Modeling fast dopamine neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens during behavior

NMDA- and 6-OHDA-induced Lesions in the Nucleus Accumbens Differently Affect Maternal and Infanticidal Behavior in Pup-naïve Female and Male Mice

Virgin and pups-naïve female and male adult mice display two opposite responses when they are exposed to pups for the first time. While females generally take care of the pups, males attack them. Since the nucleus accumbens (NA), and its dopaminergic modulation, is critical in integrating information and processing reward and aversion, we investigated if NMDA- and 6-OHDA-induced lesions, damaging mostly NA output and dopaminergic inputs respectively, affected female maternal behavior (MB) or male infanticidal behavior (IB) in mice. Our results revealed minor or no effects of both smaller and larger NMDA-induced lesions in MB and IB. On the other hand, while 6-OHDA-induced lesions in females reduced the incidence of full MB (12.5% 6-OHDA vs. 85.7% SHAM) increasing the latency to retrieve the pups, those lesions did not affect IB in males. There were no differences in locomotor and exploratory activity between the lesioned- and SHAM- females. Despite those lesions did not induce any major effect on IB, NMDA-lesioned males spent less time in the central area of an open field, while dopaminergic-lesioned males showed reduced number of rearing and peripheral crosses. The current study shows that an intact NA is not necessary for the expression of MB and IB. However, dopaminergic inputs to NA play different role in MB and IB. While damaging dopaminergic terminals into the NA did not affect IB, it clearly delayed the more flexible and rewarding expression of parental behavior.

Negative allosteric modulation of CB1 cannabinoid receptor signaling suppresses opioid-mediated reward

Blockade of cannabinoid type 1 (CB₁)-receptor signaling decreases the rewarding properties of many drugs of abuse and has been proposed as an anti-addiction strategy. However, psychiatric side-effects limit the clinical potential of orthosteric CB₁ antagonists. Negative allosteric modulators (NAMs) represent a novel and indirect approach to attenuate CB₁ signaling by decreasing affinity and/or efficacy of CB₁ ligands. We hypothesized that a CB₁-NAM would block opioid reward while avoiding the unwanted effects of orthosteric CB₁ antagonists. GAT358, a CB₁-NAM, failed to elicit cardinal signs of direct CB₁ activation or inactivation when administered by itself. GAT358 decreased catalepsy and hypothermia but not antinociception produced by the orthosteric CB₁ agonist CP55,940, suggesting that a CB₁-NAM blocked cardinal signs of CB₁ activation. Next, GAT358 was evaluated using in vivo assays of opioid-induced dopamine release and reward in male rodents. In the nucleus accumbens shell, a key component of the mesocorticolimbic reward pathway, morphine increased electrically-evoked dopamine efflux and this effect was blocked by a dose of GAT358 that lacked intrinsic effects on evoked dopamine efflux. Moreover, GAT358 blocked morphine-induced reward in a conditioned place preference (CPP) assay without producing reward or aversion alone. GAT358-induced blockade of morphine CPP was also occluded by GAT229, a CB₁ positive allosteric modulator (CB₁-PAM), and absent in CB₁-knockout mice. Finally, GAT358 also reduced oral oxycodone (but not water) consumption in a two-bottle choice paradigm. Our results support the therapeutic potential of CB₁-NAMs as novel drug candidates aimed at preventing opioid reward and treating opioid abuse while avoiding unwanted side-effects.

Acute Depletion of D2 Receptors from the Rat Substantia Nigra Alters Dopamine Kinetics in the Dorsal Striatum and Drug Responsivity

Recent studies have used conditional knockout mice to selectively delete the D2 autoreceptor; however, these approaches result in global deletion of D2 autoreceptors early in development. The present study takes a different approach using RNA interference (RNAi) to knockdown the expression of the D2 receptors (D2R) in the substantia nigra (SN), including dopaminergic neurons, which project primarily to the dorsal striatum (dStr) in adult rats. This approach restricts the knockdown primarily to nigrostriatal pathways, leaving mesolimbic D2 autoreceptors intact. Analyses of dopamine (DA) kinetics in the dStr reveal a decrease in DA transporter (DAT) function in the knockdown rats, an effect not observed in D2 autoreceptor knockout mouse models. SN D2 knockdown rats exhibit a behavioral phenotype characterized by persistent enhancement of locomotor activity in a familiar open field, reduced locomotor responsiveness to high doses of cocaine and the ability to overcome haloperidol-induced immobility on the bar test. Together these results demonstrate that presynaptic D2R can be depleted from specific neuronal populations and implicates nigrostriatal D2R in different behavioral responses to psychotropic drugs.

Different dosing regimens of repeated ketamine administration have opposite effects on novelty processing in rats

Repeated exposure to sub-anesthetic doses of ketamine in rats has been shown to induce cognitive deficits, as well as behavioral changes akin to the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, giving much face validity to the use of ketamine administration as a pharmacological model of schizophrenia. This study sought to further characterize the behavioral effects of two different ketamine pre-treatment regimens, focusing primarily on the effects of repeated ketamine administration on novelty processing, a capacity that is disrupted in schizophrenia. Rats received 5 or 14 intra-peritoneal injections of 30mg/kg ketamine or saline across 5 or 7days, respectively. They were then tested in an associative mismatch detection task to examine their ability to detect novel configurations of familiar audio-visual sequences. Furthermore, rats underwent a sequential novel object and novel object location exploration task. Subsequently, rats were also tested on the delayed matching to place T-maze task, sucrose preference task and locomotor tests involving administering a challenge dose of amphetamine (AMPH). The high-dose ketamine pre-treatment regimen elicited impairments in mismatch detection and working memory. In contrast, the low-dose ketamine pre-treatment regimen improved performance of novelty detection. In addition, low-dose ketamine pre-treated rats showed locomotor sensitization following an AMPH challenge, while the high-dose ketamine pre-treated rats showed an attenuated locomotor response to AMPH, compared to control rats. These findings demonstrate that different regimens of repeated ketamine administration induce alterations in novelty processing in opposite directions, and that differential neural adaptations occurring in the mesolimbic dopamine system may underlie these effects.

The neural substrates for the rewarding and dopamine-releasing effects of medial forebrain bundle stimulation have partially discrepant frequency responses

Midbrain dopamine neurons have long been implicated in the rewarding effect produced by electrical brain stimulation of the medial forebrain bundle (MFB). These neurons are excited trans-synaptically, but their precise role in intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) has yet to be determined. This study assessed the hypothesis that midbrain dopamine neurons are in series with the directly stimulated substrate for self-stimulation of the MFB and either perform spatio-temporal integration of synaptic input from directly activated MFB fibers or relay the results of such integration to efferent stages of the reward circuitry. Psychometric current-frequency trade-off functions were derived from ICSS performance, and chemometric trade-off functions were derived from stimulation-induced dopamine transients in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell, measured by means of fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. Whereas the psychometric functions decline monotonically over a broad range of pulse frequencies and level off only at high frequencies, the chemometric functions obtained with the same rats and electrodes are either U-shaped or level off at lower pulse frequencies. This discrepancy was observed when the dopamine transients were recorded in either anesthetized or awake subjects. The lack of correspondence between the psychometric and chemometric functions is inconsistent with the hypothesis that dopamine neurons projecting to the NAc shell constitute an entire series stage of the neural circuit subserving self-stimulation of the MFB.

Neuroimaging of the dopamine/reward system in adolescent drug use

Adolescence is characterized by heightened risk-taking, including substance misuse. These behavioral patterns are influenced by ontogenic changes in neurotransmitter systems, particularly the dopamine system, which is fundamentally involved in the neural coding of reward and motivated approach behavior. During adolescence, this system evidences a peak in activity. At the same time, the dopamine (DA) system is neuroplastically altered by substance abuse, impacting subsequent function. Here, we describe properties of the dopamine system that change with typical adolescent development and that are altered with substance abuse. Much of this work has been gleaned from animal models due to limitations in measuring dopamine in pediatric samples. Structural and functional neuroimaging techniques have been used to examine structures that are heavily DA-innervated; they measure morphological and functional changes with age and with drug exposure. Presenting marijuana abuse as an exemplar, we consider recent findings that support an adolescent peak in DA-driven reward-seeking behavior and related deviations in motivational systems that are associated with marijuana abuse/dependence. Clinicians are advised that (1) chronic adolescent marijuana use may lead to deficiencies in incentive motivation, (2) that this state is due to marijuana's interactions with the developing DA system, and (3) that treatment strategies should be directed to remediating resultant deficiencies in goal-directed activity.

Targeted genetic manipulations of neuronal subtypes using promoter-specific combinatorial AAVs in wild-type animals

Techniques to genetically manipulate the activity of defined neuronal subpopulations have been useful in elucidating function, however applicability to translational research beyond transgenic mice is limited. Subtype targeted transgene expression can be achieved using specific promoters, but often currently available promoters are either too large to package into many vectors, in particular adeno-associated virus (AAV), or do not drive expression at levels sufficient to alter behavior. To permit neuron subtype specific gene expression in wildtype animals, we developed a combinatorial AAV targeting system that drives, in combination, subtype specific Cre-recombinase expression with a strong but non-specific Cre-conditional transgene. Using this system we demonstrate that the tyrosine hydroxylase promoter (TH-Cre-AAV) restricted expression of channelrhodopsin-2 (EF1α-DIO-ChR2-EYFP-AAV) to the rat ventral tegmental area (VTA), or an activating DREADD (hSyn-DIO-hM3Dq-mCherry-AAV) to  the  rat  locus  coeruleus  (LC). High expression levels were achieved in both regions. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) showed the majority of ChR2+ neurons (>93%) colocalized with TH in the VTA, and optical stimulation evoked striatal dopamine release. Activation of TH neurons in the LC produced sustained EEG and behavioral arousal. TH-specific hM3Dq expression in the LC was further compared with: (1) a Cre construct driven by a strong but non-specific promoter (non-targeting); and (2) a retrogradely-transported WGA-Cre delivery mechanism (targeting a specific projection). IHC revealed that the area of c-fos activation after CNO treatment in the LC and peri-LC neurons appeared proportional to the resulting increase in wakefulness (non-targeted > targeted > ACC to LC projection restricted). Our dual AAV targeting system effectively overcomes the large size and weak activity barrier prevalent with many subtype specific promoters by functionally separating subtype specificity from promoter strength.

Extinction and reinstatement of phasic dopamine signals in the nucleus accumbens core during Pavlovian conditioning

The prediction-error model of dopamine (DA) signaling has largely been confirmed with various appetitive Pavlovian conditioning procedures and has been supported in tests of Pavlovian extinction. Studies have repeatedly shown, however, that extinction does not erase the original memory of conditioning as the prediction-error model presumes, putting the model at odds with contemporary views that treat extinction as an episode of learning rather than unlearning of conditioning. Here, we combined fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) with appetitive Pavlovian conditioning to assess DA release directly during extinction and reinstatement. DA was monitored in the nucleus accumbens core, which plays a key role in reward processing. Following at least 4 daily sessions of 16 tone-food pairings, fast-scan cyclic voltammetry was performed while rats received additional tone-food pairings followed by tone alone presentations (i.e., extinction). Acquisition memory was reinstated with noncontingent presentations of reward and then tested with cue presentation. Tone-food pairings produced transient (1- to 3-s) DA release in response to tone. During extinction, the amplitude of the DA response decreased significantly. Following presentation of 2 noncontingent food pellets, subsequent tone presentation reinstated the DA signal. Our results support the prediction-error model for appetitive Pavlovian extinction but not for reinstatement.

Optogenetic stimulation of VTA dopamine neurons reveals that tonic but not phasic patterns of dopamine transmission reduce ethanol self-administration

There is compelling evidence that acute ethanol exposure stimulates ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopamine cell activity and that VTA-dependent dopamine release in terminal fields within the nucleus accumbens plays an integral role in the regulation of ethanol drinking behaviors. Unfortunately, due to technical limitations, the specific temporal dynamics linking VTA dopamine cell activation and ethanol self-administration are not known. In fact, establishing a causal link between specific patterns of dopamine transmission and ethanol drinking behaviors has proven elusive. Here, we sought to address these gaps in our knowledge using a newly developed viral-mediated gene delivery strategy to selectively express Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) on dopamine cells in the VTA of wild-type rats. We then used this approach to precisely control VTA dopamine transmission during voluntary ethanol drinking sessions. The results confirmed that ChR2 was selectively expressed on VTA dopamine cells and delivery of blue light pulses to the VTA induced dopamine release in accumbal terminal fields with very high temporal and spatial precision. Brief high frequency VTA stimulation induced phasic patterns of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens. Lower frequency stimulation, applied for longer periods mimicked tonic increases in accumbal dopamine. Notably, using this optogenetic approach in rats engaged in an intermittent ethanol drinking procedure, we found that tonic, but not phasic, stimulation of VTA dopamine cells selectively attenuated ethanol drinking behaviors. Collectively, these data demonstrate the effectiveness of a novel viral targeting strategy that can be used to restrict opsin expression to dopamine cells in standard outbred animals and provide the first causal evidence demonstrating that tonic activation of VTA dopamine neurons selectively decreases ethanol self-administration behaviors.

New theoretical and experimental approaches on maternal motivation in mammals

Maternal behavior is expressed in different modalities, physiological conditions, and contexts. It is the result of a highly motivated brain, that allows the female to flexibily adapt her caring activities to different situations and social demands. To understand how mothers coordinate maternal and other motivated behaviors we discuss the limitations of current theoretical approaches to study maternal motivation (e.g. distinction between appetitive and consummatory behaviors), and propose a different approach (i.e. motorically active vs. passive motivations) and a distinction between maternal motivated state and maternal motivated behaviors. We review the evidence supporting dopamine mediation of maternal motivation and describe how different phases of the dopaminergic response - basal, tonic, and phasic release in the nucleus accumbens - relate to increased salience, invigorating behavior, and behavioral switching. The existing and new experimental paradigms to investigate maternal motivation, and its coexpression and coordination with other social or non-social motivations are also analyzed. An example of how specificity of motivational systems (e.g. maternal and sexual behavior at postpartum estrus) could be processed at the neural level is also provided. This revision offers new theoretical and experimental approaches to address the fundamental question of how mothers flexibly adapt and coordinate the different components of maternal behavior with other motivated behaviors, also critical for the survival of the species.

Biological sources of inflexibility in brain and behavior with aging and neurodegenerative diseases

Almost unequivocally, aging and neurodegeneration lead to deficits in neural information processing. These declines are marked by increased neural noise that is associated with increased variability or inconsistency in behavioral patterns. While it is often viewed that these problems arise from dysregulation of dopamine (DA), a monoamine modulator, glutamate (GLU), an excitatory amino acid that interacts with DA, also plays a role in determining the level of neural noise. We review literature demonstrating that neural noise is highest at both high and low levels of DA and GLU, allowing their interaction to form a many-to-one solution map for neural noise modulation. With aging and neurodegeneration, the range over which DA and GLU can be modulated is decreased leading to inflexibility in brain activity and behavior. As the capacity to modulate neural noise is restricted, the ability to shift noise from one brain region to another is reduced, leading to greater uniformity in signal-to-noise ratios across the entire brain. A negative consequence at the level of behavior is inflexibility that reduces the ability to: (1) switch from one behavior to another; and (2) stabilize a behavioral pattern against external perturbations. In this paper, we develop a theoretical framework where inflexibility across brain and behavior, rather than inconsistency and variability is the more important problem in aging and neurodegeneration. This theoretical framework of inflexibility in aging and neurodegeneration leads to the hypotheses that: (1) dysfunction in either or both of the DA and GLU systems restricts the ability to modulate neural noise; and (2) levels of neural noise and variability in brain activation will be dedifferentiated and more evenly distributed across the brain; and (3) changes in neural noise and behavioral variability in response to different task demands and changes in the environment will be reduced.

Dopaminergic modulation of incentive motivation in adolescence: age-related changes in signaling, individual differences, and implications for the development of self-regulation

Behavioral activation that is associated with incentive-reward motivation increases in adolescence relative to childhood and adulthood. This quadratic developmental pattern is generally supported by behavioral and experimental neuroscience findings. It is suggested that a focus on changes in dopamine neurotransmission is informative in understanding the mechanism for this adolescent increase in reward-related behavioral activation and subsequent decline into adulthood. Evidence is presented to indicate that incentive-reward motivation is modulated by mesoaccumbens dopamine, and that it increases in adolescence before declining into adulthood because of normative developmental changes at the molecular level. Potential mechanisms of variation in functional mesoaccumbens dopamine transmission are discussed with a focus on the interplay between tonic and phasic modes of dopamine transmission in modulating both general incentive-motivational biases and the efficacy of reward learning during exposure to novel reward experiences. Interactions between individual difference factors and these age-related trends are discussed.

Mesolimbic dopamine transients in motivated behaviors: focus on maternal behavior

Phasic activity of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway - burst-firing of dopamine neurons and the resulting dopamine release events at striatal targets - have been associated with a variety of motivational events, such as novelty, salient stimuli, social interaction, and reward prediction. Over the past decade, advances in electrochemical techniques have allowed measurement of naturally occurring dopamine release events, or dopamine transients, in awake animals during ongoing behavior. Thus, a growing body of studies has revealed dynamic dopamine input to ventral striatum during motivated behavior in a variety of experimental paradigms. We propose that dopamine transients may be important neural signals in pup-directed aspects of maternal behavior, as preliminary data suggest that dopamine transients in dams are associated with pup cues. Measurements of dopamine transients may be useful to investigate not only typical maternal behavior but also maternal inattention induced by drug exposure or stress.

Optogenetic control of striatal dopamine release in rats

Optogenetic control over neuronal firing has become an increasingly elegant method to dissect the microcircuitry of mammalian brains. To date, examination of these manipulations on neurotransmitter release has been minimal. Here we present the first in-depth analysis of optogenetic stimulation on dopamine neurotransmission in the dorsal striatum of urethane-anesthetized rats. By combining the tight spatial and temporal resolution of both optogenetics and fast-scan cyclic voltammetry we have determined the parameters necessary to control phasic dopamine release in the dorsal striatum of rats in vivo. The kinetics of optically induced dopamine release mirror established models of electrically evoked release, indicating that potential artifacts of electrical stimulation on ion channels and the dopamine transporter are negligible. Furthermore a lack of change in extracellular pH indicates that optical stimulation does not alter blood flow. Optical control over dopamine release is highly reproducible and flexible. We are able to repeatedly evoke concentrations of dopamine release as small as a single dopamine transient (50 nM). An inverted U-shaped frequency response curve exists with maximal stimulation inducing dopamine effluxes exceeding 500 nM. Taken together, these results have obvious implications for understanding the neurobiological basis of dopaminergic-based disorders and provide the framework to effectively manipulate dopamine patterns.

Dopamine signaling in the nucleus accumbens of animals self-administering drugs of abuse

Abuse of psychoactive substances can lead to drug addiction. In animals, addiction is best modeled by drug self-administration paradigms. It has been proposed that the crucial common denominator for the development of drug addiction is the ability of drugs of abuse to increase extracellular concentrations of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc). Studies using in vivo microdialysis and chronoamperometry in the behaving animal have demonstrated that drugs of abuse increase tonic dopamine concentrations in the NAcc. However, it is known that dopamine neurons respond to reward-related stimuli on a subsecond timescale. Thus, it is necessary to collect neurochemical information with this level of temporal resolution, as achieved with in vivo fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV), to fully understand the role of phasic dopamine release in normal behavior and drug addiction. We review studies that investigated the effects of drugs of abuse on NAcc dopamine levels in freely moving animals using in vivo microdialysis, chronoamperometry, and FSCV. After a brief introduction of dopamine signal transduction and anatomy and a section on current theories on the role of dopamine in natural goal-directed behavior, a discussion of techniques for the in vivo assessment of extracellular dopamine in behaving animals is presented. Then, we review studies using these techniques to investigate changes in phasic and tonic dopamine signaling in the NAcc during (1) response-dependent and -independent administration of abused drugs, (2) the presentation of drug-conditioned stimuli and operant behavior in self-administration paradigms, (3) drug withdrawal, and (4) cue-induced reinstatement of drug seeking. These results are then integrated with current ideas on the role of dopamine in addiction with an emphasis on a model illustrating phasic and tonic NAcc dopamine signaling during different stages of drug addiction. This model predicts that phasic dopamine release in response to drug-related stimuli will be enhanced over stimuli associated with natural reinforcers, which may result in aberrant goal-directed behaviors contributing to drug addiction.

In vivo measurement of somatodendritic release of dopamine in the ventral tegmental area

The ventral tegmental area (VTA), the locus of mesolimbic dopamine cell bodies, contains dopamine. Experiments in brain slices have demonstrated that VTA dopamine can be released by local electrical stimulation. Measurements with both push-pull cannula and microdialysis in intact animals have also obtained evidence for releasable dopamine. Here we demonstrate that dopamine release in the VTA can be evoked by remote stimulations of the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) in the anesthetized rat. In initial experiments, the MFB was electrically stimulated while a carbon-fiber electrode was lowered to the VTA, with recording by fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. While release was not observed with the carbon fiber 4-6 mm below dura, a voltammetric response was observed at 6-8 mm below dura, but the voltammogram was poorly defined. At lower depths, in the VTA, dopamine release was evoked. Immunohistochemistry experiments with antibodies for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) confirmed that dopamine processes were primarily found below 8 mm. Similarly, tissue content determined by liquid chromatography revealed serotonin but not dopamine dorsal to 8 mm with both dopamine and serotonin at lower depths. Evaluation of the VTA signal by pharmacological means showed that it increased with inhibitors of dopamine uptake, but release was not altered by D2 agents. Dopamine release in the VTA was frequency dependent and could be exhausted by stimulations longer than 5 s. Thus, VTA dopamine release can be evoked in vivo by remote stimulations and it resembles release in terminal regions, possessing a similar uptake mechanism and a finite releasable storage pool.

Neurological correlates of reward responding in adolescents with and without externalizing behavior disorders

Opposing theories of striatal hyper- and hypodopaminergic functioning have been suggested in the pathophysiology of externalizing behavior disorders. To test these competing theories, the authors used functional MRI to evaluate neural activity during a simple reward task in 12- to 16-year-old boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and/or conduct disorder (n = 19) and in controls with no psychiatric condition (n = 11). The task proceeded in blocks during which participants received either (a) monetary incentives for correct responses or (b) no rewards for correct responses. Controls exhibited striatal activation only during reward, shifting to anterior cingulate activation during nonreward. In contrast, externalizing adolescents exhibited striatal activation during both reward and nonreward. Externalizing psychopathology appears to be characterized by deficits in processing the omission of predicted reward, which may render behaviors that are acquired through environmental contingencies difficult to extinguish when those contingencies change.

Dopamine uptake changes associated with cocaine self-administration

The present study was designed to reveal the relationship between cocaine-induced dopamine uptake changes and patterns of cocaine self-administration observed under a fixed-ratio schedule. Cocaine was intravenously infused into anesthetized rats, according to inter-infusion intervals obtained from self-administering animals, and dopamine uptake changes (apparent K(m)) were assessed in the nucleus accumbens using voltammetry. The data demonstrate that cocaine-induced dopamine transporter (DAT) inhibition accounts for the accumbal dopamine fluctuations, which are associated with the cyclic regularity of cocaine intake observed during self-administration. Specifically, the inter-infusion intervals that are maintained during cocaine self-administration correlate with the maintenance of a rapidly changing level of dopamine uptake inhibition, which appears to be tightly regulated. Furthermore, this maintained level of dopamine uptake inhibition was found to shift upward using intervals from animals that had shown an escalation in the rate of cocaine self-administration. Although no significant change in the apparent K(m) was revealed in animals that exhibited an escalation in the rate of cocaine intake, an increased dopamine uptake rate was found suggesting an upregulation of DAT number in response to a history of high cocaine intake. This is the first demonstration of the tight correlation that exists between the level of dopamine uptake inhibition and rates of cocaine self-administration. Moreover, a new mathematical model was created that quantitatively describes the changes in cocaine-induced dopamine uptake and correctly predicts the level of dopamine uptake inhibition. This model permits a computational interpretation of cocaine-induced dopamine uptake changes during cocaine self-administration.

Dopaminergic and non-dopaminergic value systems in conditioning and outcome-specific revaluation

Animals are motivated to choose environmental options that can best satisfy current needs. To explain such choices, this paper introduces the MOTIVATOR (Matching Objects To Internal VAlues Triggers Option Revaluations) neural model. MOTIVATOR describes cognitive-emotional interactions between higher-order sensory cortices and an evaluative neuraxis composed of the hypothalamus, amygdala, and orbitofrontal cortex. Given a conditioned stimulus (CS), the model amygdala and lateral hypothalamus interact to calculate the expected current value of the subjective outcome that the CS predicts, constrained by the current state of deprivation or satiation. The amygdala relays the expected value information to orbitofrontal cells that receive inputs from anterior inferotemporal cells, and medial orbitofrontal cells that receive inputs from rhinal cortex. The activations of these orbitofrontal cells code the subjective values of objects. These values guide behavioral choices. The model basal ganglia detect errors in CS-specific predictions of the value and timing of rewards. Excitatory inputs from the pedunculopontine nucleus interact with timed inhibitory inputs from model striosomes in the ventral striatum to regulate dopamine burst and dip responses from cells in the substantia nigra pars compacta and ventral tegmental area. Learning in cortical and striatal regions is strongly modulated by dopamine. The model is used to address tasks that examine food-specific satiety, Pavlovian conditioning, reinforcer devaluation, and simultaneous visual discrimination. Model simulations successfully reproduce discharge dynamics of known cell types, including signals that predict saccadic reaction times and CS-dependent changes in systolic blood pressure.

Real-time dopamine efflux in the nucleus accumbens core during Pavlovian conditioning

To assess the role of dopamine input to the nucleus accumbens core in anticipatory learning, fast-scan cyclic voltammetry was combined with appetitive Pavlovian conditioning. One group of rats (Paired) received 16 tone-food pairings for at least four daily sessions while the control group (Unpaired) received the same number of unpaired tone and food presentations. Both groups showed transient dopamine responses during food presentation throughout training, confirming dopamine involvement in reward processing. Only the Paired Group, however, showed consistently timed dopamine transients during the 10-s tone presentation. Transients first appeared near the end of the tone period as each animal acquired the tone-food association and then occurred progressively sooner on subsequent sessions. Later sessions also revealed a consistently timed dopamine response soon after food delivery in Paired animals. Collectively, these results implicate phasic dopamine release in the acquisition of Pavlovian learning and also suggest an early dopamine response to the unconditioned stimulus as training continues.

Voltammetric characterization of the effect of monoamine uptake inhibitors and releasers on dopamine and serotonin uptake in mouse caudate-putamen and substantia nigra slices

Fast scan cyclic voltammetry is an electrochemical technique used to measure dynamics of transporter-mediated monoamine uptake in real time and provides a tool to evaluate the detailed effects of monoamine uptake inhibitors and releasers on dopamine and serotonin transporter function. We measured the effects of cocaine, methylphenidate, 2beta-propanoyl-3beta-(4tolyl) tropane (PTT), fluoxetine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), phentermine and fenfluramine on dopamine and serotonin uptake following electrically stimulated release in mouse caudate-putamen and substantia nigra pars reticulata slices. We determined rank orders of uptake inhibition effects based on two variables; increases in apparent K(m) for dopamine and serotonin uptake and inhibition constant (K(i)) values. For example, the rank order of uptake inhibition based on apparent K(m) values at the dopamine transporter was amphetamine>or=PTT>or=methylphenidate>>methamphetamine=phentermine=MDMA>cocaine>>fluoxetine=fenfluramine, and at the serotonin transporter was fluoxetine=methamphetamine=fenfluramine=MDMA > amphetamine=cocaine=PTT>or=methylphenidate>phentermine. Additionally, changes in electrically stimulated release were documented. This is the first study using voltammetry to measure the effects of a wide range of monoamine uptake inhibitors and releasers on dopamine and serotonin uptake in mouse brain slices. These studies also highlight methodological considerations for comparison of effects between heterogeneous brain regions.

Neural Probes for Concurrent Detection of Neurochemical and Electrophysiological Signals in vivo

Electrochemical sensing with microelectrode arrays provides a means for monitoring neurotransmitter dynamics across multiple locations within a micro-scale region of brain tissue. Here we present a multi-modal neural probe design for concurrent recording of neurochemical and electrophysiological signals in vivo. Prior to implantation, platinum sites on each array underwent platinum-black electroplating and Nafion electropolymerization, which increased sensitivity to dopamine by 74% and decreased sensitivity to common interferents by at least 89%. In a series of three rats, we applied various electrochemical waveforms to platinum sites and monitored neural activity on adjacent iridium sites. We found that chronoamperometry and constant-potential amperometry did not alter firing rates at +0.25, +0.50, and +0.75 V. In addition, we have demonstrated multi-modal recordings of striatal neurons in response to medial forebrain bundle stimulation.

Behavioral electrophysiology of psychostimulants

The motor-activating effects of amphetamine and other psychostimulants such as cocaine depend on an increase in dopamine (DA) transmission in the striatum, a key component of the basal ganglia and the forebrain motive circuit. This review focuses on research aimed at using electrophysiological techniques--including extracellular unit recording and iontophoresis--in alert, fully functioning animals to understand how these drugs alter striatal neuronal processing under behaviorally relevant conditions. The data indicate that DA works in conjunction with glutamate (GLU), an excitatory amino acid, to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio of afferent information. This DA-GLU interaction appears to play a critical role in the amphetamine-induced activation of striatal neurons. The pattern of striatal activation, moreover, changes as the behavioral response changes from unfocused locomotion to highly focused, stereotyped behavior, but interestingly, the striatal response pattern is not reflected in substantia nigra reticulata, a primary target of striatal efferents. Although cocaine also activates striatal neurons during behavior, the underlying mechanisms appear to be complicated by factors unique to this drug and deserve further evaluation. Collectively, these findings provide unique insight into the neuronal processes by which the striatum participates in psychostimulant-induced motor behavior.

Dopaminergic transmission in STOP null mice

Neuroleptics are thought to exert their anti-psychotic effects by counteracting a hyper-dopaminergic transmission. Here, we have examined the dopaminergic status of STOP (stable tubule only polypeptide) null mice, which lack a microtubule-stabilizing protein and which display neuroleptic-sensitive behavioural disorders. Dopamine transmission was investigated using both behavioural analysis and measurements of dopamine efflux in different conditions. Compared to wild-type mice in basal conditions or following mild stress, STOP null mice showed a hyper-locomotor activity, which was erased by neuroleptic treatment, and an increased locomotor reactivity to amphetamine. Such a behavioural profile is indicative of an increased dopaminergic transmission. In STOP null mice, the basal dopamine concentrations, measured by quantitative microdialysis, were normal in both the nucleus accumbens and the striatum. When measured by electrochemical techniques, the dopamine efflux evoked by electrical stimulations mimicking physiological stimuli was dramatically increased in the nucleus accumbens of STOP null mice, apparently due to an increased dopamine release, whereas dopaminergic uptake and auto-inhibition mechanisms were normal. In contrast, dopamine effluxes were slightly diminished in the striatum. Together with previous results, the present study indicates the association in STOP null mice of hippocampal hypo-glutamatergy and of limbic hyper-dopaminergy. Such neurotransmission defects are thought to be central to mental diseases such as schizophrenia.

Wireless transmission of fast-scan cyclic voltammetry at a carbon-fiber microelectrode: proof of principle

Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) at a carbon-fiber microelectrode (CFM) provides exquisite temporal and spatial resolution for monitoring brain chemistry. The utility of this approach has recently been demonstrated by measuring sub-second dopamine changes associated with behavior. However, one drawback is the cable link between animal and recording equipment that restricts behavior and precludes monitoring in complex environments. As a first step towards developing new instrumentation to overcome this technical limitation, the goal of the present study was to establish proof of principle for the wireless transmission of FSCV at a CFM. Proof of principle was evaluated in terms of measurement stability, fidelity, and susceptibility to ambient electrical noise. Bluetooth digital telemetry provided bi-directional communication between remote and home-base units and stable, high-fidelity data transfer comparable to conventional, wired systems when tested using a dummy cell (i.e., a resistor and capacitor in series simulating electrical properties of a CFM), and dopamine measurements with flow injection analysis and in the anesthetized rat with electrical stimulation. The wireless system was also less susceptible to interference from ambient electrical noise. Taken together, the present findings establish proof of principle for the wireless transmission of FSCV at a CFM.

Dopamine receptor and transporter levels are altered in the brain of Purkinje Cell Degeneration mutant mice

The Purkinje Cell Degeneration (Nna1pcd, pcd) mutant mouse is mainly characterized by the complete, primary loss of the Purkinje cells and the secondary, partial, retrograde loss of the granule and inferior olive neurons and is considered a model of human degenerative ataxia. We determined, by in vitro quantitative autoradiography and in situ hybridization, the effects of the Purkinje cell deprivation on the dopaminergic system of the Nna1pcd mutant mouse. The dopamine transporters, as determined by [3H]WIN35428 binding, were increased compared with wild-type mice in the ventral mesencephalic dopaminergic nuclei and in the lateral striatum, motor cortex and septum. In the cerebellum of Nna1pcd mice, the dopamine transporters showed a significant increase in the deep cerebellar nuclei, but were significantly decreased in the molecular layer. The D1-like receptors, as determined by [3H]SCH23390 binding, increased significantly in the Nna1pcd substantia nigra. The D2/D3 receptors, as determined by [3H]raclopride binding, exhibited a significant decrease in lateral divisions of the striatum. Significant increases in D2-like receptors, as determined by [3H]nemonapride binding, were observed in most divisions of the striatum as well as in septum, hippocampus, and piriform cortex. This D2-like fraction most probably corresponds to the D4 receptor subtype. In the cerebellum of Nna1pcd mice, D2-like receptors were significantly decreased in the molecular layer. The results suggest an increased excitatory input on the dopaminergic mesencephalic neurons and an alteration of the dopaminergic neurotransmission in basal ganglia, cortical and limbic regions of the Nna1pcd mutant mouse. In the cerebellum, the significant downregulation of the dopamine transporters and D2-like receptors in the mutant cerebellar molecular layer is possibly due to the absence of the Purkinje cells.

"Passive stabilization" of striatal extracellular dopamine across the lesion spectrum encompassing the presymptomatic phase of Parkinson's disease: a voltammetric study in the 6-OHDA-lesioned rat

Symptoms of Parkinson's disease do not present until the degeneration of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons is nearly complete. Maintenance of dopaminergic tone governing striatal efferents is postulated to preserve motor control during the presymptomatic phase, but the neuroadaptation responsible for normalization is not completely understood. In particular, the prevailing view that surviving dopaminergic neurons compensate by up-regulating release has been difficult to demonstrate directly. Here we investigate dopaminergic neurotransmission in the hemiparkinsonian rat using fast-scan cyclic voltammetry at carbon-fiber microelectrodes. Electrical stimulation was used to elicit extracellular dopamine levels mimicking the steady-state dynamics of tonic dopaminergic signaling. In agreement with microdialysis studies, evoked steady-state dopamine levels remained constant over the entire lesion spectrum (0 to approximately 85%) observed during the presymptomatic stage. Kinetic analysis of the voltammetric recordings demonstrated that evoked dopamine concentrations were normalized without plasticity of dopamine release and uptake, suggesting that the primary mechanisms controlling ambient levels of extracellular dopamine were not actively altered. In the present study, we formalize this neuroadaptation as "passive stabilization" . We further propose that passive stabilization is mediated by the simple physical principles of diffusion and steady state, is predicated on extrasynaptic transmission, and forms the basis for a new compensation model of preclinical parkinsonism.

Motivational views of reinforcement: implications for understanding the behavioral functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine

Although the Skinnerian 'Empirical Law of Effect' does not directly consider the fundamental properties of stimuli that enable them to act as reinforcers, such considerations are critical for determining if nucleus accumbens dopamine systems mediate reinforcement processes. Researchers who have attempted to identify the critical characteristics of reinforcing stimuli or activities have generally arrived at an emphasis upon motivational factors. A thorough review of the behavioral literature indicates that, across several different investigators offering a multitude of theoretical approaches, motivation is seen by many as being fundamental to the process of reinforcement. The reinforcer has been described as a goal, a commodity, an incentive, or a stimulus that is being approached, self-administered, attained or preserved. Reinforcers also have been described as activities that are preferred, deprived or in some way being regulated. It is evident that this 'motivational' or 'regulatory' view of reinforcement has had enormous influence over the hypothesis that DA directly mediates 'reward' or 'reinforcement' processes. Indeed, proponents of the DA/reward hypothesis regularly cite motivational theorists and employ their language. Nevertheless, considerable evidence indicates that low/moderate doses of DA antagonists, and depletions of DA in nucleus accumbens, can suppress instrumental responding for food while, at the same time, these conditions leave fundamental aspects of reinforcement (i.e. primary or unconditioned reinforcement; primary motivation or primary incentive properties of natural reinforcers) intact. Several complex features of the literature on dopaminergic involvement in reinforcement are examined below, and it is argued that the assertions that DA mediates 'reward' or 'reinforcement' are inaccurate and grossly oversimplified. Thus, it appears as though it is no longer tenable to assert that drugs of abuse are simply turning on the brain's natural 'reward system'. In relation to the hypothesis that DA systems are involved in 'wanting', but not 'liking', it is suggested in the present review that 'wanting' has both directional aspects (e.g. appetite to consume food) and activational aspects (e.g. activation for initiating and sustaining instrumental actions; tendency to work for food). The present paper reviews findings in support of the hypothesis that low doses of DA antagonists and accumbens DA depletions do not impair appetite to consume food, but do impair activational aspects of motivation. This suggestion is consistent with the studies showing that low doses of DA antagonists and accumbens DA depletions alter the relative allocation of instrumental responses, making the animals less likely to engage in instrumental responses that have a high degree of work-related response costs. In addition, this observation is consistent with studies demonstrating that accumbens DA depletions make rats highly sensitive to ratio requirements on operant schedules. Although accumbens DA is not seen as directly mediating appetite to consume food, principles of behavioral economics indicate that accumbens DA could be involved in the elasticity of demand for food in terms of the tendency to pay work-related response costs. Future research must focus upon how specific aspects of task requirements (i.e. ratio requirements, intermittence of reinforcement, temporal features of response requirements, dependence upon conditioned stimuli) interact with the effects of accumbens DA depletions, and which particular factors determine sensitivity to the effects of DA antagonism or depletion.