Accuracy, precision and user-acceptability of self blood glucose monitoring machines

The relationship between plasma GIP and GLP-1 levels in individuals with normal and impaired glucose tolerance

AIMS

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) is released primarily from the proximal small intestine and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) from the more distal small intestine and colon. Their relative importance to the incretin effect in health has been contentious in the past, although it now appears that GIP has the dominant role. It is uncertain whether there is a relationship between GIP and GLP-1 secretion. We aimed to evaluate the relationship between plasma GIP and GLP-1 responses to a 75-g oral glucose load in individuals with normal (NGT) and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT).

METHODS

One hundred healthy subjects had measurements of blood glucose, serum insulin, plasma GIP and GLP-1 concentrations for 240 min after a 300 mL drink containing 75 g glucose.

RESULTS

Fifty had NGT and 41 IGT; 9 had type 2 diabetes and were excluded from analysis. In both groups, there were increases in plasma GIP and GLP-1 following the glucose drink, with no difference in the magnitude of the responses between t = 0-240 min. There was a weak relationship between the iAUC_0-240 min for GIP and GLP-1 in the combined (r = 0.23, P = 0.015) and in the IGT (r = 0.34, P = 0.01), but not in the NGT (r = 0.15, P = 0.14) group.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a weak relationship between oral glucose-induced GIP and GLP-1 secretions in non-diabetic subjects.

Longitudinal Changes in Fasting and Glucose-Stimulated GLP-1 and GIP in Healthy Older Subjects

CONTEXT

It is not known whether glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) levels correlate within individuals, nor whether levels change with age. Previous studies have all been cross-sectional in design.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate longitudinal changes in fasting and glucose-stimulated incretin hormone concentrations in healthy older subjects.

PATIENTS AND DESIGN

Forty-one healthy older subjects had measurements of plasma GLP-1 and GIP while fasting and after a 75-g oral glucose load on two occasions separated by 5.9 ± 0.1 years [mean age at the initial study: 71.2 ± 3.8 (SD) years]. Breath samples were collected to calculate the gastric 50% emptying time (T50).

RESULTS

For GLP-1, both fasting concentrations (P < 0.001) and area under the curve 0 to 120 minutes (P = 0.001) were decreased at followup. Fasting GIP was also lower (P = 0.03) at follow up, but there was no change in the area under the curve 0 to 120 minutes (P = 0.26). The gastric emptying T50 was slower at followup (P = 0.008). Neither the change in T50 nor the body mass index at the initial study was a determinant of the change in incretin responses. Between the two study days, fasting GIP (r = 0.72, P < 0.001) correlated well, but not fasting GLP-1 (r = 0.23, P = 0.18). However, both glucose-stimulated GLP-1 (r = 0.50, P = 0.002) and GIP (r = 0.60, P < 0.001) showed correlations between the initial and follow-up studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Fasting GIP and glucose-stimulated GLP-1 and GIP concentrations correlate within individuals over a follow-up period of ∼5.9 years. Aging is associated with reductions in fasting GLP-1 and GIP, and glucose-stimulated GLP-1, which may predispose to the development of glucose intolerance and type 2 diabetes.

A randomized, crossover study of the acute effects of acarbose and gastric distension, alone and combined, on postprandial blood pressure in healthy older adults

BACKGROUND

Postprandial hypotension (PPH) occurs frequently in the elderly and patients with type 2 diabetes, and lacks a satisfactory treatment. Gastric distension and the α-glucosidase inhibitor, acarbose, may attenuate the postprandial fall in blood pressure (BP) by complementary mechanisms. We aimed to determine whether gastric distension and acarbose have additive effects to attenuate the fall in BP induced by oral sucrose.

METHODS

Ten healthy older adults (74.0 ± 1.4 yr) had measurements of BP and superior mesenteric artery (SMA) blood flow for 120 min after receiving either (i) the 'study drink' of 100 g sucrose in 300 mL of water (control treatment), (ii) a 300 mL water 'preload' 15 min before the 'study drink' (distension treatment), (iii) 100 mg acarbose dissolved in the 'study drink' (acarbose treatment) or (iv) a 300 ml water 'preload' 15 min before 100 mg acarbose dissolved in the 'study drink' (acarbose and distension treatment).

RESULTS

The area under the curve (AUC)_0-120min for mean arterial pressure (MAP) was greater (P = 0.005) and the maximum fall in MAP was less (P = 0.006) during treatments with acarbose. Gastric distension did not affect the MAP-AUC_0-120min response to acarbose (P = 0.44) and there was no effect of gastric distension alone (P = 0.68). Both acarbose treatments attenuated the rise in SMA blood flow (P = 0.003), whereas gastric distension had no effect.

CONCLUSIONS

In healthy older adults, acarbose (100 mg), but not gastric distension, attenuates the fall in BP and rise in SMA blood flow after oral sucrose. The observations support the use of acarbose, but not gastric distension, to attenuate a postprandial fall in BP.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study was retrospectively registered at ( ACTRN12618000152224 ) on February 02nd 2018.

Effects of intraduodenal administration of the artificial sweetener sucralose on blood pressure and superior mesenteric artery blood flow in healthy older subjects

BACKGROUND

Postprandial hypotension (PPH) occurs frequently, particularly in older people and those with type 2 diabetes, and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. The magnitude of the decrease in blood pressure (BP) induced by carbohydrate, fat, and protein appears to be comparable and results from the interaction of macronutrients with the small intestine, including an observed stimulation of mesenteric blood flow. It is not known whether artificial sweeteners, such as sucralose, which are widely used, affect BP.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of intraduodenal sucralose on BP and superior mesenteric artery (SMA) blood flow, compared with intraduodenal glucose and saline (control), in healthy older subjects.

DESIGN

Twelve healthy subjects (6 men, 6 women; aged 66-79 y) were studied on 3 separate occasions in a randomized, double-blind, crossover design. After an overnight fast, subjects had concurrent measurements of BP and heart rate (HR; automated device), SMA blood flow (Doppler ultrasound), and blood glucose (glucometer) during intraduodenal infusion of 1) glucose (25% wt:vol, ∼1400 mOsmol/L), 2) sucralose (4 mmol/L, ∼300 mOsmol/L), or 3) saline (0.9% wt:vol, ∼300 mOsmol/L) at a rate of 3 mL/min for 60 min followed by intraduodenal saline for a further 60 min.

RESULTS

There was a decrease in mean arterial BP (P < 0.001) during intraduodenal glucose [baseline (mean ± SEM): 91.7 ± 2.6 mm Hg compared with t = 60 min: 85.9 ± 2.8 mm Hg] but not during intraduodenal saline or intraduodenal sucralose. The HR (P < 0.0001) and SMA blood flow (P < 0.0001) also increased during intraduodenal glucose but not during intraduodenal saline or intraduodenal sucralose. As expected, blood glucose concentrations increased in response to glucose (P < 0.0001) but not saline or sucralose.

CONCLUSIONS

In healthy older subjects, intraduodenal administration of the artificial sweetener sucralose was not associated with changes in BP or SMA blood flow. Further studies are therefore warranted to determine the potential role for artificial sweeteners as a therapy for PPH. This trial was registered at http://www.ANZCTR.org.au as ACTRN12617001249347.

A novel wireless paper-based potentiometric platform for monitoring glucose in blood

A novel low-cost, compact and sensitive paper-based platform for the accurate monitoring of glucose in biological fluids is presented. Paper-based working and reference electrodes are combined to build a whole potentiometric cell, which also fits a sampling module for simple and fast determination of glucose in a single drop of blood. The working electrode is built using a platinized filter paper coated with a Nafion membrane that entraps the enzyme glucose oxidase; the reference electrode is made by casting a polyvinylbutyral-based membrane onto a conductive paper. The system works by detecting the hydrogen peroxide generated as a result of the enzymatic reaction. Selectivity is achieved due to the permselective behaviour of Nafion, while a significant enhancement of the sensitivity is reached by exploiting the Donnan-coupled formal potential. Under optimum conditions, a sensitivity of -95.9 ± 4.8 mV per decade in the 0.3-3 mM range is obtained. Validation of the measurements has been performed against standard methods in human serum and blood. Final integration with a wireless reader allows for truly in situ measurements with a less than 2 minute procedure including a two-point calibration, washing and measurement. This low-cost analytical device opens up new prospects for rapid diagnostic results in non-laboratory settings.

A Model of Self-Monitoring Blood Glucose Measurement Error

BACKGROUND

A reliable model of the probability density function (PDF) of self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) measurement error would be important for several applications in diabetes, like testing in silico insulin therapies. In the literature, the PDF of SMBG error is usually described by a Gaussian function, whose symmetry and simplicity are unable to properly describe the variability of experimental data. Here, we propose a new methodology to derive more realistic models of SMBG error PDF.

METHODS

The blood glucose range is divided into zones where error (absolute or relative) presents a constant standard deviation (SD). In each zone, a suitable PDF model is fitted by maximum-likelihood to experimental data. Model validation is performed by goodness-of-fit tests. The method is tested on two databases collected by the One Touch Ultra 2 (OTU2; Lifescan Inc, Milpitas, CA) and the Bayer Contour Next USB (BCN; Bayer HealthCare LLC, Diabetes Care, Whippany, NJ). In both cases, skew-normal and exponential models are used to describe the distribution of errors and outliers, respectively.

RESULTS

Two zones were identified: zone 1 with constant SD absolute error; zone 2 with constant SD relative error. Goodness-of-fit tests confirmed that identified PDF models are valid and superior to Gaussian models used so far in the literature.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed methodology allows to derive realistic models of SMBG error PDF. These models can be used in several investigations of present interest in the scientific community, for example, to perform in silico clinical trials to compare SMBG-based with nonadjunctive CGM-based insulin treatments.

Accuracy of devices for self-monitoring of blood glucose: A stochastic error model

Self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) devices are portable systems that allow measuring glucose concentration in a small drop of blood obtained via finger-prick. SMBG measurements are key in type 1 diabetes (T1D) management, e.g. for tuning insulin dosing. A reliable model of SMBG accuracy would be important in several applications, e.g. in in silico design and optimization of insulin therapy. In the literature, the most used model to describe SMBG error is the Gaussian distribution, which however is simplistic to properly account for the observed variability. Here, a methodology to derive a stochastic model of SMBG accuracy is presented. The method consists in dividing the glucose range into zones in which absolute/relative error presents constant standard deviation (SD) and, then, fitting by maximum-likelihood a skew-normal distribution model to absolute/relative error distribution in each zone. The method was tested on a database of SMBG measurements collected by the One Touch Ultra 2 (Lifescan Inc., Milpitas, CA). In particular, two zones were identified: zone 1 (BG≤75 mg/dl) with constant-SD absolute error and zone 2 (BG>75mg/dl) with constant-SD relative error. Mean and SD of the identified skew-normal distributions are, respectively, 2.03 and 6.51 in zone 1, 4.78% and 10.09% in zone 2. Visual predictive check validation showed that the derived two-zone model accurately reproduces SMBG measurement error distribution, performing significantly better than the single-zone Gaussian model used previously in the literature. This stochastic model allows a more realistic SMBG scenario for in silico design and optimization of T1D insulin therapy.

Cassia Cinnamon Supplementation Reduces Peak Blood Glucose Responses but Does Not Improve Insulin Resistance and Sensitivity in Young, Sedentary, Obese Women

Cassia cinnamon has been suggested to lower blood glucose (BG) and serum insulin (SI) due to an improvement in insulin resistance (IR) and sensitivity (IS). This study compared the effects Cassia cinnamon had on calculated IR and IS values and BG and SI in response to an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) in young, sedentary, and obese women. On three separate days, 10 women had a fasted venous blood sample obtained. Participants were given 5 g of encapsulated placebo (PLC) or 5 g of encapsulated Cassia cinnamon bark (CASS). Three hours after the initial blood sample, another blood sample was obtained to calculate values for IS and IR. The participants then completed an OGTT by consuming a 75 g glucose solution. Blood was obtained 30, 60, 90, and 120 min following glucose ingestion. IS and IR were not significantly different between placebo and Cassia (p > .05). The peak BG concentration in response to the OGTT was significantly lower at the 30 min time point for CASS, as compared to PLC (140 ± 5.8 and 156 ± 5.2 mg/dL, p = .025); however, there was no significant difference between treatments for SI (p > .05). The area-under-the-curve responses for BG and SI were not significantly different between PLC and CASS (p > .05). This study suggests that a 5 g dose of Cassia cinnamon may reduce the peak BG response and improve glucose tolerance following an OGTT, but with no improvement in IS and IR in young, sedentary, obese women.

Performance of point-of-care diagnostics for glucose, lactate, and hemoglobin in the management of severe malaria in a resource-constrained hospital in Uganda

Severe malaria is frequently managed without access to laboratory testing. We report on the performance of point-of-care tests used to guide the management of a cohort of 179 children with severe malaria in a resource-limited Ugandan hospital. Correlation coefficients between paired measurements for glucose (i-STAT and One Touch Ultra), lactate (i-STAT and Lactate Scout), and hemoglobin (Hb; laboratory and i-STAT) were 0.86, 0.85, and 0.73, respectively. The OneTouch Ultra glucometer readings deviated systematically from the i-STAT values by +1.7 mmol/L. Lactate Scout values were systematically higher than i-STAT by +0.86 mmol/L. Lactate measurements from either device predicted subsequent mortality. Hb estimation by the i-STAT instrument was unbiased, with upper and lower limits of agreement of -34 and +34 g/L, and it was 91% sensitive and 89% specific for the diagnosis of severe anemia (Hb < 50 g/L). New commercially available bedside diagnostic tools, although imperfect, may expedite clinical decision-making in the management of critically ill children in resource-constrained settings.

Validity of a portable glucose, total cholesterol, and triglycerides multi-analyzer in adults

This study investigated the accuracy and precision of the Accutrend Plus system to determine blood glucose, total cholesterol, and plasma triglycerides in adults and evaluated its efficiency in measuring these blood variables. The sample consisted of 53 subjects (≥ 18 years). For blood variable laboratory determination, venous blood samples were collected and processed in a Labmax 240 analyzer. To measure blood variables with the Accutrend Plus system, samples of capillary blood were collected. In the analysis, the following tests were included: Wilcoxon and Student's t-tests for paired samples, Lin's concordance coefficient, Bland-Altman method, receiver operating characteristic curve, McNemar test, and k statistics. The results show that the Accutrend Plus system provided significantly higher values (p ≤ .05) of glucose and triglycerides but not of total cholesterol (p > .05) as compared to the values determined in the laboratory. However, the system showed good reproducibility (Lin's coefficient: glucose = .958, triglycerides = .992, total cholesterol = .940) and high concordance with the laboratory method (Lin's coefficient: glucose = .952, triglycerides = .990, total cholesterol = .944) and high sensitivity (glucose = 80.0%, triglycerides = 90.5%, total cholesterol = 84.4%) and specificity (glucose = 100.0%, triglycerides = 96.9%, total cholesterol = 95.2%) in the discrimination of high values of the three blood variables analyzed. It could be concluded that despite the tendency to overestimate glucose and triglyceride levels, a portable multi-analyzer is a valid alternative for the monitoring of metabolic disorders and cardiovascular risk factors.

Guidelines and recommendations for laboratory analysis in the diagnosis and management of diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

Multiple laboratory tests are used to diagnose and manage patients with diabetes mellitus. The quality of the scientific evidence supporting the use of these tests varies substantially.

APPROACH

An expert committee compiled evidence-based recommendations for the use of laboratory testing for patients with diabetes. A new system was developed to grade the overall quality of the evidence and the strength of the recommendations. Draft guidelines were posted on the Internet and presented at the 2007 Arnold O. Beckman Conference. The document was modified in response to oral and written comments, and a revised draft was posted in 2010 and again modified in response to written comments. The National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry and the Evidence-Based Laboratory Medicine Committee of the American Association for Clinical Chemistry jointly reviewed the guidelines, which were accepted after revisions by the Professional Practice Committee and subsequently approved by the Executive Committee of the American Diabetes Association.

CONTENT

In addition to long-standing criteria based on measurement of plasma glucose, diabetes can be diagnosed by demonstrating increased blood hemoglobin A(1c) (HbA(1c)) concentrations. Monitoring of glycemic control is performed by self-monitoring of plasma or blood glucose with meters and by laboratory analysis of HbA(1c). The potential roles of noninvasive glucose monitoring, genetic testing, and measurement of autoantibodies, urine albumin, insulin, proinsulin, C-peptide, and other analytes are addressed.

SUMMARY

The guidelines provide specific recommendations that are based on published data or derived from expert consensus. Several analytes have minimal clinical value at present, and their measurement is not recommended.

Guidelines and recommendations for laboratory analysis in the diagnosis and management of diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

Multiple laboratory tests are used to diagnose and manage patients with diabetes mellitus. The quality of the scientific evidence supporting the use of these tests varies substantially.

APPROACH

An expert committee compiled evidence-based recommendations for the use of laboratory testing for patients with diabetes. A new system was developed to grade the overall quality of the evidence and the strength of the recommendations. Draft guidelines were posted on the Internet and presented at the 2007 Arnold O. Beckman Conference. The document was modified in response to oral and written comments, and a revised draft was posted in 2010 and again modified in response to written comments. The National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry and the Evidence Based Laboratory Medicine Committee of the AACC jointly reviewed the guidelines, which were accepted after revisions by the Professional Practice Committee and subsequently approved by the Executive Committee of the American Diabetes Association.

CONTENT

In addition to long-standing criteria based on measurement of plasma glucose, diabetes can be diagnosed by demonstrating increased blood hemoglobin A(1c) (Hb A(1c)) concentrations. Monitoring of glycemic control is performed by self-monitoring of plasma or blood glucose with meters and by laboratory analysis of Hb A(1c). The potential roles of noninvasive glucose monitoring, genetic testing, and measurement of autoantibodies, urine albumin, insulin, proinsulin, C-peptide, and other analytes are addressed.

SUMMARY

The guidelines provide specific recommendations that are based on published data or derived from expert consensus. Several analytes have minimal clinical value at present, and their measurement is not recommended.

Self-monitoring of blood glucose in diabetes: is it worth it?

Self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) is advocated as a valuable aid in the management of diabetes. The volume and cost of monitoring continues to increase. SMBG has a number of theoretical advantages/disadvantages which might impact on treatment, outcome and wellbeing. Investigating and quantifying the effect of self-monitoring in a condition where self-management plays a central role poses major methodological difficulties because of the need to minimize confounding factors. Despite the absence of definitive evidence, some situations where monitoring is generally accepted to be beneficial include patients on insulin, during pregnancy, in patients with hypoglycaemia unawareness and while driving. An area of controversy is the role of monitoring in non-insulin-requiring type-2 diabetes where observational and controlled studies give conflicting results. The available evidence does not support the general use of monitoring by all patients with type-2 diabetes, although further research is needed to identify specific subgroups of patients or specific situations where monitoring might be useful. The best use of SMBG in patients with type-2 diabetes might be for those receiving insulin and those on sulphonylurea drugs. The impact of monitoring on patient wellbeing must also be considered, with some studies suggesting adverse psychological effects. Given the large increase in the prevalence of type-2 diabetes, it will be important to define the role of SMBG so that resources can be used appropriately. Presently, the widespread use of SMBG (particularly in type-2 diabetes patients) is a good example of self-monitoring that was adopted in advance of robust evidence of its clinical efficacy.

Assessing the quality of Bionime self-monitoring blood glucose system Rightest GM110: a critical evaluation of interference and ambient circumstances

BACKGROUND

The key issue in preventing chronic diabetic complications is to maintain near-normoglycemia. Analytical evaluation of Bionime self-monitoring blood glucose (SMBG) Rightest GM110 was carried out in this study.

METHODS

The evaluation was executed according to the Standards for Reporting Diagnostic Accuracy (STARD) and the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). The evaluation procedure mainly focused on analytical performance. The accuracy tests included hematocrit, interferants, temperature, humidity, altitude and clinical evaluations.

RESULTS

Good linearity response (R(2)>0.99) and satisfactory precision (CVs: 1.1-2.8%) were observed in glucose concentrations of 0.6-30.5 mmol/l. In hematocrit test, the Rightest GM110 was suitable for use in sample containing hematocrit in the range of 30-55%. Interfering test indicated that almost all substances tested were insignificant, with bias <10% in medium- and hyper-glycemia samples. Satisfactory stability was also found under various ambient circumstances, with bias within +/-10%. In clinical trials, values within the acceptable zone (A+B) were 100% and values within zone A exceed 95% in error grid analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

The Bionime Rightest GM110 is reliable to display accurate glucose concentrations in specimens with irresistible interfering factors.

Technical and clinical evaluation of a glucose meter employing amperometric biosensor technology

The objective of this study was to assess accuracy and precision of the Optimum H System for measuring glucose in fresh venous whole blood samples. Ninety-one whole blood specimens were analyzed duplicate on two optimum blood glucose meter and compared to YSI reference analyser and Beckman LX20 laboratory analyser. The study demonstrated that the Optimum H System gives clinically accurate, plasma equivalent glucose results for venous samples, compared to the YSI*1.12 reference method. All results were within the clinically acceptable A and B zones of the Parkes error grid, with 98.6% falling within zone A. The mean bias of the Optimum H System versus the YSI*1.12 reference was +5.39%, which is consistent with the strip claim that slightly higher results may be observed when using venous samples. The Optimum H System results showed good precision, with an overall mean CV of 3.0%. Plasma results from the Beckman laboratory analyser correlated well with the YSI*1.12 whole blood reference with a slightly higher mean bias of +3.92%. The study demonstrated the Optimum H System to give clinically accurate and precise results for glucose in fresh venous whole blood samples.

Low levels of awareness of suboptimal health conditions in a high-risk working population: the "better health for better Hong Kong" health promotion campaign

The incidences of cardiovascular risk factors such as obesity and diabetes are rising in many Asian populations. In April 2000, a 5-year territory-wide health promotion campaign supported by Li Ka Shing Foundation was launched in Hong Kong by the Health InfoWorld of Hospital Authority. From the general working class, 4,832 Chinese people were randomly recruited into this campaign. There were 2,370 men (49.0%) and 2,462 women (51.0%; median age = 43.0 years, range = 17-83 years). Of these, 37.5% were obese (BMI > or = 25 kg/m2 or waist circumference > or = 80 cm in women and > or = 90 cm in men), 22.3% had hypertension, 11.6% were smokers, 31.0% had hypercholesterolaemia (total cholesterol > or = 5.2 mmol/l), 2.2% had diabetes, and 0.7% had a past history of cardiovascular disease. There were 1,338 participants (27.7%) who had 2 or more risk factors (more men than women: 36.9% vs. 18.9%, p < .001). Despite this high prevalence of multiple risk factors, most (83.1%) perceived their health status as satisfactory (more men than women: 85.6% vs. 80.7%, p < .001). In conclusion, the combination of high prevalence of multiple risk factors and low levels of awareness of their suboptimal health status herald a looming epidemic of life-threatening diseases in a group of middle-aged Hong Kong people. Massive public education is an important and essential, although it may not be self-sufficient, factor to reduce the socioeconomic impacts of this epidemic.

SPCE based glucose sensor employing novel thermostable glucose dehydrogenase, FADGDH: blood glucose measurement with 150nL sample in one second

BACKGROUND

Self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) is an important component of the modern therapy for diabetes mellitus. Thanks to the current progress in electronics and sensor fabrication technology, both the time and the blood sample volume required for the measurement have decreased drastically. However, devices that work with an even smaller sample volume and a shorter measurement time are in demand.

METHODS

A disposable glucose sensor that works with an ultra-small sample volume was developed employing the novel thermostable glucose-dehydrogenase (FADGDH) complex composed of a catalytic subunit, an electron transfer subunit (cytochrome c), and a small subunit. The electrode is a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE), and hexaammineruthenium (III) chloride (Ru complex) is utilized as the electron mediator. A disposable enzyme sensor was constructed by depositing the FADGDH complex and Ru complex onto the SPCE, and the sensor performance was evaluated.

RESULTS

Whole-blood glucose can be measured within 1 sec using this enzyme sensor and a 150-nL whole-blood sample, with high precision (>0.99br>) and high reproducibility (CV<0.45%br>) within the glucose concentration range of 0-533 mg/dL. The sensor reading was stable for more than 60 days even at 70 degrees C.

CONCLUSIONS

The simplicity of the construction and the high precision of this FADGDH-based glucose biosensor makes it an alternative to previously reported commercially available glucose sensors. Especially the sample volume of 150 nL and the 1-sec measurement time are the highest specifications in the world for currently available glucose sensors designed for the SMBG.

Home-monitoring of blood glucose in cats with diabetes mellitus: evaluation over a 4-month period

Home-monitoring of blood glucose concentrations has recently been introduced to owners. The objectives of this study were to investigate the feasibility of home-monitoring of blood glucose in diabetic cats by owners, the problems encountered and to compare glucose concentrations at home with those measured in the hospital. Twelve of 15 cat owners were able to generate glucose curves over the study period of 4 months. Most problems were related to restraining the cat, generating negative pressure with the lancing device and producing a blood drop. In the majority of cases, these problems could be resolved during the study. Blood glucose concentrations in the clinic tended to be lower than at home; some of the differences were significant. No association between tolerance of the procedure and blood glucose concentrations measured at home was found. We, therefore, assume that the lower glucose levels in the hospital were caused by lack of food intake. In 38% of cases, treatment based on hospital curves would have been different from that based on home curves. Home-monitoring appears to be a valuable tool in the management of cats with diabetes mellitus. One of its major advantages is that it enables frequent generation of blood glucose curves, which is of particular importance in cats that are difficult to regulate.

Home monitoring of blood glucose concentration by owners of diabetic dogs

The objective of this study was to investigate whether home monitoring of blood glucose of diabetic dogs by owners would be possible on a long-term basis. The owners of 12 diabetic dogs were each asked to generate four glucose curves by taking capillary blood samples from their dog's ear, at three- to four-week intervals. Within one week of each curve being produced by the owner, an additional curve was produced by a veterinarian in the hospital. Ten owners were able to generate blood glucose curves; three of them needed a second demonstration, and two telephoned for further guidance. The blood glucose concentrations obtained from the first two 'hospital' curves were significantly lower than those measured at home. Overall, in 42 per cent of cases, the treatment based on the hospital curves would have been different from that based on 'home' curves. The results of this study indicate that the majority of owners were able and willing to perform long-term monitoring of the blood glucose concentrations of their dogs.

Analytical performance of glucometers used for routine glucose self-monitoring of diabetic patients

BACKGROUND

Glucometry is an essential part of diabetes treatment, but so far, no standard quality control procedure verifying blood glucose meter results is available. In this study, we evaluated the analytical performance of eight glucose meters: GX and Esprit (Bayer Diagn.), MediSense Card Sensor, ExacTech (MediSense) with strips Selfcare (Cambridge Diagn), One Touch Basic, One Touch II, One Touch Profile (Lifescan) and Glucotrend (Boehringer Mannheim/Roche).

METHODS

The evaluation included within-run imprecision, linearity, comparison with the laboratory method and calculation of differences between individual glucometers.

RESULTS

Within-run imprecision ranged from 1.5% to 4.5%, linearity assessed as the correlation between measured and calculated glucose concentrations yielded r(2) values from 0.97 to 0.981. Analytical bias of glucose concentration values obtained by the glucometry amounted from 0.14% to 16.9% of values measured by the laboratory method. Bias higher than 5% was found for One Touch Basic, II and Profile meters (however, glucose concentrations in plasma obtained by the laboratory method One Touch meters showed analytical bias from 3.0% to 8.8%). The regression analysis yielded slope values from 0.77 to 1.09 and r(2) values from 0.86 to 0.98. The best correlations with the laboratory method were found for One Touch Basic, II Profile, Glucotrend and Esprit meters. The calculated differences between the individual glucose meters can constitute 0.02-1.49 mmol/l (0.96-26.9%) at glucose concentration 5.55 mmol/l, and 0.16-4.16 mmol/l (0.96-24.96%) at glucose concentration 16.67 mmol/l. Error grid analyses have shown that Glucometers One Touch Basic and One Touch Profile yielded all results in zone A (acceptable). The remaining glucometers yielded 1-7% of results in zones B (insignificant errors), C or D (lack of detection and treatment).

CONCLUSIONS

All studied glucometers had both small deviation from laboratory reference values (<10%) and high concurrence with results obtained by the laboratory method.

Evolution of analytical performance in portable glucose meters in the last decade

OBJECTIVE

To assess and compare the technical accuracy of portable glucose meters during the last decade.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

One-thousand preprandial (pre) and postprandial (post) capillary whole-blood glucose values measured with meters owned mainly by diabetic patients were compared with a single laboratory method yearly from 1989 to 1999. A total of 21,950 capillary measurements and their corresponding laboratory reference values were analyzed at our clinic.

RESULTS

The lowest mean absolute difference was found in 1989 (pre: 2 +/- 22 mg/dl, post: 9 +/- 31 mg/dl) (mean +/- SD). The highest mean absolute difference was observed in 1993 (pre: 31 +/- 33 mg/dl) and 1996 (post: 50 +/- 35 mg/dl). The highest mean relative deviation was observed in 1990 (pre: 16.4%) and 1996 (post: 20.6%). The highest percentage of readings that were within a 5% deviation limit were observed in 1998 (pre: 44.5%) and in 1997 (post: 36.7%). Based on blood glucose levels within +/-5 and +/-10% of laboratory values, the technical accuracy of meters was similar for 1989 and 1999 (P = 0.27 and 0.52, respectively). The percentage of pre values in zone A of Clarke's error grid analysis was >90% in 1989, 1997, 1998, and 1999.

CONCLUSIONS

The analytical performance of glucose meters decreased between 1990 and 1996 but was restored between 1997 and 1999. Nevertheless, our data suggest that the technical accuracy of glucose meters has not significantly improved during the last decade. Complementary studies taking into account the preanalytical improvements of the recent meters, as well as their calibration method, appear necessary.

Instruments for Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose: Comparisons of Testing Quality Achieved by Patients and a Technician

Background: Instruments for self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) are increasingly used by patients with diabetes. The analytical quality of meters in routine use is poorly characterized.

Methods: We compared SMBG performance achieved by patients and by a medical laboratory technician. Imprecision was calculated from duplicate measurements, and deviation as the difference between the first measurement and the mean of duplicate laboratory-method results (calibrated with NIST material). Analytical quality for five groups of SMBG instruments was compared with quality specifications for BG measurements. All participants completed a questionnaire assessing both SMBG training and use of the meters.

Results: We recruited 159 SMBG users from a hospital outpatient clinic and 263 others from 65 randomly selected general practices (total of 422). Most (two thirds) used insulin. CVs for the five meter types were 7%, 11%, 18%, 18%, and 20% in the hands of patients and 2.5–5.9% for the technician. For three of five meter types, patients’ BG measurements had larger deviations from the laboratory results than did the technician’s results. The technician’s performance could not predict the patients’. No instrument when used by patients (but two operated by the technician) met published quality specifications. The analytical quality of patients’ results was not related to whether they had chosen the instruments on advice from healthcare personnel (one-third of patients), were only self-educated in SMBG (50%), or performed SMBG fewer than seven times/week (62%).

Conclusions: The analytical quality of SMBG among patients was poorer than, and could not be predicted from, the performance of the meters in the hands of a technician. We suggest that new instruments be tested in the hands of patients who are trained on meter use in a routine way.

Guidelines and Recommendations for Laboratory Analysis in the Diagnosis and Management of Diabetes Mellitus

Background: Multiple laboratory tests are used in the diagnosis and management of patients with diabetes mellitus. The quality of the scientific evidence supporting the use of these assays varies substantially.

Approach: An expert committee drafted evidence-based recommendations for the use of laboratory analysis in patients with diabetes. An external panel of experts reviewed a draft of the guidelines, which were modified in response to the reviewers’ suggestions. A revised draft was posted on the Internet and was presented at the AACC Annual Meeting in July, 2000. The recommendations were modified again in response to oral and written comments. The guidelines were reviewed by the Professional Practice Committee of the American Diabetes Association.

Content: Measurement of plasma glucose remains the sole diagnostic criterion for diabetes. Monitoring of glycemic control is performed by the patients, who measure their own plasma or blood glucose with meters, and by laboratory analysis of glycated hemoglobin. The potential roles of noninvasive glucose monitoring, genetic testing, autoantibodies, microalbumin, proinsulin, C-peptide, and other analytes are addressed.

Summary: The guidelines provide specific recommendations based on published data or derived from expert consensus. Several analytes are of minimal clinical value at the present time, and measurement of them is not recommended.

The evaluation of analytical performance of the Precision G point-of-care glucometer

In this study analytical and functional performance of the Precision G "point-of-care" glucometer (MediSense Inc.) was evaluated. Studies were carried-out using capillary blood collected for routine monitoring of glycemia in diabetic patients. Each glucose test measurement with the glucometer was paralleled by the laboratory measurement of glucose on the same blood sample, using the GOD/PAP method. Mean accuracy error in the glucose concentration range of 1.1-33.3 mmol/l calculated for the glucometer vs. the laboratory method amounted to only 0.2%. However, for glucose concentrations below 4.4 mmol/l the mean accuracy error was 3.9%, and for the concentrations above 10.0 mmol/l it was 4.6%. Within-run CV for three concentration levels was 2.76%, 2.89%, and 4.22%, respectively. Linearity of the meter response in samples with glucose concentration ranging from 1.7 mmol/l to 16.7 mmol/l, expressed as the correlation coefficient r, yielded r=0.996 and linear regression equation [y1 = 0.996 y2 - 0.005], where y1 is the measured glucose concentration and y2 is the target glucose concentration calculated in diluted samples. Correlation studies on a set of 114 blood samples collected from patients and assayed by glucometer and by the laboratory method yielded a relationship expressed by the equation: y = 0.84x + 1.13 where y is glucometer read-out and x is glucose concentration obtained by the laboratory method. Passing-Bablok test showed a significant agreement between the glucometer measurements and the reference laboratory results in the studied glucose concentration range. The error grid analysis of series of the paired patient's samples showed that 95% of results were in the clinically acceptable zone A and 1% of results in zone D.

The content, integrity, and efficacy of a nurse coaching intervention in type 2 diabetes

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to systematically evaluate the content, integrity, and efficacy of a nurse coaching intervention provided after diabetes education that focused on dietary and exercise lifestyle change in persons with type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

A multimethod design incorporated an interpretive approach to examine the content and integrity of the intervention and a multiple-baseline, single-subject method to determine the preliminary efficacy of the intervention.

RESULTS

The primary strategies of the nurse coaching intervention consisted of facilitating lifestyle change through educational reinforcement, psychosocial support, and motivational guidance. Aggregate quantitative outcomes revealed a modest increase in health-promoting behaviors and a decrease in fasting blood glucose, indicating a trend toward physiologic adaptation. Participants demonstrated a significant increase in integration reflective of psychosocial adaptation.

CONCLUSIONS

Providing individualized nursing care after diabetes education may improve health outcomes and the quality of life of persons newly diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. This multimethod design is a cost-effective approach for preliminary evaluation of complex and/or novel interventions.

Assessment of five portable blood glucose meters for use in cats

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the clinical and analytic accuracy of 5 portable blood glucose meters (PBGM) in cats, with emphasis on the detection of potential sources of error.

ANIMALS

200 cats.

PROCEDURE

Venous blood glucose readings from 5 PBGM were compared with the results of a hexokinase reference method. Agreement among methods was determined by error grid analysis and statistical methods.

RESULTS

A total of 2,975 PBGM readings and 513 reference values were analyzed. The accuracy of the PBGM varied in different glycemic ranges. The largest differences between PBGM readings and reference values were in the high glycemic range; 4 PBGM underestimated and 1 PBGM overestimated the reference values in most instances. In the low and reference glycemic ranges, the absolute differences between PBGM readings and reference values were small. Despite the analytic differences in accuracy, 4 PBGM had 100% and 1 PBGM had 98.7% of readings in the clinically acceptable values of the error grid analysis. Within- and between-day precisions were good for all PBGM. Significant differences were not detected between readings of EDTA and lithium-heparinized blood and fresh blood without anticoagulant. Compared with these blood types, 1 PBGM had significantly different readings with fluoride anticoagulated blood. In blood samples with a low Hct, all PBGM overestimated glucose concentrations. Sample volumes < 3 microl resulted in inaccurate measurements in 3 PBGM.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Performance varied among the 5 PBGM analyzed; however, all PBGM were deemed acceptable for clinical use in cats.

Performance of three blood glucose meters

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the performance of three blood glucose meters.

METHODS

The One Touch II (LifeScan, Milpitas, CA), Glucometer Elite (Bayer, Elkhart, IN), and Accu-Chek Advantage (Boehringer Mannheim, Indianapolis, IN) were compared with a reference laboratory method (Technicon Chem System, Tarrytown, NY). Blood glucose meters used in this study were validated by a clinically oriented approach known as the error grid analysis (EGA), for which the performance of the meters was compared to a laboratory standard, and by the criteria of the American Diabetes Association (ADA). Limits of agreement were evaluated using differences from the reference laboratory method and 95% Cls. Capillary blood was obtained from study participants in fasting state with the morning blood draw and tested on the three meters simultaneously.

RESULTS

A total of 120 blood glucose meter readings were analyzed; values ranged from 62 to 396 mg/dL. For all three meters, at least 75% of the capillary blood glucose values fell into zone A (acceptable) of the EGA. The number of values falling into zone B (unacceptable) were 10, 8, and 6 for the Accu-Chek Advantage, the One Touch II, and the Glucometer Elite, respectively. Only 15-25% of the meter glucose readings met the ADA criteria of being within 5% of the laboratory standard. The mean difference from the reference values was least with the Glucometer Elite.

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of blood glucose determinations obtained on the meters used in this study were within the acceptable limits using the EGA. The Glucometer Elite meter had the fewest values in the unacceptable range and had the least mean difference from reference laboratory values.

Capillary blood sampling from the ear of dogs and cats and use of portable meters to measure glucose concentration

Two new methods for collection of capillary blood from the ear of dogs and cats for the measurement of blood glucose concentration using portable blood glucose meters (PBGMs) are described. The first method uses a lancing device after pre-warming the ear, while the second employs a vacuum lancing device. Both methods generated blood drops of adequate size, although the latter method was faster and easier to perform. Accuracy of the two PBGMs was evaluated clinically and statistically. Although assessment of statistical accuracy revealed differences between the PBGMs and the reference method, all of the PBGM readings were within clinically acceptable ranges. Measurement of capillary blood glucose concentration is easy to perform, inexpensive and fast. It may be used by owners to determine blood glucose concentrations at home, and could serve as a new tool for monitoring diabetic dogs and cats.

Evaluation of five portable blood glucose meters for use in dogs

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate clinical and analytical accuracy of 5 portable blood glucose meters (PBGM) used to measure blood glucose concentrations in dogs and to determine potential sources of error.

DESIGN

Prospective study.

ANIMALS

221 dogs.

PROCEDURE

Venous blood samples were obtained, and results of the 5 PBGM were compared with results of a hexokinase reference method. Agreement among methods was determined by use of error grid analysis and statistical methods.

RESULTS

Accuracy of the PBGM varied with glucose concentration of the sample. The largest differences between results of the PBGM and results of the reference method were obtained with samples with high glucose concentrations; 4 PBGM tended to underestimate and 1 PBGM tended to overestimate the true glucose concentration. Absolute differences between results of the PBGM and results of the reference method were small for samples with low glucose concentrations and samples with concentrations in the reference range. None of the PBGM yielded measurements that would result in clinically unacceptable errors. Within-run and between-day precision was good for all PBGM, and results were not affected by use of EDTA or heparin to anticoagulate blood. Readings of the PBGM were significantly higher for blood samples with low Hct than for samples with normal Hct. For 3 PBGM, samples < 3 microliters resulted in inaccurate measurements.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Results suggest that currently available PBGM are sufficiently accurate for use in clinical practice to determine blood glucose concentrations in dogs.

Newer Portable Glucose Meters—Analytical Improvement Compared with Previous Generation Devices?

Background: Newer glucose meters are easier to use, but direct comparisons with older instruments are lacking. We wished to compare analytical performances of four new and four previous generation meters.

Methods: On average, 248 glucose measurements were performed with two of each brand of meter on capillary blood samples from diabetic patients attending our outpatient clinic. Two to three different lots of strips were used. All measurements were performed by one experienced technician, using blood from the same sample for the meters and the comparison method (Beckman Analyzer 2). Results were evaluated by analysis of clinical relevance using the percentage of values within a maximum deviation of 5% from the reference value, by the method of residuals, by error grid analysis, and by the CVs for measurements in series.

Results: Altogether, 1987 blood glucose values were obtained with meters compared with the reference values. By error grid analysis, the newer devices gave more accurate results without significant differences within the group (zone A, 98–98.5%). Except for the One Touch II (zone A, 98.5%), the other older devices were less exact (zone A, 87–92.5%), which was also true for all other evaluation procedures.

Conclusions: New generation blood glucose meters are not only smaller and more aesthetically appealing but are more accurate compared with previous generation devices except the One Touch II. The performance of the newer meters improved but did not meet the goals of the latest American Diabetes Association recommendations in the hands of an experienced operator.