, pathological, and molecular heterogeneity. Most craniofacial disorders and dysplasias are rare but they present an array of phenotypes that functionally impact the orofacial complex. Management of craniofacial disorders is a multidisciplinary approach that involves the collaborative efforts of multiple professionals. This review provides an overview of the complexity of craniofacial disorders and dysplasias from molecular, clinical, and management perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunday O. Akintoye
- Department of Oral Medicine, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
| | - Akinyele O. Adisa
- University of Ibadan and University College Hospital Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Chukwubuzor U. Okwuosa
- Department of Oral Pathology & Oral Medicine, University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Ituku-Ozalla, Nigeria
| | - Mel Mupparapu
- Department of Oral Medicine, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
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2
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Motch Perrine SM, Wu M, Holmes G, Bjork BC, Jabs EW, Richtsmeier JT. Phenotypes, Developmental Basis, and Genetics of Pierre Robin Complex. J Dev Biol 2020; 8:E30. [PMID: 33291480 PMCID: PMC7768358 DOI: 10.3390/jdb8040030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The phenotype currently accepted as Pierre Robin syndrome/sequence/anomalad/complex (PR) is characterized by mandibular dysmorphology, glossoptosis, respiratory obstruction, and in some cases, cleft palate. A causative sequence of developmental events is hypothesized for PR, but few clear causal relationships between discovered genetic variants, dysregulated gene expression, precise cellular processes, pathogenesis, and PR-associated anomalies are documented. This review presents the current understanding of PR phenotypes, the proposed pathogenetic processes underlying them, select genes associated with PR, and available animal models that could be used to better understand the genetic basis and phenotypic variation of PR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M. Motch Perrine
- Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Meng Wu
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (M.W.); (G.H.); (E.W.J.)
| | - Greg Holmes
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (M.W.); (G.H.); (E.W.J.)
| | - Bryan C. Bjork
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA;
| | - Ethylin Wang Jabs
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (M.W.); (G.H.); (E.W.J.)
| | - Joan T. Richtsmeier
- Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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3
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Ji Y, Garland MA, Sun B, Zhang S, Reynolds K, McMahon M, Rajakumar R, Islam MS, Liu Y, Chen Y, Zhou CJ. Cellular and developmental basis of orofacial clefts. Birth Defects Res 2020; 112:1558-1587. [PMID: 32725806 DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.1768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
During craniofacial development, defective growth and fusion of the upper lip and/or palate can cause orofacial clefts (OFCs), which are among the most common structural birth defects in humans. The developmental basis of OFCs includes morphogenesis of the upper lip, primary palate, secondary palate, and other orofacial structures, each consisting of diverse cell types originating from all three germ layers: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Cranial neural crest cells and orofacial epithelial cells are two major cell types that interact with various cell lineages and play key roles in orofacial development. The cellular basis of OFCs involves defective execution in any one or several of the following processes: neural crest induction, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, migration, proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, primary cilia formation and its signaling transduction, epithelial seam formation and disappearance, periderm formation and peeling, convergence and extrusion of palatal epithelial seam cells, cell adhesion, cytoskeleton dynamics, and extracellular matrix function. The latest cellular and developmental findings may provide a basis for better understanding of the underlying genetic, epigenetic, environmental, and molecular mechanisms of OFCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Ji
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, School of Medicine, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, California, USA.,Biochemistry, Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology (BMCDB) graduate group, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Michael A Garland
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, School of Medicine, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Bo Sun
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, School of Medicine, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Shuwen Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, School of Medicine, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Kurt Reynolds
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, School of Medicine, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, California, USA.,Biochemistry, Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology (BMCDB) graduate group, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Moira McMahon
- Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, School of Medicine, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Ratheya Rajakumar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, School of Medicine, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Mohammad S Islam
- Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, School of Medicine, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Yue Liu
- Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, School of Medicine, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - YiPing Chen
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Chengji J Zhou
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, School of Medicine, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, California, USA.,Biochemistry, Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology (BMCDB) graduate group, University of California, Davis, California, USA
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4
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Bi L, Lwigale P. Transcriptomic analysis of differential gene expression during chick periocular neural crest differentiation into corneal cells. Dev Dyn 2019; 248:583-602. [PMID: 31004457 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Revised: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multipotent neural crest cells (NCC) contribute to the corneal endothelium and keratocytes during ocular development, but the molecular mechanisms that underlie this process remain poorly understood. We performed RNA-Seq analysis on periocular neural crest (pNC), corneal endothelium, and keratocytes and validated expression of candidate genes by in situ hybridization. RESULTS RNA-Seq profiling revealed enrichment of genes between pNC and neural crest-derived corneal cells, which correspond to pathways involved in focal adhesion, ECM-receptor interaction, cell adhesion, melanogenesis, and MAPK signaling. Comparisons of candidate NCC genes to ocular gene expression revealed that majority of the NCC genes are expressed in the pNC, but they are either differentially expressed or maintained during corneal development. Several genes involved in retinoic acid, transforming growth factor-β, and Wnt signaling pathways and their modulators are also differentially expressed. We identified differentially expressed transcription factors as potential downstream candidates that may instruct expression of genes involved in establishing corneal endothelium and keratocyte identities. CONCLUSION Combined, our data reveal novel changes in gene expression profiles as pNC differentiate into highly specialized corneal endothelial cells and keratocytes. These data serve as platform for further analyses of the molecular networks involved in NCC differentiation into corneal cells and provide insights into genes involved in corneal dysgenesis and adult diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lian Bi
- BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, Texas
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Sun Y, Liu N, Bai H, Li Y, Xue F, Ye J, Ma H, En H, Chen J. Differential proteomic analysis to identify proteins associated with beak deformity in chickens. Poult Sci 2019; 98:1833-1841. [PMID: 30452707 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pey519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The beak is the dominant avian facial feature, and beak deformity occurs in 0.5 to 2.5% of some indigenous chicken breeds, resulting in difficulties when eating, drinking, and performing natural behaviors. Previous studies on beak deformity focused largely on candidate molecules associated with skeletogenic development, providing insight into the molecular and genetic underpinnings of beak deformity. The present study was performed to identify candidate proteins related to this malformation in chickens. Three 12-day-old Beijing-You roosters with deformed beaks (D1, D2, and D3) and 3 with normal beaks (N1, N2, and N3) were used, and total beak proteins were isolated and subjected to standard iTRAQ labeling, strong cation-exchange chromatography, and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Mascot 2.3.02 was used to identify and quantitatively analyze proteins. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analyses were used to identify functions and metabolic pathways of differentially expressed proteins, and key proteins were further validated using western blot. A total of 2,370, 2,401, and 2,378 proteins were reliably quantified in 3 biological replicates, among which, 2,345 were common to all, and 92 were differentially expressed between the 2 groups. These included 37 upregulated and 55 downregulated proteins in deformed beaks. Pentraxin-related protein 3, hemopexin, lipoprotein lipase, retinoid-binding protein 7, and biliverdin reductase A were downregulated in all 3 sets, while parvalbumin, peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase, and ubiquitin-fold modifier 1 were upregulated. Pathway analysis returned no enriched pathways, and western blot validated the iTRAQ results. Parvalbumin and lipoprotein lipase could be firstly selected as key proteins in view of their known functions in regulating the buffering of intracellular free Ca2+ in both cartilage and bone cells and bone mass, respectively. Their potential roles in beak deformity, however, deserve further studies. In summary, the onset of beak deformity could be very complex, and this study will be helpful for future investigation of mechanistic explanation for beak deformity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanyan Sun
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics Breeding and Reproduction (Poultry), Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Nian Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics Breeding and Reproduction (Poultry), Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Hao Bai
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics Breeding and Reproduction (Poultry), Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yunlei Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics Breeding and Reproduction (Poultry), Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Fuguang Xue
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics Breeding and Reproduction (Poultry), Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jianhua Ye
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics Breeding and Reproduction (Poultry), Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Hui Ma
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics Breeding and Reproduction (Poultry), Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - He En
- Chifeng Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Science Academy, Chifeng 024031, Inner Mongolia, China
| | - Jilan Chen
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics Breeding and Reproduction (Poultry), Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
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Richtsmeier JT. A century of development. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 165:726-740. [PMID: 29574839 PMCID: PMC6007869 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 12/02/2017] [Accepted: 12/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joan T Richtsmeier
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
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Schock EN, Struve JN, Chang CF, Williams TJ, Snedeker J, Attia AC, Stottmann RW, Brugmann SA. A tissue-specific role for intraflagellar transport genes during craniofacial development. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0174206. [PMID: 28346501 PMCID: PMC5367710 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0174206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary cilia are nearly ubiquitous, cellular projections that function to transduce molecular signals during development. Loss of functional primary cilia has a particularly profound effect on the developing craniofacial complex, causing several anomalies including craniosynostosis, micrognathia, midfacial dysplasia, cleft lip/palate and oral/dental defects. Development of the craniofacial complex is an intricate process that requires interactions between several different tissues including neural crest cells, neuroectoderm and surface ectoderm. To understand the tissue-specific requirements for primary cilia during craniofacial development we conditionally deleted three separate intraflagellar transport genes, Kif3a, Ift88 and Ttc21b with three distinct drivers, Wnt1-Cre, Crect and AP2-Cre which drive recombination in neural crest, surface ectoderm alone, and neural crest, surface ectoderm and neuroectoderm, respectively. We found that tissue-specific conditional loss of ciliary genes with different functions produces profoundly different facial phenotypes. Furthermore, analysis of basic cellular behaviors in these mutants suggests that loss of primary cilia in a distinct tissue has unique effects on development of adjacent tissues. Together, these data suggest specific spatiotemporal roles for intraflagellar transport genes and the primary cilium during craniofacial development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth N. Schock
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
- Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Jaime N. Struve
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
- Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Ching-Fang Chang
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
- Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Trevor J. Williams
- Department of Craniofacial Biology, University of Colorado School of Dental Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - John Snedeker
- Division of Human Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Aria C. Attia
- Division of Human Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Rolf W. Stottmann
- Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
- Division of Human Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Samantha A. Brugmann
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
- Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
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8
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Millington G, Elliott KH, Chang YT, Chang CF, Dlugosz A, Brugmann SA. Cilia-dependent GLI processing in neural crest cells is required for tongue development. Dev Biol 2017; 424:124-137. [PMID: 28286175 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2017.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2016] [Revised: 02/20/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Ciliopathies are a class of diseases caused by the loss of a ubiquitous, microtubule-based organelle called a primary cilium. Ciliopathies commonly result in defective development of the craniofacial complex, causing midfacial defects, craniosynostosis, micrognathia and aglossia. Herein, we explored how the conditional loss of primary cilia on neural crest cells (Kif3af/f;Wnt1-Cre) generated aglossia. On a cellular level, our data revealed that aglossia in Kif3af/f;Wnt1-Cre embryos was due to a loss of mesoderm-derived muscle precursors migrating into and surviving in the tongue anlage. To determine the molecular basis for this phenotype, we performed RNA-seq, in situ hybridization, qPCR and Western blot analyses. We found that transduction of the Sonic hedgehog (Shh) pathway, rather than other pathways previously implicated in tongue development, was aberrant in Kif3af/f;Wnt1-Cre embryos. Despite increased production of full-length GLI2 and GLI3 isoforms, previously identified GLI targets important for mandibular and glossal development (Foxf1, Foxf2, Foxd1 and Foxd2) were transcriptionally downregulated in Kif3af/f;Wnt1-Cre embryos. Genetic removal of GLI activator (GLIA) isoforms in neural crest cells recapitulated the aglossia phenotype and downregulated Fox gene expression. Genetic addition of GLIA isoforms in neural crest cells partially rescued the aglossia phenotype and Fox gene expression in Kif3af/f;Wnt1-Cre embryos. Together, our data suggested that glossal development requires primary cilia-dependent GLIA activity in neural crest cells. Furthermore, these data, in conjunction with our previous work, suggested prominence specific roles for GLI isoforms; with development of the frontonasal prominence relying heavily on the repressor isoform and the development of the mandibular prominence/tongue relying heavily on the activator isoform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grethel Millington
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, United States; Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, United States
| | - Kelsey H Elliott
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, United States; Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, United States
| | - Ya-Ting Chang
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, United States; Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, United States
| | - Ching-Fang Chang
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, United States; Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, United States
| | - Andrzej Dlugosz
- Department of Dermatology, Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Samantha A Brugmann
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, United States; Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, United States.
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Powder KE, Albertson RC. Cichlid fishes as a model to understand normal and clinical craniofacial variation. Dev Biol 2016; 415:338-346. [PMID: 26719128 PMCID: PMC4914429 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2015.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Revised: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
We have made great strides towards understanding the etiology of craniofacial disorders, especially for 'simple' Mendelian traits. However, the facial skeleton is a complex trait, and the full spectrum of genetic, developmental, and environmental factors that contribute to its final geometry remain unresolved. Forward genetic screens are constrained with respect to complex traits due to the types of genes and alleles commonly identified, developmental pleiotropy, and limited information about the impact of environmental interactions. Here, we discuss how studies in an evolutionary model - African cichlid fishes - can complement traditional approaches to understand the genetic and developmental origins of complex shape. Cichlids exhibit an unparalleled range of natural craniofacial morphologies that model normal human variation, and in certain instances mimic human facial dysmorphologies. Moreover, the evolutionary history and genomic architecture of cichlids make them an ideal system to identify the genetic basis of these phenotypes via quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping and population genomics. Given the molecular conservation of developmental genes and pathways, insights from cichlids are applicable to human facial variation and disease. We review recent work in this system, which has identified lbh as a novel regulator of neural crest cell migration, determined the Wnt and Hedgehog pathways mediate species-specific bone morphologies, and examined how plastic responses to diet modulate adult facial shapes. These studies have not only revealed new roles for existing pathways in craniofacial development, but have identified new genes and mechanisms involved in shaping the craniofacial skeleton. In all, we suggest that combining work in traditional laboratory and evolutionary models offers significant potential to provide a more complete and comprehensive picture of the myriad factors that are involved in the development of complex traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kara E Powder
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 221 Morrill Science Center South, 611 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
| | - R Craig Albertson
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 221 Morrill Science Center South, 611 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
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10
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Flaherty K, Singh N, Richtsmeier JT. Understanding craniosynostosis as a growth disorder. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2016; 5:429-59. [PMID: 27002187 PMCID: PMC4911263 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Revised: 12/06/2015] [Accepted: 12/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Craniosynostosis is a condition of complex etiology that always involves the premature fusion of one or multiple cranial sutures and includes various anomalies of the soft and hard tissues of the head. Steady progress in the field has resulted in identifying gene mutations that recurrently cause craniosynostosis. There are now scores of mutations on many genes causally related to craniosynostosis syndromes, though the genetic basis for the majority of nonsyndromic cases is unknown. Identification of these genetic mutations has allowed significant progress in understanding the intrinsic properties of cranial sutures, including mechanisms responsible for normal suture patency and for pathogenesis of premature suture closure. An understanding of morphogenesis of cranial vault sutures is critical to understanding the pathophysiology of craniosynostosis conditions, but the field is now poised to recognize the repeated changes in additional skeletal and soft tissues of the head that typically accompany premature suture closure. We review the research that has brought an understanding of premature suture closure within our reach. We then enumerate the less well-studied, but equally challenging, nonsutural phenotypes of craniosynostosis conditions that are well characterized in available mouse models. We consider craniosynostosis as a complex growth disorder of multiple tissues of the developing head, whose growth is also targeted by identified mutations in ways that are poorly understood. Knowledge gained from studies of humans and mouse models for these conditions underscores the diverse, associated developmental anomalies of the head that contribute to the complex phenotypes of craniosynostosis conditions presenting novel challenges for future research. WIREs Dev Biol 2016, 5:429-459. doi: 10.1002/wdev.227 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Flaherty
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802
| | - Nandini Singh
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802
| | - Joan T. Richtsmeier
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802
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11
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Yuan G, Singh G, Chen S, Perez KC, Wu Y, Liu B, Helms JA. Cleft Palate and Aglossia Result From Perturbations in Wnt and Hedgehog Signaling. Cleft Palate Craniofac J 2016; 54:269-280. [PMID: 27259005 DOI: 10.1597/15-178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to explore the molecular basis for cleft secondary palate and arrested tongue development caused by the loss of the intraflagellar transport protein, Kif3a. DESIGN Kif3a mutant embryos and their littermate controls were analyzed for defects in facial development at multiple stages of embryonic development. Histology was employed to understand the effects of Kif3a deletion on palate and tongue development. Various transgenic reporter strains were used to understand how deletion of Kif3a affected Hedgehog and Wnt signaling. Immunostaining for structural elements of the tongue and for components of the Wnt pathway were performed. BrdU activity analyses were carried out to examine how the loss of Kif3a affected cell proliferation and led to palate and tongue malformations. RESULTS Kif3a deletion causes cranial neural crest cells to become unresponsive to Hedgehog signals and hyper-responsive to Wnt signals. This aberrant molecular signaling causes abnormally high cell proliferation, but paradoxically outgrowths of the tongue and the palatal processes are reduced. The basis for this enigmatic effect can be traced back to a disruption in epithelial/mesenchymal signaling that governs facial development. CONCLUSION The primary cilium is a cell surface organelle that integrates Hh and Wnt signaling, and disruptions in the function of the primary cilium cause one of the most common-of the rarest-craniofacial birth defects observed in humans. The shared molecular basis for these dysmorphologies is an abnormally high Wnt signal simultaneous with an abnormally low Hedgehog signal. These pathways are integrated in the primary cilium.
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12
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Tam PPL, Fossat N, Wilkie E, Loebel DAF, Ip CK, Ramialison M. Formation of the Embryonic Head in the Mouse: Attributes of a Gene Regulatory Network. Curr Top Dev Biol 2016; 117:497-521. [PMID: 26969997 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2015.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The embryonic head is the first major body part to be constructed during embryogenesis. The allocation and the assembly of the progenitor tissues, which start at gastrulation, are accompanied by the spatiotemporal activity of transcription factors and signaling pathways that drives lineage specification, germ layer formation, and cell/tissue movement. The morphogenesis, regionalization, and patterning of the brain and craniofacial structures rely on the function of LIM-domain, homeodomain, and basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors. These factors constitute the central nodes of a gene regulatory network (GRN) which encompasses and intersects with signaling pathways involved with head formation. It is predicted that the functional output of this "head GRN" impacts on cellular function and cell-cell interactions that are essential for lineage differentiation and tissue modeling, which are key processes underpinning the formation of the head.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick P L Tam
- Embryology Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia; Discipline of Medicine, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
| | - Nicolas Fossat
- Embryology Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia; Discipline of Medicine, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Emilie Wilkie
- Embryology Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia; Bioinformatics Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia
| | - David A F Loebel
- Embryology Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia; Discipline of Medicine, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Chi Kin Ip
- Embryology Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia; Discipline of Medicine, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Mirana Ramialison
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; Systems Biology Institute Australia, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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13
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Schock EN, Chang CF, Youngworth IA, Davey MG, Delany ME, Brugmann SA. Utilizing the chicken as an animal model for human craniofacial ciliopathies. Dev Biol 2015; 415:326-337. [PMID: 26597494 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2015.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The chicken has been a particularly useful model for the study of craniofacial development and disease for over a century due to their relatively large size, accessibility, and amenability for classical bead implantation and transplant experiments. Several naturally occurring mutant lines with craniofacial anomalies also exist and have been heavily utilized by developmental biologist for several decades. Two of the most well known lines, talpid(2) (ta(2)) and talpid(3) (ta(3)), represent the first spontaneous mutants to have the causative genes identified. Despite having distinct genetic causes, both mutants have recently been identified as ciliopathic. Excitingly, both of these mutants have been classified as models for human craniofacial ciliopathies: Oral-facial-digital syndrome (ta(2)) and Joubert syndrome (ta(3)). Herein, we review and compare these two models of craniofacial disease and highlight what they have revealed about the molecular and cellular etiology of ciliopathies. Furthermore, we outline how applying classical avian experiments and new technological advances (transgenics and genome editing) with naturally occurring avian mutants can add a tremendous amount to what we currently know about craniofacial ciliopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth N Schock
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA; Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Ching-Fang Chang
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA; Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Ingrid A Youngworth
- College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Megan G Davey
- Division of Developmental Biology, The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
| | - Mary E Delany
- College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Samantha A Brugmann
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA; Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA.
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14
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Abstract
Background A major goal of evolutionary biology is to understand the origins of phenotypic diversity. Changes in development, for instance heterochrony, can be a potent source of phenotypic variation. On the other hand, development can also constrain the spectrum of phenotypes that can be produced. In order to understand these dual roles of development in evolution, we examined the developmental trajectory of a trait central to the extensive adaptive radiation of East African cichlid fishes: craniofacial adaptations that allow optimal exploitation of ecological niches. Specifically, we use geometric morphometric analysis to compare morphological ontogenies among six species of Lake Malawi cichlids (n > 500 individuals) that span a major ecomorphological axis. We further evaluate how modulation of Wnt signaling impacts the long-term developmental trajectory of facial development. Results We find that, despite drastic differences in adult craniofacial morphologies, there are general similarities in the path of craniofacial ontogeny among species, suggesting that natural selection is working within a conserved developmental program. However, we also detect species-specific differences in the timing, direction, and/or duration of particular developmental trajectories, including evidence of heterochrony. Previous work in cichlids and other systems suggests that species-specific differences in adult morphology are due to changes in molecular signaling pathways that regulate early craniofacial development. In support of this, we demonstrate that modulation of Wnt signaling at early stages can shift a developmental trajectory into morphospace normally occupied by another species. However, without sustained modulation, craniofacial shape can recover by juvenile stages. This underscores the idea that craniofacial development is robust and that adult head shapes are the product of many molecular changes acting over extended periods of development. Conclusions Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that development acts to both constrain and promote morphological diversity. They also illustrate the modular nature of the craniofacial skeleton and hence the ability of selection to act upon distinct anatomical features in an independent manner. We propose that trophic diversity among cichlids has been achieved via shifts in both specific (e.g., stage-specific changes in gene expression) and global (e.g., heterochrony) ontogenetic processes acting within a conserved developmental program. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13227-015-0020-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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15
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Starbuck JM, Ghoneima A, Kula K. Bilateral cleft lip and palate: A morphometric analysis of facial skeletal form using cone beam computed tomography. Clin Anat 2015; 28:584-92. [DOI: 10.1002/ca.22530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2014] [Revised: 02/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John M. Starbuck
- Department of Orthodontics and Oral Facial Genetics, School of DentistryIndiana UniversityIndianapolis Indiana
- Department of Sociology and AnthropologyIndiana University NorthwestGary Indiana
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando Florida
| | - Ahmed Ghoneima
- Department of Orthodontics and Oral Facial Genetics, School of DentistryIndiana UniversityIndianapolis Indiana
| | - Katherine Kula
- Department of Orthodontics and Oral Facial Genetics, School of DentistryIndiana UniversityIndianapolis Indiana
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16
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Green RM, Feng W, Phang T, Fish JL, Li H, Spritz RA, Marcucio RS, Hooper J, Jamniczky H, Hallgrímsson B, Williams T. Tfap2a-dependent changes in mouse facial morphology result in clefting that can be ameliorated by a reduction in Fgf8 gene dosage. Dis Model Mech 2015; 8:31-43. [PMID: 25381013 PMCID: PMC4283648 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.017616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 11/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Failure of facial prominence fusion causes cleft lip and palate (CL/P), a common human birth defect. Several potential mechanisms can be envisioned that would result in CL/P, including failure of prominence growth and/or alignment as well as a failure of fusion of the juxtaposed epithelial seams. Here, using geometric morphometrics, we analyzed facial outgrowth and shape change over time in a novel mouse model exhibiting fully penetrant bilateral CL/P. This robust model is based upon mutations in Tfap2a, the gene encoding transcription factor AP-2α, which has been implicated in both syndromic and non-syndromic human CL/P. Our findings indicate that aberrant morphology and subsequent misalignment of the facial prominences underlies the inability of the mutant prominences to fuse. Exencephaly also occured in some of the Tfap2a mutants and we observed additional morphometric differences that indicate an influence of neural tube closure defects on facial shape. Molecular analysis of the CL/P model indicates that Fgf signaling is misregulated in the face, and that reducing Fgf8 gene dosage can attenuate the clefting pathology by generating compensatory changes. Furthermore, mutations in either Tfap2a or Fgf8 increase variance in facial shape, but the combination of these mutations restores variance to normal levels. The alterations in variance provide a potential mechanistic link between clefting and the evolution and diversity of facial morphology. Overall, our findings suggest that CL/P can result from small gene-expression changes that alter the shape of the facial prominences and uncouple their coordinated morphogenesis, which is necessary for normal fusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca M Green
- Department of Craniofacial Biology, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Weiguo Feng
- Department of Craniofacial Biology, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Tzulip Phang
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Jennifer L Fish
- University of California San Francisco, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA
| | - Hong Li
- Department of Craniofacial Biology, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Richard A Spritz
- Human Medical Genetics and Genomics Program, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 12800 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Ralph S Marcucio
- University of California San Francisco, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA
| | - Joan Hooper
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Heather Jamniczky
- McCaig Institute for Bone and Joint Health, Department of Cell Biology & Anatomy, University of Calgary, 3280 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N3Z6, Canada
| | - Benedikt Hallgrímsson
- McCaig Institute for Bone and Joint Health, Department of Cell Biology & Anatomy, University of Calgary, 3280 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N3Z6, Canada. Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, 3280 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N3Z6, Canada
| | - Trevor Williams
- Department of Craniofacial Biology, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA. Human Medical Genetics and Genomics Program, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 12800 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA. Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
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17
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Firulli BA, Fuchs RK, Vincentz JW, Clouthier DE, Firulli AB. Hand1 phosphoregulation within the distal arch neural crest is essential for craniofacial morphogenesis. Development 2014; 141:3050-61. [PMID: 25053435 DOI: 10.1242/dev.107680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
In this study we examine the consequences of altering Hand1 phosphoregulation in the developing neural crest cells (NCCs) of mice. Whereas Hand1 deletion in NCCs reveals a nonessential role for Hand1 in craniofacial development and embryonic survival, altering Hand1 phosphoregulation, and consequently Hand1 dimerization affinities, in NCCs results in severe mid-facial clefting and neonatal death. Hand1 phosphorylation mutants exhibit a non-cell-autonomous increase in pharyngeal arch cell death accompanied by alterations in Fgf8 and Shh pathway expression. Together, our data indicate that the extreme distal pharyngeal arch expression domain of Hand1 defines a novel bHLH-dependent activity, and that disruption of established Hand1 dimer phosphoregulation within this domain disrupts normal craniofacial patterning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth A Firulli
- Riley Heart Research Center, Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Departments of Anatomy and Medical, Biochemistry, and Molecular Genetics, Indiana Medical School, 1044 W. Walnut Street, Indianapolis, IN 46202-5225, USA
| | - Robyn K Fuchs
- Department of Physical Therapy and the Center for Translational Musculoskeletal Research, School of Health and Rehabilitation Science, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Joshua W Vincentz
- Riley Heart Research Center, Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Departments of Anatomy and Medical, Biochemistry, and Molecular Genetics, Indiana Medical School, 1044 W. Walnut Street, Indianapolis, IN 46202-5225, USA
| | - David E Clouthier
- Department of Craniofacial Biology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12801 E 17th Avenue, Rm. 11-109, MS 8120, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Anthony B Firulli
- Riley Heart Research Center, Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Departments of Anatomy and Medical, Biochemistry, and Molecular Genetics, Indiana Medical School, 1044 W. Walnut Street, Indianapolis, IN 46202-5225, USA
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18
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Liu B, Chen S, Johnson C, Helms JA. A ciliopathy with hydrocephalus, isolated craniosynostosis, hypertelorism, and clefting caused by deletion of Kif3a. Reprod Toxicol 2014; 48:88-97. [PMID: 24887031 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2014.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2014] [Revised: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Malformations of the facial midline are a consistent feature among individuals with defects in primary cilia. Here, we provide a framework in which to consider how these primary cilia-dependent facial anomalies occur. We generated mice in which the intraflagellar transport protein Kif3a was deleted in cranial neural crest cells. The Kif3a phenotypes included isolated metopic craniosynostosis, delayed closure of the anterior fontanelles, and hydrocephalus, as well as midline facial anomalies including hypertelorism, cleft palate, and bifid nasal septum. Although all cranial neural crest cells had truncated primary cilia as a result of the conditional deletion, only those in the midline showed evidence of hyper-proliferation and ectopic Wnt responsiveness. Thus, cranial neural crest cells do not rely on primary cilia for their migration but once established in the facial prominences, midline cranial neural crest cells require Kif3a function in order to integrate and respond to Wnt signals from the surrounding epithelia.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Liu
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, United States
| | - S Chen
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, United States
| | - C Johnson
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, United States; College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, United States
| | - J A Helms
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, United States.
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19
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Brinkley JF, Borromeo C, Clarkson M, Cox TC, Cunningham MJ, Detwiler LT, Heike CL, Hochheiser H, Mejino JLV, Travillian RS, Shapiro LG. The ontology of craniofacial development and malformation for translational craniofacial research. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS PART C-SEMINARS IN MEDICAL GENETICS 2013; 163C:232-45. [PMID: 24124010 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.c.31377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
We introduce the Ontology of Craniofacial Development and Malformation (OCDM) as a mechanism for representing knowledge about craniofacial development and malformation, and for using that knowledge to facilitate integrating craniofacial data obtained via multiple techniques from multiple labs and at multiple levels of granularity. The OCDM is a project of the NIDCR-sponsored FaceBase Consortium, whose goal is to promote and enable research into the genetic and epigenetic causes of specific craniofacial abnormalities through the provision of publicly accessible, integrated craniofacial data. However, the OCDM should be usable for integrating any web-accessible craniofacial data, not just those data available through FaceBase. The OCDM is based on the Foundational Model of Anatomy (FMA), our comprehensive ontology of canonical human adult anatomy, and includes modules to represent adult and developmental craniofacial anatomy in both human and mouse, mappings between homologous structures in human and mouse, and associated malformations. We describe these modules, as well as prototype uses of the OCDM for integrating craniofacial data. By using the terms from the OCDM to annotate data, and by combining queries over the ontology with those over annotated data, it becomes possible to create "intelligent" queries that can, for example, find gene expression data obtained from mouse structures that are precursors to homologous human structures involved in malformations such as cleft lip. We suggest that the OCDM can be useful not only for integrating craniofacial data, but also for expressing new knowledge gained from analyzing the integrated data.
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20
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Kosins AM, Daniel RK, Sajjadian A, Helms J. Rhinoplasty: congenital deficiencies of the alar cartilage. Aesthet Surg J 2013; 33:799-808. [PMID: 23838255 DOI: 10.1177/1090820x13495692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Congenital deficiencies of the alar cartilages are rare and often visible at birth but can occasionally present later. OBJECTIVES The authors review the anatomical development and discuss the incidence and treatment of congenital defects within the alar cartilages seen in rhinoplasty cases. METHODS The charts of 869 consecutive patients who underwent open rhinoplasty were retrospectively reviewed, and 8 cases of congenital defects of the alar cartilage within the middle crura were identified. Intraoperative photographs were taken of the alar deformities, and each patient underwent surgical correction. To simplify analysis, a classification of the defects was developed. A division was a cleft in the continuity of the alar cartilage with the 2 ends separate. A gap was a true absence of cartilage ranging from 1 to 4 mm, which can be accurately assessed in unilateral cases. A segmental loss was a defect greater than 4 mm. RESULTS The 8 cases of deformity could be classified as 4 divisions, 3 gaps, and 1 segmental loss. None of the patients had a history of prior nasal trauma or nasal surgery. Six patients were women and 2 patients were men. In all cases, adequate projection and stability were achieved with a columellar strut. Asymmetry was minimized through concealer or tip grafts. There were no complications. CONCLUSIONS Surgeons performing rhinoplasty surgery will encounter and should be prepared to deal with unexpected congenital defects of the alar cartilage. These defects within the middle crura will require stabilization with a columellar strut and, often, coverage with a concealer tip graft. We speculate that the cause of these defects is a disruption of the hedgehog signals that may arrest the condensation or block the differentiation of the underlying neural crest cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron M Kosins
- Division of Plastic Surgery, School of Medicine, University of California-Irvine, CA, USA
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21
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Starbuck JM, Cole TM, Reeves RH, Richtsmeier JT. Trisomy 21 and facial developmental instability. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2013; 151:49-57. [PMID: 23505010 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2012] [Accepted: 02/06/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The most common live-born human aneuploidy is trisomy 21, which causes Down syndrome (DS). Dosage imbalance of genes on chromosome 21 (Hsa21) affects complex gene-regulatory interactions and alters development to produce a wide range of phenotypes, including characteristic facial dysmorphology. Little is known about how trisomy 21 alters craniofacial morphogenesis to create this characteristic appearance. Proponents of the "amplified developmental instability" hypothesis argue that trisomy 21 causes a generalized genetic imbalance that disrupts evolutionarily conserved developmental pathways by decreasing developmental homeostasis and precision throughout development. Based on this model, we test the hypothesis that DS faces exhibit increased developmental instability relative to euploid individuals. Developmental instability was assessed by a statistical analysis of fluctuating asymmetry. We compared the magnitude and patterns of fluctuating asymmetry among siblings using three-dimensional coordinate locations of 20 anatomic landmarks collected from facial surface reconstructions in four age-matched samples ranging from 4 to 12 years: (1) DS individuals (n = 55); (2) biological siblings of DS individuals (n = 55); 3) and 4) two samples of typically developing individuals (n = 55 for each sample), who are euploid siblings and age-matched to the DS individuals and their euploid siblings (samples 1 and 2). Identification in the DS sample of facial prominences exhibiting increased fluctuating asymmetry during facial morphogenesis provides evidence for increased developmental instability in DS faces. We found the highest developmental instability in facial structures derived from the mandibular prominence and lowest in facial regions derived from the frontal prominence.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Starbuck
- Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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22
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New perspectives on pharyngeal dorsoventral patterning in development and evolution of the vertebrate jaw. Dev Biol 2012; 371:121-35. [PMID: 22960284 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2012.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2012] [Revised: 08/22/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Patterning of the vertebrate facial skeleton involves the progressive partitioning of neural-crest-derived skeletal precursors into distinct subpopulations along the anteroposterior (AP) and dorsoventral (DV) axes. Recent evidence suggests that complex interactions between multiple signaling pathways, in particular Endothelin-1 (Edn1), Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP), and Jagged-Notch, are needed to pattern skeletal precursors along the DV axis. Rather than directly determining the morphology of individual skeletal elements, these signals appear to act through several families of transcription factors, including Dlx, Msx, and Hand, to establish dynamic zones of skeletal differentiation. Provocatively, this patterning mechanism is largely conserved from mouse and zebrafish to the jawless vertebrate, lamprey. This implies that the diversification of the vertebrate facial skeleton, including the evolution of the jaw, was driven largely by modifications downstream of a conversed pharyngeal DV patterning program.
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23
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Harden MV, Pereiro L, Ramialison M, Wittbrodt J, Prasad MK, McCallion AS, Whitlock KE. Close association of olfactory placode precursors and cranial neural crest cells does not predestine cell mixing. Dev Dyn 2012; 241:1143-54. [PMID: 22539261 PMCID: PMC4240535 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.23797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Vertebrate sensory organs originate from both cranial neural crest cells (CNCCs) and placodes. Previously, we have shown that the olfactory placode (OP) forms from a large field of cells extending caudally to the premigratory neural crest domain, and that OPs form through cell movements and not cell division. Concurrent with OP formation, CNCCs migrate rostrally to populate the frontal mass. However, little is known about the interactions between CNCCs and the placodes that form the olfactory sensory system. Previous reports suggest that the OP can generate cell types more typical of neural crest lineages such as neuroendocrine cells and glia, thus marking the OP as an unusual sensory placode. One possible explanation for this exception is that the neural crest origin of glia and neurons has been overlooked due to the intimate association of these two fields during migration. Using molecular markers and live imaging, we followed the development of OP precursors and of dorsally migrating CNCCs in zebrafish embryos. We generated a six4b:mCherry line (OP precursors) that, with a sox10:EGFP line (CNCCs), was used to follow cell migration. Our analyses showed that CNCCs associate with and eventually surround the forming OP with limited cell mixing occurring during this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maegan V Harden
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, 445/449 Biotechnology Building, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
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24
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Gitton Y, Benouaiche L, Vincent C, Heude E, Soulika M, Bouhali K, Couly G, Levi G. Dlx5 and Dlx6 expression in the anterior neural fold is essential for patterning the dorsal nasal capsule. Development 2011; 138:897-903. [PMID: 21270050 DOI: 10.1242/dev.057505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Morphogenesis of the vertebrate facial skeleton depends upon inductive interactions between cephalic neural crest cells (CNCCs) and cephalic epithelia. The nasal capsule is a CNCC-derived cartilaginous structure comprising a ventral midline bar (mesethmoid) overlaid by a dorsal capsule (ectethmoid). Although Shh signalling from the anterior-most region of the endoderm (EZ-I) patterns the mesethmoid, the cues involved in ectethmoid induction are still undefined. Here, we show that ectethmoid formation depends upon Dlx5 and Dlx6 expression in a restricted ectodermal territory of the anterior neural folds, which we name NF-ZA. In both chick and mouse neurulas, Dlx5 and Dlx6 expression is mostly restricted to NF-ZA. Simultaneous Dlx5 and Dlx6 inactivation in the mouse precludes ectethmoid formation, while the mesethmoid is still present. Consistently, siRNA-mediated downregulation of Dlx5 and Dlx6 in the cephalic region of the early avian neurula specifically prevents ectethmoid formation, whereas other CNCC-derived structures, including the mesethmoid, are not affected. Similarly, NF-ZA surgical removal in chick neurulas averts ectethmoid development, whereas grafting a supernumerary NF-ZA results in an ectopic ectethmoid. Simultaneous ablation or grafting of both NF-ZA and EZ-I result, respectively, in the absence or duplication of both dorsal and ventral nasal capsule components. The present work shows that early ectodermal and endodermal signals instruct different contingents of CNCCs to form the ectethmoid and the mesethmoid, which then assemble to form a complete nasal capsule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yorick Gitton
- Evolution des Régulations Endocriniennes, CNRS UMR 7221, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
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Cordero DR, Brugmann S, Chu Y, Bajpai R, Jame M, Helms JA. Cranial neural crest cells on the move: their roles in craniofacial development. Am J Med Genet A 2010; 155A:270-9. [PMID: 21271641 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.33702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2010] [Accepted: 08/17/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The craniofacial region is assembled through the active migration of cells and the rearrangement and sculpting of facial prominences and pharyngeal arches, which consequently make it particularly susceptible to a large number of birth defects. Genetic, molecular, and cellular processes must be temporally and spatially regulated to culminate in the three-dimension structures of the face. The starting constituent for the majority of skeletal and connective tissues in the face is a pluripotent population of cells, the cranial neural crest cells (NCCs). In this review we discuss the newest scientific findings in the development of the craniofacial complex as related to NCCs. Furthermore, we present recent findings on NCC diseases called neurocristopathies and, in doing so, provide clinicians with new tools for understanding a growing number of craniofacial genetic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dwight R Cordero
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
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26
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Balic A, Adams D, Mina M. Prx1 and Prx2 cooperatively regulate the morphogenesis of the medial region of the mandibular process. Dev Dyn 2010; 238:2599-613. [PMID: 19777594 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.22092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mice lacking both Prx1 and Prx2 display severe abnormalities in the mandible. Our analysis showed that complete loss of Prx gene products leads to growth abnormalities in the mandibular processes evident as early as embryonic day (E) 10.5 associated with changes in the survival of the mesenchyme in the medial region. Changes in the gene expression in the medial and lateral regions were related to gradual loss of a subpopulation of mesenchyme in the medial region expressing eHand. Our analysis also showed that Prx gene products are required for the initiation and maintenance of chondrogenesis and terminal differentiation of the chondrocytes in the caudal and rostral ends of Meckel's cartilage. The fusion of the mandibular processes in the Prx1/Prx2 double mutants is caused by accelerated ossification. These observations together show that, during mandibular morphogenesis, Prx gene products play multiple roles including the cell survival, the region-specific terminal differentiation of Meckelian chondrocytes and osteogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anamaria Balic
- Department of Craniofacial Sciences, Division of Pediatric Dentistry, School of Dental Medicine, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, USA
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Olesnicky Killian EC, Birkholz DA, Artinger KB. A role for chemokine signaling in neural crest cell migration and craniofacial development. Dev Biol 2009; 333:161-72. [PMID: 19576198 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2009.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2008] [Revised: 06/22/2009] [Accepted: 06/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Neural crest cells (NCCs) are a unique population of multipotent cells that migrate along defined pathways throughout the embryo and give rise to many diverse cell types including pigment cells, craniofacial cartilage and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Aberrant migration of NCCs results in a wide variety of congenital birth defects including craniofacial abnormalities. The chemokine Sdf1 and its receptors, Cxcr4 and Cxcr7, have been identified as key components in the regulation of cell migration in a variety of tissues. Here we describe a novel role for the zebrafish chemokine receptor Cxcr4a in the development and migration of cranial NCCs (CNCCs). We find that loss of Cxcr4a, but not Cxcr7b, results in aberrant CNCC migration defects in the neurocranium, as well as cranial ganglia dysmorphogenesis. Moreover, overexpression of either Sdf1b or Cxcr4a causes aberrant CNCC migration and results in ectopic craniofacial cartilages. We propose a model in which Sdf1b signaling from the pharyngeal arch endoderm and optic stalk to Cxcr4a expressing CNCCs is important for both the proper condensation of the CNCCs into pharyngeal arches and the subsequent patterning and morphogenesis of the neural crest derived tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia C Olesnicky Killian
- Department of Craniofacial Biology, University of Colorado Denver School of Dental Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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28
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Abstract
The vertebrate brain develops in association with neighboring tissues: neural crest, placodes, mesoderm and endoderm. The molecular and evolutionary relationships between the forming nervous system and the other craniofacial structures were at the focus of a recent meeting at the Fondation des Treilles in France. Entitled 'Relationships between Craniofacial and Neural Development', the meeting brought together researchers working on diverse species, the findings of whom provide clues as to the origin and diversity of the brain and facial regions that are involved in forming the 'new head' of vertebrates.
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Handrigan GR, Buchtová M, Richman JM. Gene discovery in craniofacial development and disease--cashing in your chips. Clin Genet 2007; 71:109-19. [PMID: 17250659 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-0004.2007.00761.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
An unbiased, polygenic approach is needed to unravel the complex molecular bases of craniofacial development and disease. DNA microarrays, the current paradigm of genome-wide analysis, permit the simultaneous study of many thousands of genes, the ready identification of candidate molecules and pathways, and the compilation of gene expression profiles for whole systems--pathologic and embryonic alike. We survey the existing literature applying microarrays to craniofacial biology and highlight the value of animal models, particularly mice and chickens, to understanding molecular regulation in the craniofacial complex. We also emphasize the importance of functional studies and high-throughput assays to extracting useful data from microarray output. It is our goal to help put researchers and clinicians on the same page as microarray technology moves into the forefront of craniofacial biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- G R Handrigan
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
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