Gestational exposure to methylmercury alters the developmental pattern of trk-like immunoreactivity in the rat brain and results in cortical dysmorphology

OUP accepted manuscript

In vivo developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) testing is resource intensive and lacks information on cellular processes affected by chemicals. To address this, DNT new approach methodologies (NAMs) are being evaluated, including: the microelectrode array neuronal network formation assay; and high-content imaging to evaluate proliferation, apoptosis, neurite outgrowth, and synaptogenesis. This work addresses 3 hypotheses: (1) a broad screening battery provides a sensitive marker of DNT bioactivity; (2) selective bioactivity (occurring at noncytotoxic concentrations) may indicate functional processes disrupted; and, (3) a subset of endpoints may optimally classify chemicals with in vivo evidence for DNT. The dataset was comprised of 92 chemicals screened in all 57 assay endpoints sourced from publicly available data, including a set of DNT NAM evaluation chemicals with putative positives (53) and negatives (13). The DNT NAM battery provides a sensitive marker of DNT bioactivity, particularly in cytotoxicity and network connectivity parameters. Hierarchical clustering suggested potency (including cytotoxicity) was important for classifying positive chemicals with high sensitivity (93%) but failed to distinguish patterns of disrupted functional processes. In contrast, clustering of selective values revealed informative patterns of differential activity but demonstrated lower sensitivity (74%). The false negatives were associated with several limitations, such as the maximal concentration tested or gaps in the biology captured by the current battery. This work demonstrates that this multi-dimensional assay suite provides a sensitive biomarker for DNT bioactivity, with selective activity providing possible insight into specific functional processes affected by chemical exposure and a basis for further research.

Extenuation of in utero toxic effects of MeHg in the developing neurons by Fisetin via modulating the expression of synaptic transmission and plasticity regulators in hippocampus of the rat offspring

The neurotoxic environmental contaminant, methylmercury (MeHg), has shown to have detrimental effects on the developing brain when exposed during gestation. We have shown in our earlier studies that gestational administration of 3,3',4',7-Tetrahydroxyflavone or Fisetin reduces the toxic effects of MeHg in the developing rat brain. The current study has pivoted to study the mechanism behind the mitigating action of Fisetin against prenatal MeHg exposure induced neurotoxicity. Negligible data is available about the toxicity targets of MeHg in the developing brain. Studies have exhibited that MeHg exposure cause toxic effects on synaptic transmission and plasticity in the offspring brain. Hence, we aimed to study the effect of Fisetin on MeHg induced alterations in the expressions of regulatory genes and proteins involved in synaptic plasticity and transmission. Pregnant rats were grouped according to the type of oral administration as, (i) Control, (ii) MeHg (1.5 mg/kg b. w.), (iii) MeHg + Fisetin (30 mg/kg b. w.) and (iv) Fisetin (30 mg/kg b. w). Maternal administration of Fisetin prevented MeHg exposure induced downregulation of neurogranin (Nrgn), dendrin (Ddn), Syntaxin 1 A (Stx1a), Lin-7 homolog A (Lin7a), Complexin-2 (Cplx2) and Exocyst complex component 8 (Exoc8) genes in the offspring rat. Fisetin also prevented MeHg exposure induced downregulation of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), Glial-cell derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) protein expressions and hampered reactive astrogliosis in the hippocampus of F₁ generation rats. Hence, through this study, we conclude that Fisetin modulates the expression of regulatory genes and proteins involved in synaptic transmission and plasticity and extenuates MeHg neurotoxicity in the developing rat brain.

Using primary organotypic mouse midbrain cultures to examine developmental neurotoxicity of silver nanoparticles across two genetic strains

Micromass culture systems have been developed as three-dimensional organotypic in vitro alternatives to test developmental toxicity. We have optimized a murine-based embryonic midbrain micromass system in two genetic strains to evaluate neurodevelopmental effects of gold-cored silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) of differing sizes and coatings-20 nm AgCitrate, 110 nm AgCitrate, and 110 nm AgPVP. AgNPs are increasingly used in consumer, commercial, and medical products for their antimicrobial properties and observations of Ag in adult and fetal brain following in vivo exposures to AgNPs have led to concerns about the potential for AgNPs to elicit adverse effects on neurodevelopment and neurological function. Cytotoxicity was assessed at three time points of development by both nominal dose and by dosimetric dose. Ag dosimetry was assessed in cultures and the gold core component of the AgNPs was used as a tracer for determination of uptake of intact AgNPs and silver dissolution from particles in the culture system. Results by both nominal and dosimetric dose show cell death increased significantly in a dose-dependent manner at later time points (days 15 and 22 in vitro) that coincide with differentiation stages of development in both strains. When assessed by dosimetric dose, cultures were more sensitive to smaller particles, despite less uptake of Ag in smaller particles in both strains.

Delayed neurochemical effects of prenatal exposure to MeHg in the cerebellum of developing rats

Human fetuses and neonates are particularly vulnerable to methylmercury (MeHg)-induced brain damage and are sensitive even to low exposure levels. Previous work of our group evidence that prenatal exposure to MeHg causes cognitive and behavioral alterations and disrupt hippocampus signaling. The current study aimed to investigate the effect of gestational exposure of rats to MeHg at low doses (1 or 2 mg/kg) on parameters of redox imbalance and key signaling pathways in the cerebellum of their offspring. Pregnant females received MeHg (treated group) or 0.9% saline water (control group) by gavage in alternated days from gestational day 5 (GD5) until parturition and analyzes were proceed in the cerebellum of 30-day-old pups. We found increased lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation levels as well as decreased SH content in pups prenatally exposed to 2 mg/kg MeHg. In addition, misregulated SOD/catalase activities supported imbalanced redox equilibrium. We found decreased GSK3β(Ser9) phosphorylation, suggesting activation of this enzyme and dephosphorylation/inhibition of ERK1/2 and JNK pathways. Increased PKAα catalytic subunit could be upstream of hyperphosphorylated c-Raf(Ser259) and downregulated MAPK pathway. In addition, we found raised levels of the Ca²⁺-dependent protein phosphatase 2 B (PP2B). We also found preserved immunohistochemical staining for both glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and NeuN in MeHg-exposed pups. Western blot analysis showed unaltered levels of BAX/BCL-XL, BAD/BCL-2 and active caspase 3. Together, these findings support absence of reactive astrocytes, neuronal damage and apoptotic cell death in the cerebellum of MeHg treated pups. The present study provides evidence that prenatal exposure to MeHg leads to later redox imbalance and disrupted signaling mechanisms in the cerebellum of 30-day-old pups potentially predisposing them to long-lasting neurological impairments in CNS.

Developmental neurotoxicity of the hippocampus following in utero exposure to methylmercury: impairment in cell signaling

In this study, we assessed some hippocampal signaling cascades and behavioral impairments in 30-day-old rat pups prenatally exposed to methylmercury (MeHg). Pregnant rats were exposed to 1.0 or 2.0 mg/kg MeHg by gavage in alternated days from gestational day 5 until parturition. We found increased anxiety-like and decreased exploration behavior evaluated by open field test and deficit of both short- and long-term memories by novel object recognition task, respectively, in MeHg-treated pups. Downregulated PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway and activated/hypophosphorylated (Ser9) GSK3β in MeHg-treated pups could be upstream of hyperphosphorylated Tau (Ser396) destabilizing microtubules and contributing to neural dysfunction in the hippocampus of these rats. Hyperphosphorylated/activated p38MAPK and downregulated phosphoErk1/2 support a role for mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade on MeHg neurotoxicity. Decreased receptor of advanced glycation end products (RAGE) immunocontent supports the assumption that downregulated RAGE/Erk1/2 pathway could be involved in hypophosphorylated lysine/serine/proline (KSP) repeats on neurofilament subunits and disturbed axonal transport. Downregulated myelin basic protein (MBP), the major myelin protein, is compatible with dysmyelination and neurofilament hypophosphorylation. Increased glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) levels suggest reactive astrocytes, and active apoptotic pathways BAD/BCL-2, BAX/BCL-XL, and caspase 3 suggest cell death. Taken together, our findings get light on important signaling mechanisms that could underlie the behavioral deficits in 30-day-old pups prenatally exposed to MeHg.

Biomarkers of mercury toxicity: Past, present, and future trends

Mercury (Hg) toxicity continues to represent a global health concern. Given that human populations are mostly exposed to low chronic levels of mercurial compounds (methylmercury through fish, mercury vapor from dental amalgams, and ethylmercury from vaccines), the need for more sensitive and refined tools to assess the effects and/or susceptibility to adverse metal-mediated health risks remains. Traditional biomarkers, such as hair or blood Hg levels, are practical and provide a reliable measure of exposure, but given intra-population variability, it is difficult to establish accurate cause-effect relationships. It is therefore important to identify and validate biomarkers that are predictive of early adverse effects prior to adverse health outcomes becoming irreversible. This review describes the predominant biomarkers used by toxicologists and epidemiologists to evaluate exposure, effect and susceptibility to Hg compounds, weighing on their advantages and disadvantages. Most importantly, and in light of recent findings on the molecular mechanisms underlying Hg-mediated toxicity, potential novel biomarkers that might be predictive of toxic effect are presented, and the applicability of these parameters in risk assessment is examined.

A hypothesis about how early developmental methylmercury exposure disrupts behavior in adulthood

Events that disrupt the early development of the nervous system have lifelong, irreversible behavioral consequences. The environmental contaminant, methylmercury (MeHg), impairs neural development with effects that are manifested well into adulthood and even into aging. Noting the sensitivity of the developing brain to MeHg, the current review advances an argument that one outcome of early MeHg exposure is a distortion in the processing of reinforcing consequences that results in impaired choice, poor inhibition of prepotent responding, and perseveration on discrimination reversals (in the absence of alteration of extradimensional shifts). Neurochemical correlates include increased sensitivity to dopamine agonists and decreased sensitivity to gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) agonists. This leads to a hypothesis that the prefrontal cortex or dopamine neurotransmission is especially sensitive to even subtle gestational MeHg exposure and suggests that public health assessments of MeHg based on intellectual performance may underestimate the impact of MeHg in public health. Finally, those interested in modeling neural development may benefit from MeHg as an experimental model.

Behavioral effects of developmental methylmercury drinking water exposure in rodents

Early methylmercury (MeHg) exposure can have long-lasting consequences likely arising from impaired developmental processes, the outcome of which has been exposed in several longitudinal studies of affected populations. Given the large number of newborns at an increased risk of learning disabilities associated with in utero MeHg exposure, it is important to study neurobehavioral alterations using ecologically valid and physiologically relevant models. This review highlights the benefits of using the MeHg drinking water exposure paradigm and outlines behavioral outcomes arising from this procedure in rodents. Combination treatments that exacerbate or ameliorate MeHg-induced effects, and possible molecular mechanisms underlying behavioral impairment are also discussed.

Low level methylmercury enhances CNTF-evoked STAT3 signaling and glial differentiation in cultured cortical progenitor cells

Although many previous investigations have studied how mercury compounds cause cell death, sub-cytotoxic levels may affect mechanisms essential for the proper development of the nervous system. The present study investigates whether low doses of methylmercury (MeHg) and mercury chloride (HgCl2) can modulate the activity of JAK/STAT signaling, a pathway that promotes gliogenesis. We report that sub-cytotoxic doses of MeHg enhance ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) evoked STAT3 phosphorylation in human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma and mouse cortical neural progenitor cells (NPCs). This effect is specific for MeHg, since HgCl2 fails to enhance JAK/STAT signaling. Exposing NPCs to these low doses of MeHg (30-300nM) enhances CNTF-induced expression of STAT3-target genes such as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and suppressors of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3), and increases the proportion of cells expressing GFAP following 2 days of differentiation. Higher, near-cytotoxic concentrations of MeHg and HgCl2 inhibit STAT3 phosphorylation and lead to increased production of superoxide. Lower concentrations of MeHg effective in enhancing JAK/STAT signaling (30nM) do not result in a detectable increase in superoxide nor increased expression of the oxidant-responsive genes, heme oxygenase 1, heat shock protein A5 and sirtuin 1. These findings suggest that low concentrations of MeHg inappropriately enhance STAT3 phosphorylation and glial differentiation, and that the mechanism causing this enhancement is distinct from the reactive oxygen species-associated cell death observed at higher concentrations of MeHg and HgCl2.

Response inhibition is impaired by developmental methylmercury exposure: acquisition of low-rate lever-pressing

Developmental methylmercury (MeHg) exposure produces response perseveration on discrimination reversal procedures, disrupts sensitivity to reinforcement, and enhances sensitivity to dopamine agonists - a profile suggesting a deficit in behavioral inhibition. To examine inhibition, we examined MeHg's effects on the acquisition and persistence of low-rate lever-pressing following a history of high-rate responding. Additionally, we examined whether chronic exposure to selenium protects against MeHg's developmental neurotoxicity. Female rats were exposed in utero via maternal exposure to drinking water containing 0ppm, 0.5ppm or 5ppm of Hg as MeHg, producing approximately 0μg/kg/day, 40μg/kg/day, or 400μg/kg/day of Hg. The mothers (during gestation) and the offspring (throughout life) consumed a purified diet containing 0.06ppm or 0.6ppm of Se (as sodium selenite), forming a 2 (lifespan diet)×3 (developmental MeHg) factorial design. Adult offspring lever-pressed under two schedules of reinforcement. A differential reinforcement of high-rate (DRH) schedule imposed rigid response requirements that remained constant through the study. A high-rate percentile schedule (PCNT-H) incorporated a flexible criterion that reinforced short interresponse times using an adjusting criterion that was sensitive to recent performance. After high-rate responding stabilized, the PCNT-H schedule was abruptly inverted by reinforcing long interresponse times. Acquisition of low-rate responding was impaired in the MeHg-exposed rats because of intrusions of high-rate response bursts. DRH response rates did not change. Dietary selenium did not influence MeHg's effects. High-rate operant behavior perseverated, suggesting that gestational MeHg exposure impairs response inhibition - an effect that extends results previously reported using choice procedures or spatial and visual discrimination reversals.

Methylmercury (MeHg) elicits mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis in developing hippocampus and acts at low exposures

The developing brain is particularly sensitive to environmental teratogens, such as methylmercury (MeHg), which may induce cell death. Although several mechanisms of MeHg-induced apoptosis have been defined in culture models, pathways mediating caspase-3 activation in vivo remain unclear, especially in the developing hippocampus. To explore apoptotic mechanisms, Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to 5 μg/g MeHg or PBS vehicle on postnatal day 7 (P7) and the hippocampus was assessed at various times for levels of apoptotic proteins. MeHg induced a 38% increase in Bax protein and an increase in cytosolic cytochrome c at 4h, followed by later increases in caspase-9 (40% at 12h; 33% at 24h) and caspase-8 (33% at 24h), compared to controls. MeHg also induced an increase in executioner caspase-3, a protease activated by both mitochondrial-dependent caspase-9 and mitochondrial-independent caspase-8. To further define pathways, we used a forebrain culture model and found that the MeHg-induced increases in caspase-3 and caspase-8 were completely blocked by a caspase-9-specific inhibitor, while caspase-9 induction was unperturbed by the caspase-8 inhibitor. These observations suggest that MeHg acts primarily through the mitochondrial-dependent cascade to activate caspase-3 in forebrain precursors, a pathway that may contribute to previously documented neurotoxicity in developing hippocampus. In turn, using the endpoint protein, caspase-3, as a sensitive marker for neural injury, we were able to detect hippocampal cell death in vivo at ten-fold lower levels of MeHg exposure (0.6 μg/g) than previously reported. Thus mitochondrial-dependent cell death in the hippocampus may serve as a sensitive index for teratogenic insults to the developing brain.

Methylmercury disruption of embryonic neural development in Drosophila

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a potent environmental neurotoxin that preferentially targets the developing embryonic nervous system. While a number of cytotoxic mechanisms of MeHg have been characterized in differentiated cells its mode of action in the developing nervous system in vivo is less clear. Studies in primate and rodent models demonstrate aberrant cell migration and disorganized patterning of cortical layers in the brain following MeHg exposure. However, defining the molecular and cellular pathways targeted by MeHg will require more genetically accessible animal models. In this study, we instigate a method of in vitro MeHg exposure using Drosophila embryos. We demonstrate dose-dependent inhibition of embryonic development with MeHg revealed by a failure of embryos to hatch to the larval stage. In addition, we document definitive phenotypes in neural development showing abnormalities in neuronal and glial cell patterning consistent with disrupted migration. We observe pronounced defects in neurite outgrowth in both central and peripheral neurons. Ectopic expression of the Nrf2 transcription factor in embryos, a core factor in the antioxidant response element (ARE) pathway, enhances embryonic development and hatching in the presence of MeHg, illustrating the power of this model for investigation of candidate MeHg tolerance genes. Our data establish a utility for the Drosophila embryo model as a platform for elucidating MeHg sensitive pathways in neural development.

Conformational analysis of the effects of methylmercury on nerve growth factor and brain derived neurotrophic factor

Methylmercury is a neurotoxicant that is detrimental to the development and physiology of the nervous system. One possible mechanism for methylmercury's toxicity stems from its ability to interfere with the signaling of the neurotrophins nerve growth factor and brain derived neurotrophic factor. In this study, we examine the effect of methylmercury to determine if it interferes with neurotrophin conformation in a manner similar to Hg(2+), or if it occurs via an alternate mechanism. Our findings indicate that although MeHg inhibits neurotrophin signaling, its toxic effects are not mediated via an induced conformational change, as seen with other metal ions, including Hg(2+).

Methylmercury and nutrition: adult effects of fetal exposure in experimental models

Human exposure to the life-span developmental neurotoxicant, methylmercury (MeHg), is primarily via the consumption of fish or marine mammals. Fish are also excellent sources of important nutrients, including selenium and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Laboratory models of developmental MeHg exposure can be employed to assess the roles of nutrients and MeHg and to identify potential mechanisms of action if the appropriate exposure measures are used. When maternal exposure is protracted, relationships between daily intake and brain mercury are consistent and orderly across species, even when large differences in blood:brain ratios exist. It is well established that low-level developmental MeHg produces sensory deficits. Recent studies also show that perseveration in reversal-learning tasks occurs after gestational exposures that produce low micromolar concentrations in the brain. A no-effect level has not been identified for this effect. These exposures do not affect the acquisition or performance of discrimination learning, set shifting (extradimensional shift), or memory. Reversal-learning deficits may be related to enhanced impact of reinforcers as measured using progressive ratio reinforcement schedules, an effect that could result in perseveration. Also reported is enhanced sensitivity to dopamine reuptake inhibitors and diminished sensitivity to pentobarbital, a GABA(A) agonist. Diets rich in PUFAs or selenium do not protect against MeHg's effects on reversal learning but, by themselves, may diminish variability in performance, enhance attention or psychomotor function and may confer some protection against age-related deficits in these areas. It is hypothesized that altered reward processing, dopamine and GABAergic neurotransmitter systems, and cortical regions associated with choice and perseveration are especially sensitive to developmental MeHg at low exposure levels. Human testing for MeHg's neurotoxicity should emphasize these behavioral domains.

Methylmercury activates enhancer-of-split and bearded complex genes independent of the notch receptor

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a persistent environmental toxin that has targeted effects on fetal neural development. Although a number of cytotoxic mechanisms of MeHg have been characterized in cultured cells, its mode of action in the developing nervous system in vivo is less clear. Studies of MeHg-affected rodent and human brains show disrupted cortical and cerebellar architecture suggestive of mechanisms that augment cell signaling pathways potentially affecting cell migration and proliferation. We previously identified the Notch receptor pathway, a highly conserved signaling mechanism fundamental for neural development, as a target for MeHg-induced signaling in Drosophila neural cell lines. Here we have expanded our use of the Drosophila model to resolve a broader spectrum of transcriptional changes resulting from MeHg exposure in vivo and in vitro. Several Notch target genes within the Enhancer-of-split (E(spl)C) and Bearded (BrdC) complexes are upregulated with MeHg exposure in the embryo and in cultured neural cells. However, the profile of MeHg-induced E(spl)C and BrdC gene expression differs significantly from that seen with activation of the Notch receptor. Targeted knockdown of Notch and of the downstream coactivator Suppressor of Hairless (Su(H)), shows no effect on MeHg-induced transcription, indicating a novel Notch-independent mechanism of action for MeHg. MeHg transcriptional activation is partially mimicked by iodoacetamide but not by N-ethylmaleimide, two thiol-specific electrophiles, revealing a degree of specificity of cellular thiol targets in MeHg-induced transcriptional events.

Effects of gestational exposure to methylmercury and dietary selenium on reinforcement efficacy in adulthood

It has recently been demonstrated that developmental exposure to methylmercury (MeHg) is associated with perseveration on operant tasks. An understanding of the behavioral mechanisms underlying this phenomenon may improve human testing of MeHg exposures and could provide insight into clinical syndromes that include perseveration as a component. One possible mechanism is that MeHg-induced enhancement of reinforcer efficacy produces a "reinforcement trap" that inhibits change in novel situations. Rats were exposed gestationally to 0, 0.5 or 5 ppm mercury (Hg) as MeHg via maternal drinking water. They also received a diet during gestation and throughout life that was marginal (0.06 ppm) or rich (0.6 ppm) in selenium (Se), a nutrient believed to protect against MeHg's toxicity. Reinforcer efficacy was evaluated using a progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement during adulthood. Maximum ratio obtained (MRO) was determined using 20 or 60 mg sucrose pellets and with ratio requirements that increased at 5% or 20% per reinforcer. MRO was related to the rate at which the ratio increased, reinforcer magnitude, sex, and exposure regimen; MRO was increased for the 0.6 ppm Se, 5 ppm Hg group. This extends an earlier observation that developmental MeHg exposure enhances reinforcer efficacy, an effect that could be related to reports of perseveration.

Importance of molar ratios in selenium-dependent protection against methylmercury toxicity

The influence of dietary selenium (Se) on mercury (Hg) toxicity was studied in weanling male Long Evans rats. Rats were fed AIN-93G-based low-Se torula yeast diets or diets augmented with sodium selenite to attain adequate- or rich-Se levels (0.1, 1.0 or 15 micromol/kg, respectively) These diets were prepared with no added methylmercury (MeHg) or with moderate- or high-MeHg (0.2, 10 or 60 micromol/kg, respectively). Health and weights were monitored weekly. By the end of the 9-week study, MeHg toxicity had impaired growth of rats fed high-MeHg, low-Se diets by approximately 24% (p < 0.05) compared to the controls. Growth of rats fed high-MeHg, adequate-Se diets was impaired by approximately 8% (p < 0.05) relative to their control group, but rats fed high-MeHg, rich-Se diets did not show any growth impairment. Low-MeHg exposure did not affect rat growth at any dietary Se level. Concentrations of Hg in hair and blood reflected dietary MeHg exposure, but Hg toxicity was more directly related to the Hg to Se ratios. Results support the hypothesis that Hg-dependent sequestration of Se is a primary mechanism of Hg toxicity. Therefore, Hg to Se molar ratios provide a more reliable and comprehensive criteria for evaluating risks associated with MeHg exposure.

Spatial and visual discrimination reversals in adult and geriatric rats exposed during gestation to methylmercury and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

Fish contain essential long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), particularly docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), an omega-3 (or n-3) PUFA, but are also the main source of exposure to methylmercury (MeHg), a potent developmental neurotoxicant. Since n-3 PUFAs support neural development and function, benefits deriving from a diet rich in n-3s have been hypothesized to protect against deleterious effects of gestational MeHg exposure. To determine whether protection occurs at the behavioral level, female Long-Evans rats were exposed, in utero, to 0, 0.5, or 5ppm of Hg as MeHg via drinking water, approximating exposures of 0, 40, and 400 microgHg/kg/day and producing 0, 0.29, and 5.50ppm of total Hg in the brains of siblings at birth. They also received pre- and postnatal exposure to one of two diets, both based on the AIN-93 semipurified formulation. A "fish-oil" diet was high in, and a "coconut-oil" diet was devoid of, DHA. Diets were approximately equal in alpha-linolenic acid and n-6 PUFAs. As adults, the rats were first assessed with a spatial discrimination reversal (SDR) procedure and later with a visual (nonspatial) discrimination reversal (VDR) procedure. MeHg increased the number of errors to criterion for both SDR and VDR during the first reversal, but effects were smaller or non-existent on the original discrimination and on later reversals. No such MeHg-related deficits were seen when the rats were retested on SDR after 2 years of age. These results are consistent with previous reports and hypotheses that gestational MeHg exposure produces perseverative responding. No interactions between diet and MeHg were found, suggesting that n-3 PUFAs do not guard against these behavioral effects. Brain Hg concentrations did not differ between the diets, either. In geriatric rats, failures to respond were less common and response latencies were shorter for rats fed the fish-oil diet, suggesting that exposure to a diet rich in n-3s may lessen the impact of age-related declines in response initiation.

Chemically diverse toxicants converge on Fyn and c-Cbl to disrupt precursor cell function

Identification of common mechanistic principles that shed light on the action of the many chemically diverse toxicants to which we are exposed is of central importance in understanding how toxicants disrupt normal cellular function and in developing more effective means of protecting against such effects. Of particular importance is identifying mechanisms operative at environmentally relevant toxicant exposure levels. Chemically diverse toxicants exhibit striking convergence, at environmentally relevant exposure levels, on pathway-specific disruption of receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) signaling required for cell division in central nervous system (CNS) progenitor cells. Relatively small toxicant-induced increases in oxidative status are associated with Fyn kinase activation, leading to secondary activation of the c-Cbl ubiquitin ligase. Fyn/c-Cbl pathway activation by these pro-oxidative changes causes specific reductions, in vitro and in vivo, in levels of the c-Cbl target platelet-derived growth factor receptor-α and other c-Cbl targets, but not of the TrkC RTK (which is not a c-Cbl target). Sequential Fyn and c-Cbl activation, with consequent pathway-specific suppression of RTK signaling, is induced by levels of methylmercury and lead that affect large segments of the population, as well as by paraquat, an organic herbicide. Our results identify a novel regulatory pathway of oxidant-mediated Fyn/c-Cbl activation as a shared mechanism of action of chemically diverse toxicants at environmentally relevant levels, and as a means by which increased oxidative status may disrupt mitogenic signaling. These results provide one of a small number of general mechanistic principles in toxicology, and the only such principle integrating toxicology, precursor cell biology, redox biology, and signaling pathway analysis in a predictive framework of broad potential relevance to the understanding of pro-oxidant–mediated disruption of normal development.

Chemically different toxins (lead, methylmercury, and paraquat) each cause the intracellular environment to become more oxidized, and thereby activate a common pathway that suppresses signaling from growth factor receptors that may be associated with developmental impairments.

Discovering general principles underlying the effects of toxicant exposure on biological systems is one of the central challenges of toxicological research. We have discovered a previously unrecognized regulatory pathway on which chemically diverse toxicants converge, at environmentally relevant exposure levels, to disrupt the function of progenitor cells of the developing central nervous system. We found that the ability of low levels of methylmercury, lead, and paraquat to make progenitor cells more oxidized causes activation of an enzyme called Fyn kinase. Activated Fyn then activates another enzyme (c-Cbl) that modifies specific proteins—receptors that are required for cell division and survival—to initiate the proteins' degradation. By enhancing degradation of these receptors, their downstream signaling functions are repressed. Analysis of developmental exposure to methylmercury provided evidence that this same pathway is activated in vivo by environmentally relevant toxicant levels. The remarkable sensitivity of progenitor cells to low levels of toxicant exposure, and the discovery of the redox/Fyn/c-Cbl pathway as a mechanism by which small increases in oxidative status can markedly alter cell function, provide a novel and specific means by which exposure to chemically diverse toxicants might perturb normal development. In addition, the principles revealed in our studies appear likely to have broad applicability in understanding the regulation of cell function by alterations in redox balance, regardless of how they might be generated.

Neurotrophin ligand-receptor systems in somatosensory cortex of adult rat are affected by repeated episodes of ethanol

Ethanol exposure profoundly affects learning and memory and neural plasticity. Key players underlying these functions are neurotrophins. The present study explored the effects of ethanol on the distribution of neurotrophins in the cerebral cortex of the adult rat. Age- and weight-matched pairs of adult male, Long-Evans rats were fed a liquid, ethanol-containing (6.7% v/v) diet or pair-fed an isocaloric control diet three consecutive days per week for 6, 12, 18, or 24 weeks. Brains were processed immunohistochemically for nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression and for the expression of three neurotrophin receptors, p75, trkA, and trkB. Total numbers of immunolabeled neurons in specific layers of somatosensory cortex of ethanol- and control-fed animals were determined stereologically. Ethanol exposure induced an increase in the numbers of NGF- or BDNF-expressing neurons and in neurotrophin content per somata. These changes were (a) time and (b) laminar dependent. In contrast, the number of receptor-expressing neurons did not change due to ethanol exposure or to length of time on the ethanol diet. Thus, ethanol induces the recruitment of cortical neurons to express neurotrophins and an increase in the amount of neurotrophin expression per neuron.

Gestational exposure to methylmercury and selenium: effects on a spatial discrimination reversal in adulthood

Selenium, a nutrient, and methylmercury, a developmental neurotoxicant, are both found in fish. There are reports that selenium sometimes ameliorates methylmercury's neurotoxicity, but little is known about the durability of this protection after low-level gestational exposure. Developmental methylmercury exposure disrupts behavioral plasticity, and these effects extend well into adulthood and aging. The present experiment was designed to examine interactions between developmental low-level methylmercury and nutritionally relevant dietary selenium on discrimination reversals in adulthood. Female rats were exposed, in utero, to 0, 0.5, or 5 ppm mercury as methylmercury via drinking water, approximating mercury exposures of 0, 40, and 400 microg/kg/day. They also received both prenatal and postnatal exposure to a diet containing selenium from casein only (0.06 ppm) or 0.6 ppm selenium, creating a 2 (chronic Se)x3 (gestational MeHg) full factorial design, with six to eight rats per cell. Behavior was evaluated with a spatial discrimination procedure using two levers and sucrose reinforcers. All groups acquired the original discrimination similarly. Rats exposed to low selenium (0.06 ppm), regardless of MeHg exposure, required more sessions to complete the first reversal and made more omissions during this reversal than high selenium (0.6 ppm) animals, but the two diet groups did not differ on subsequent reversals. Rats exposed to MeHg, regardless of selenium exposure, made more errors than controls on the first and third reversals, which was away from the original discrimination. MeHg-exposed animals also had shorter choice latencies than controls during the first session of a reversal. Low selenium increased the number of omissions during a reversal, whereas high MeHg exposure produced perseverative responding (errors) on the lever that was reinforced during the original discrimination. However, there was no interaction between selenium and MeHg exposure.

Developmental neuropathology in DNT-studies—A sensitive tool for the detection and characterization of developmental neurotoxicants

Developmental neurotoxicity (DNT-) studies are the first reproduction toxicity studies for which an extended histopathological examination of developing structures is required by the current EPA and OECD guidelines. The morphological screening includes a macroscopic evaluation of the brain and nervous tissue, brain weight parameters, gross morphometry of the brain, neurohistological examinations and a quantitative analysis of major brain areas. This review is intended to give an overview about the needs according to guideline requirements, practical approaches for a successful developmental neuropathology and its preconditions and does include examples of background data on the value and functional meaning of morphological data. A selection of experimental data from literature is also presented in the light of their contribution for the understanding of important, neurodevelopmental disorders in humans.

Methylmercury Alters Eph and Ephrin Expression During Neuronal Differentiation of P19 Embryonal Carcinoma Cells

Developmental exposure to methylmercury (MeHg) induces a spectrum of neurological impairment characterized by cognitive disturbance, sensory/motor deficit, and diffuse structural abnormalities of the brain. These alterations may arise from neural path-finding errors during brain development, resulting from disturbances in the function of morphoregulatory guidance molecules. The Eph family of tyrosine kinase receptors and their ligands, the ephrins, guide neuronal migration and neurite pathfinding mainly via repulsive intercellular interactions. The present study examined the effects of MeHg on mRNA and protein expression profiles of Ephs and ephrins in the P19 embryonal carcinoma (EC) cell line and its neuronal derivatives. Undifferentiated control P19 cells displayed low- to undetectable levels of mRNA for ephrins or Ephs, with the sole exception of EphA2 which was highly expressed. Upon differentiation into neurons, the ephrin expression increased progressively through day 10. Similarly, expression of the Ephs, including EphsA3, -A4, -A8, -B2, -B3, -B4, and -B6, increased significantly. In contrast, EphA2 expression decreased in day 2, 6 and 10 control neurons. Treatment with MeHg did not affect the expression of mRNA for ephrins or Ephs in undifferentiated P19 cells. However, treatment of differentiating neurons with MeHg for 24 h caused consistent increases in ligand mRNA expression, particularly ephrin-A5, -A6, -B1, and -B2. Similarly, MeHg induced variable increases in mRNA expression of receptors EphA2, -A3, -B3, and -B6. A trend toward a concentration-response relationship was observed for the alterations in Eph receptor mRNA expression although increases at the low and mid concentrations did not reach statistical significance. Immunoblots for ligand and receptor proteins mirrored the increases in the mRNA levels at the 0.5 and 1.5 microM MeHg concentrations but showed decreased protein levels compared to controls at the 3.0 microM concentration. Alterations in the Eph/ephrin family of repulsion molecules may represent an important mechanism in developmental MeHg neurotoxicity.

Critical role for Kalirin in nerve growth factor signaling through TrkA

Kalirin is a multidomain guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) that activates Rho proteins, inducing cytoskeletal rearrangement in neurons. Although much is known about the effects of Kalirin on Rho GTPases and neuronal morphology, little is known about the association of Kalirin with the receptor/signaling systems that affect neuronal morphology. Our experiments demonstrate that Kalirin binds to and colocalizes with the TrkA neurotrophin receptor in neurons. In PC12 cells, inhibition of Kalirin expression using antisense RNA decreased nerve growth factor (NGF)-induced TrkA autophosphorylation and process extension. Kalirin overexpression potentiated neurotrophin-stimulated TrkA autophosphorylation and neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells at a low concentration of NGF. Furthermore, elevated Kalirin expression resulted in catalytic activation of TrkA, as demonstrated by in vitro kinase assays and increased NGF-stimulated cellular activation of Rac, Mek, and CREB. Domain mapping demonstrated that the N-terminal Kalirin pleckstrin homology domain mediates the interaction with TrkA. The effects of Kalirin on TrkA provide a molecular basis for the requirement of Kalirin in process extension from PC12 cells and for previously observed effects on axonal extension and dendritic maintenance. The interaction of TrkA with the pleckstrin homology domain of Kalirin may be one example of a general mechanism whereby receptor/Rho GEF pairings play an important role in receptor tyrosine kinase activation and signal transduction.

Methylmercury inhibits TrkA signaling through the ERK1/2 cascade after NGF stimulation of PC12 cells

Using PC12 cells as a model of neuronal differentiation, we have shown that acute exposure to methylmercury (CH3Hg) inhibits nerve growth factor (NGF)-induced activation of TrkA. In the present study, we examined the effects of CH3Hg on pathways activated by NGF. NGF-induced phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in PC12 cells was time-dependent. Concurrent exposure to CH3Hg and NGF for 2.5 min resulted in a concentration-dependent inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation (EC50 = 0.018 microM). However, NGF-stimulated ERK1/2 phosphorylation was not altered after 5 min of exposure to CH3Hg. In vitro studies revealed that CH3Hg did not directly inhibit the ERK kinase MEK. As reported in other neuronal tissue, CH3Hg can inhibit PKC activity in vitro. Incubation of PC12 cell lysates with CH3Hg produced a concentration-dependent inhibition of PKC activity that was significant at 0.3-10 microM. Further studies using recombinant enzymes examined the effect of CH3Hg on PKC isoforms expressed in PC12 cells. CH3Hg inhibited PKCdelta, and zeta activity in a concentration-dependent manner at higher concentrations (3-10 microM), while a significant increase in PKCalpha activity was observed at lower concentrations (0.1 microM). However, CH3Hg had no affect on NGF-induced PKC activity in intact cells. These results show that CH3Hg inhibition of NGF-stimulated TrkA activation in PC12 cells decreases downstream signaling through the Raf/MEK/ERK cascade. In intact cells PKC does not appear to be a primary target for CH3Hg.

Methylmercury decreases NGF-induced TrkA autophosphorylation and neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells

Neurotrophin signaling through Trk receptors is important for differentiation and survival in the developing nervous system. The present study examined the effects of CH(3)Hg on (125)I-nerve growth factor (NGF) binding to the TrkA receptor, NGF-induced activation of the TrkA receptor, and neurite outgrowth in an in vitro model of differentiation using PC12 cells. Whole-cell binding assays using (125)I-NGF revealed a single binding site with a K(d) of approximately 1 nM. Methylmercury (CH(3)Hg) at 30 nM (EC(50) for neurite outgrowth inhibition) did not affect NGF binding to TrkA. TrkA autophosphorylation was measured by immunoblotting with a phospho-specific antibody. TrkA autophosphorylation peaked between 2.5 and 5 min of exposure and then decreased but was still detectable at 60 min. Concurrent exposure to CH(3)Hg and NGF for 2.5 min resulted in a concentration-dependent decrease in TrkA autophosphorylation, which was significant at 100 nM CH(3)Hg. To determine whether the observed inhibition of TrkA was sufficient to alter cell differentiation, NGF-stimulated neurite outgrowth was examined in PC12 cells after exposure to 30 nM CH(3)Hg, a concentration that inhibited TrkA autophosphorylation by approximately 50%. For comparison, a separate group of PC12 cells were exposed to a concentration of the selective Trk inhibitor K252a (30 nM), which had been shown to produce significant inhibition of TrkA autophosphorylation. Twenty-four hour exposure to either CH(3)Hg or K252a reduced neurite outgrowth to a similar degree. Our results suggest that CH(3)Hg may inhibit differentiation of PC12 cells by interfering with NGF-stimulated TrkA autophosphorylation.

Experience effects on brain development: possible contributions to psychopathology

Researchers and clinicians are increasingly recognizing that psychological and psychiatric disorders are often developmentally progressive, and that diagnosis often represents a point along that progression that is defined largely by our abilities to detect symptoms. As a result, strategies that guide our searches for the root causes and etiologies of these disorders are beginning to change. This review describes interactions between genetics and experience that influence the development of psychopathologies. Following a discussion of normal brain development that highlights how specific cellular processes may be targeted by genetic or environmental factors, we focus on four disorders whose origins range from genetic (fragile X syndrome) to environmental (fetal alcohol syndrome) or a mixture of both factors (depression and schizophrenia). C.H. Waddington's canalization model (slightly modified) is used as a tool to conceptualize the interactive influences of genetics and experience in the development of these psychopathologies. Although this model was originally proposed to describe the 'canalizing' role of genetics in promoting normative development, it serves here to help visualize, for example, the effects of adverse (stressful) experience in the kindling model of depression, and the multiple etiologies that may underlie the development of schizophrenia. Waddington's model is also useful in understanding the canalizing influence of experience-based therapeutic approaches, which also likely bring about 'organic' changes in the brain. Finally, in light of increased evidence for the role of experience in the development and treatment of psychopathologies, we suggest that future strategies for identifying the underlying causes of these disorders be based less on the mechanisms of action of effective pharmacological treatments, and more on increased knowledge of the brain's cellular mechanisms of plastic change.

Environmental factors associated with a spectrum of neurodevelopmental deficits

A number of environmental agents have been shown to demonstrate neurotoxic effects either in human or laboratory animal studies. Critical windows of vulnerability to the effects of these agents occur both pre- and postnatally. The nervous system is relatively unique in that different parts are responsible for different functional domains, and these develop at different times (e.g., motor control, sensory, intelligence and attention). In addition, the many cell types in the brain have different windows of vulnerability with varying sensitivities to environmental agents. This review focuses on two environmental agents, lead and methylmercury, to illustrate the neurobehavioral and cognitive effects that can result from early life exposures. Special attention is paid to distinguishing between the effects detected following episodes of poisoning and those detected following lower dose exposures. Perinatal and childhood exposure to high doses of lead results in encephalopathy and convulsions. Lower-dose lead exposures have been associated with impairment in intellectual function and attention. At high levels of prenatal exposure, methylmercury produces mental retardation, cerebral palsy and visual and auditory deficits in children of exposed mothers. At lower levels of methylmercury exposure, the effects in children have been more subtle. Other environmental neurotoxicants that have been shown to produce developmental neurotoxicity include polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, pesticides, ionizing radiation, environmental tobacco smoke, and maternal use of alcohol, tobacco, marijuana and cocaine. Exposure to environmental agents with neurotoxic effects can result in a spectrum of adverse outcomes from severe mental retardation and disability to more subtle changes in function depending on the timing and dose of the chemical agent.

Prevalence of fetal exposure to environmental toxins as determined by meconium analysis

OBJECTIVE

The primary objective was to determine whether environmental pollutants, specifically lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As) and organochlorine and organophosphate pesticides can be detected in meconium.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective, cohort study. Infants were randomly recruited from the nurseries of five hospitals in Manila, Philippines. Their stools (meconium) were collected and analyzed for heavy metals by atomic absorption spectrophotometry and for pesticides by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GCMS).

RESULTS

A total of 426 infants were studied. The exposure rate (based on meconium analysis) and the median concentration of the pollutants in the positive samples were as follows: lead (26.5%; 35.77 microg/ml), cadmium (8.5%; 13.37 microg/ml), mercury (83.9%; 3.17 ng/ml), chlordane (12.7%; 22.48 microg/ml), chlorpyrifos (11.0%; 8.26 microg/ml), diazinon (34.3%; 12.96 microg/ml), DDT (26.5%; 12.56 microg/ml), lindane (73.5%; 2.0 microg/ml), malathion (53.0; 6.80 microg/ml), parathion (32.0%; 2.30 microg/ml) and pentachlorphenol (16.1%; 90.00 microg/ml). Some maternal and neonatal factors that were significantly associated with the presence of environmental toxins in meconium included multi-gravidity, multiparity, multiple gestation, meconium stained fluid, smoking, gestational age, low birth weight and infant gender.

CONCLUSION

Meconium analysis is a new and sensitive tool to detect fetal exposure to environmental toxins and its clinical use awaits further investigation.

Effects of prolonged exposure to nanomolar concentrations of methylmercury on voltage-sensitive sodium and calcium currents in PC12 cells

The neurotoxicant methylmercury (CH(3)Hg(+)) inhibits voltage-sensitive Na(+) and Ca(2+) currents in neuronal preparations following acute, in vitro, exposure. In the present study, effects on voltage-sensitive Na(+) (I(Na)) and Ca(2+) (I(Ca)) currents in pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells were examined following prolonged exposure to CH(3)Hg(+). When PC12 cells cultured in the presence of nerve growth factor (NGF) for 7 days ('primed') were replated in the presence of NGF and 30 nM CH(3)Hg(+), I(Ca), but not I(Na), amplitude was reduced (29%) significantly approximately 24 h later. Quantitative assessment of morphology indicated that this approximately 24 h exposure to CH(3)Hg(+) significantly reduced neurite length. The N-type voltage-sensitive Ca(2+) channel (VSCC) antagonist omega-conotoxin GVIA (500 pM) was without significant effect on current amplitude or morphology in this exposure protocol. When undifferentiated cells were cultured in the presence of NGF and 10 nM CH(3)Hg(+) for 6 days, I(Ca) and I(Na) amplitude were reduced by 36 and 52%, respectively. I(Ca) at the end of a 150 ms test pulse was also reduced by 40% in CH(3)Hg(+)-treated cells. Thus, both inactivating and non-inactivating I(Ca) were reduced equally. There was no change in [(3)H]saxitoxin or omega-[(125)I]conotoxin GVIA binding, nor were there any morphological alterations in cells treated with CH(3)Hg(+) for 6 days. Omega-conotoxin GVIA (500 pM, 6 days), reduced significantly I(Ca), but not I(Na), but was without effect on morphology. These results demonstrate that prolonged exposure to low concentrations of CH(3)Hg(+) reduces cationic currents in differentiating PC12 cells, but that current reduction is not always associated with morphological alteration.

Differential patterns of nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-3 mRNA and protein levels in developing regions of rat brain

The present studies were undertaken to characterize the regional and temporal patterns of neurotrophin messenger RNA and protein levels for beta-nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-3 in the developing CNS. We have examined the levels of these neurotrophin messenger RNAs with ribonuclease protection assays and corresponding protein levels with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays in the developing Long-Evans rat hippocampus, neocortex and cerebellum on postnatal days 1, 7, 14, 21, and 92. In addition, immunohistochemistry was used to localize the neurotrophins in these developing brain regions. Results indicated that in neocortex and hippocampus, messenger RNA for both nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor increased in an age-dependent manner, reaching a plateau by postnatal day 14. In the neocortex, nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor protein levels both peaked at postnatal day 14. In hippocampus, nerve growth factor protein peaked at postnatal day 7 while brain-derived neurotrophic factor peaked at postnatal day 14. In cerebellum, nerve growth factor messenger RNA levels were flat, while nerve growth factor protein peaked at postnatal day 7. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor messenger RNA increased in an age-dependent manner while the pattern for its protein levels was mixed. Neurotrophin-3 messeger RNA levels increased in an age-dependent manner in hippocampus, peaked at postnatal day14 in cerebellum, and no changes occurred in neocortex. Neurotrophin-3 protein was at its peak at postnatal day 1 and thereafter decreased at other postnatal days in all three brain regions. Results of neurotrophin immunohistochemistry often paralleled and complemented enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay data, demonstrating specific cell groups containing neurotrophin proteins in these regions. Within each region, patterns with regard to messenger RNA and respective protein levels for each neurotrophin were unique. No consistent relationship between patterns of neurotrophin messenger RNAs and their cognate proteins was observed between regions. The different regional patterns for neurotrophin messengerRNA and protein levels in each brain region indicate that messenger RNA studies of neurotrophin messenger RNA must be augmented by protein determination to fully characterize spatial and temporal neurotrophin distribution.

Gestational exposure to methylmercury alters neurotrophin- and carbachol-stimulated phosphatidylinositide hydrolysis in cerebral cortex of neonatal rats

Neurotrophin-stimulated signal transduction through the Trk receptors has been implicated in the development and survival of the nervous system. Phospholipase Cgamma (PLCgamma) is an early downstream effector for the Trk receptors, and catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositides (PI) to inositol phosphates (IPs) and diacylglycerol. The current study demonstrated that PI hydrolysis can be used as a measure of Trk stimulation in slices from neonatal rat brain, and examined changes in the ontogeny of neurotrophin-stimulated PI hydrolysis in animals exposed to MeHg during gestation. Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) stimulated PI hydrolysis in neocortical and cerebellar slices from neonatal rats in a concentration-dependent manner (30-1000 ng/ml). The neurotrophin-stimulated PI hydrolysis was completely blocked by K-252a, a compound known to inhibit Trk autophosphorylation. To examine the effects of MeHg on PI hydrolysis, Long-Evans dams were dosed p.o. on gestational days 6-15 with 0 or 2 mg/kg/day MeHg dissolved in saline. Pups were sacrificed on postnatal days (PND) 1, 4, 10, 14, and 21 and brain slices prepared from the neocortex and cerebellum. Neurotrophin-stimulated PI hydrolysis was highest on PND 1-4 and decreased with age in slices from both regions. Prior exposure to MeHg had no effect on NT-3 or BDNF-stimulated PI hydrolysis in the cerebellum; however, in the neocortex carbachol-stimulated PI hydrolysis and NT-3-stimulated PI hydrolysis were decreased on PND 1. In addition, NT-3-stimulated PI hydrolysis was increased on PND 14 compared to controls. Nerve growth factor (NGF), which had no effect in controls, increased PI hydrolysis in MeHg exposed animals. Acute exposure to 10 micro M MeHg increased basal PI hydrolysis in cortical slices and increased NT-3- and BDNF-stimulated PI hydrolysis in slices from the cerebellum. These data indicate that gestational exposure to MeHg can alter neurotrophin signaling in the neocortex at early postnatal times.

Induction of glutamate-cysteine ligase (gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase) in the brains of adult female mice subchronically exposed to methylmercury

Methylmercury (MeHg) is widely known for its potent neurotoxic properties. One proposed mechanism of action of MeHg relates to its high affinity for sulfhydryl groups, especially those found on glutathione (GSH) and proteins. Previous studies have shown that acute MeHg exposure results in an increase in the mRNA for the rate-limiting enzyme in GSH synthesis, glutamate-cysteine ligase (GLCL) (also known as gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase). In this study, we evaluated the effects of subchronic (12-week) MeHg exposure at 0, 3 or 10 ppm in the drinking water on GSH levels, GLCL catalytic (GLCLC) and regulatory subunit mRNA and protein levels, and GLCL activity in brain, liver and kidney tissue of C57B1/6 female mice. Contrary to previous findings in rats, there were no changes in GSH concentration in any of the tissues examined. However, there was an increase in GLCLC protein in the brain, which was accompanied by a 30% increase in GLCL activity. We conclude that up-regulation of GSH synthetic capacity in the brains of mice is a sensitive biomarker of subchronic MeHg exposure.