Global pollution monitoring of butyltin compounds using skipjack tuna as a bioindicator

Effects of Tributyltin-Contaminated Aquatic Environments and Remediated Water on Early Development of Sea Urchin (Hemisentrotus pulcherrimus)

In this study, gametotoxicity and embryotoxicity experiments were performed using Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus to investigate the toxic effects of tributyltin (TBT). The effects of TBT on fertilization and embryogenesis were assessed at various concentrations (0, 0.02, 0.05, 0.09, 0.16, 0.43, 0.73, 4.68, and 9.22 ppb). The fertilization rates decreased in a concentration-dependent manner, with significant reduction following treatment with TBT at 0.05 ppb. Embryos exhibited developmental impairment after TBT exposure at each tested concentration. The frequency of developmental inhibition delay that treatment with TBT delayed embryonic development in a dose-dependent manner, with 100% of embryos exhibiting developmental impairment at 4.68 ppb. During developmental recovery tests, embryos cultured in fresh media without TBT showed advanced embryonic development. Although the observed normal development after transferring the developmentally delayed embryos to fresh media without TBT offers prospects for the restoration of contaminated environments, embryonic development remained incomplete. These results suggest that TBT adversely affects the early embryonic development of H. pulcherrimus.

Arsenic and five metal concentrations in the muscle tissue of bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans

White muscle concentrations of As, Cd, Cu, Fe, Se, and Zn were investigated in Atlantic- and Indian-bigeye tuna (BET) (Thunnus obesus) from 6 regions. As and Cd muscle concentrations were significantly higher in the Indian-BET than in the Atlantic-BET, whereas the Indian-BET caught in the waters off South Africa revealed the highest As, Se, and Zn muscle concentrations. Accordingly, multidimensional scaling separated them into two oceanic groups. Positive linear relationships between muscle Cd concentration and fork length (FL) were established in both oceans. For the other elements, only muscle-Fe and FL relationship was found in the Atlantic-BET. 10.3% of BET > 145 cm FL from both oceans possessed muscle Cd concentrations exceeding the food safety limit (0.1 μg g^-1 wet weight) set by the European Commission. Increased Cd, Cu and Zn pollution was found in the Atlantic Ocean compared with previous data, with higher levels found in the Indian Ocean.

Environmental Impact of Tributyltin-Resistant Marine Bacteria in the Indigenous Microbial Population of Tributyltin-Polluted Surface Sediments

　We compared the TBT-resistant ability of resting cells prepared from isolates that formed colonies on nutrient agar plates containing 100 µM tributyltin (TBT) chloride, such as Photobacterium sp. TKY1, Halomonas sp. TKY2, and Photobacterium sp. NGY1, with those from taxonomically similar type strains. Photobacterium sp. TKY1 showed the highest ability among those three isolates. The number of surviving Photobacterium sp. TKY1 cells was hardly decreased after 1 h of exposure to 100 µM TBTCl, regardless of the number of resting cells in the range from 10^9.4 to 10^4.2 CFU mL^-1. In such an experimental condition, the maximum number of TBT molecules available to associate with a single cell was estimated to be approximately 6.0 x 10^11.8. Resting cells prepared from type strains Photobacterium ganghwense JCM 12487^T and P. halotolerans LMG 22194^T, which have 16S rDNA sequences highly homologous with those of Photobacterium sp. TKY1, showed sensitivity to TBT, indicating that TBT-resistant marine bacterial species are not closely related in spite of their taxonomic similarity. We also estimated the impact of TBT-resistant bacterial species to indigenous microbial populations of TBT-polluted surface sediments. The number of surviving TBT-sensitive Vibrio natriegens ATCC 14048^T cells, 10^6.2±0.3 CFU mL^-1, was reduced to 10^4.4±0.4 CFU mL^-1 when TBT-resistant Photobacterium sp. TKY1 cells, 10^9.1±0.2 CFU mL^-1, coexisted with 10^9.4±0.2 CFU mL^-1 of V. natriegens ATCC 14048^T cells in the presence of 100 µM TBTCl. These results indicate that the toxicity of TBT to TBT-sensitive marine bacterial populations might be enhanced when a TBT-resistant marine bacterial species inhabits TBT-polluted surface sediments.

Occurrence of persistent organic pollutants in sediments and biota from Portugal versus European incidence: A critical overview

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are widespread compounds, such as organohalogenated compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and pesticides, which can be found in all types of environmental compartments. Their presence in the aquatic environment is a worldwide problem, with emphasis on sediments which act as depository and consequently as a source of hydrophobic, recalcitrant and harmful compounds. Besides, these pollutants might affect the reproduction and mortality of living organisms, diverging in their potential to bioaccumulate in tissues. The present paper aims to review the occurrence of POPs in sediments and biota from the coastal, estuarine and river areas of Portugal. The list of the studied compounds comprises organohalogenated compounds, PAHs, organometallic compounds, pesticides, sterols, fatty acids and pharmaceutical compounds. The contamination of sediments by various pollutants is presented, such as PAHs up to 7,350 ng g(-1) found in Sado estuary and polychlorinated biphenyls up to 62.2 ng g(-1) in the case of sediments collected in Ria de Aveiro. The occurrence of these persistent toxic substances in sediments demonstrates aquatic contamination from agricultural, industrial and urban discharges and the concern about the potential risks to aquatic organisms, wildlife and humans. In fact, several classes of POPs have also been found in biota, such as polychlorinated biphenyls up to 810.9 ng g(-1) in sentinel fish from the Douro River estuary and pesticides in bivalves from the Sado River estuary. The importance of further systematic research on sediments and biota is here highlighted to compare the contamination of these two reservoirs; to assess their spatial and temporal variation; and to determine other classes of POPs that were not investigated yet (e.g., industrial compounds, estrogens and many classes of pharmaceuticals).

Recent status of organohalogens, heavy metals and PAHs pollution in specific locations in India

Our group of scientists at the Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, Japan has been carrying-out studies in India from the 1980s on chemicals contamination. Due to its agrarian economy, use of fossil fuels, industries, growing population and urbanization, chemicals such as pesticides, dioxins and related chemicals (DRCs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs), heavy metals, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widely spread in India. We have published a review (Subramanian and Tanabe, 2007) covering papers published until 2005, on India. A decade had passed and this is the time to provide an update of the spatial and temporal changes during this period and hence this review. At many instances organochlorines such as DDTs and HCHs showed decreasing trends even though they are still at considerable levels. Novel chemicals such as PCDDs/Fs are seen at municipal solid waste dumping sites of India at levels equivalent to similar locations of the developed world. In the e-waste processing sites in India, especially the informal ones, apart from PCDDs/Fs, some brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and heavy metals were present as contaminants. Metro cities of India showed location specific contamination by HCHs, DDTs, PCDDs/Fs, BFRs, PAHs, etc. Coastal regions of India seem to be still unpolluted when compared to the nearby inland locations. This review is concerned mainly with the chemicals that we (CMES) have been evaluating in India in the past three decades. We suggest the importance of further studies, future directions for policy decisions and also for implementing control measures.

Tributyltin distribution and producing androgenic activity in water, sediment, and fish muscle

This study investigated the concentrations of Tributyltin (TBT) in water, sediment, and fish muscle samples taken from Kaohsiung Harbor and Kaoping River estuary, Taiwan. TBT concentrations in water and sediment samples ranged from less than 18.5 to 34.1 ng Sn L(-1) and from 2.44 to 29.7 ng Sn g(-1) weight per weight (w/w), respectively. Concentrations in the TBT-contaminated fish muscle samples ranged from 10.8 to 79.6 ng Sn g(-1) w/w. The TBT concentrations in fish muscle were higher than those in water and sediment samples. The fish muscle/water TBT bioconcentration factor (BCF) ranged from 590 to 3363 L kg(-1). Additionally, the water samples were assessed for androgenic activity with an MCF7-AR1 human breast cancer cell line. The androgenic activity ranged from 0.94 to 3.1 ng-dihydrotestosterone per litre water (ng-DHT L(-1)). Higher concentrations of TBT in water and sediment samples occurred in the dry season, but the androgenic activity had higher values in the rainy season.

YgiW homologous gene from Pseudomonas aeruginosa 25W is responsible for tributyltin resistance

A tributyltin (TBT) resistance gene was isolated from the TBT-resistant marine origin bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa 25W. This gene was identical to PA0320 deposited in the P. aeruginosa PAO1 database (http://www.pseudomonas.com). The deduced amino acid sequence of PA0320 appears to be homologous to the YgiW proteins of Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica. The deletion mutant of PA0320 showed a reduction of growth rate in the presence of TBT. A susceptibility test to cadmium, mercury, hydrogen peroxide and acidic pH in the deletion mutant showed an increasing susceptibility to them. PA0320 plays a certain role in stress tolerance against TBT as well as in stressors producing reactive oxygen species.

Ecotoxicological evaluation of tributyltin toxicity to the equilateral venus clam, Gomphina veneriformis (Bivalvia: Veneridae)

Tributyltin (TBT) is the most common pesticide in marine and freshwater environments. To evaluate the potential ecological risk posed by TBT, we measured biological responses such as growth rate, gonad index, sex ratio, the percentage of intersex gonads, filtration rate, and gill abnormalities in the equilateral venus clam (Gomphina veneriformis). Additionally, the biochemical and molecular responses were evaluated in G. veneriformis exposed to various concentrations of TBT. The growth of G. veneriformis was significantly delayed in a dose-dependent manner after exposure to all tested TBT concentrations. After TBT was administered to G. veneriformis, the gonad index decreased and the sex balance was altered. The percentage of intersex gonads also increased significantly in treated females, whereas no intersex gonads were detected in the solvent control group. Additionally, intersex gonads were detected in male G. veneriformis specimens exposed to relatively high TBT concentrations (20 μg L⁻¹). The filtration rate was also reduced in a dose-dependent manner in TBT-exposed G. veneriformis. We also noted abnormal gill morphology in TBT-exposed G. veneriformis. Furthermore, increases in antioxidant enzyme activities were observed in TBT-exposed G. veneriformis clams, regardless of dosage. Vitellogenin gene expression also increased significantly in a dose-dependent manner in G. veneriformis exposed to TBT. These results provide valuable information regarding our understanding of the toxicology of TBT in G. veneriformis. Moreover, the responses of biological and molecular factors could be utilized as information for risk assessments and marine monitoring of TBT toxicity.

Characterization of PBDEs in soils and vegetations near an e-waste recycling site in South China

The concentration and composition of PBDEs in the soils and plants near a typical e-waste recycling site in South China were investigated. The total concentration of PBDEs (ΣPBDEs) in soil ranged from 4.8 to 533 ng/g dry wt. The ΣPBDEs in vegetation were from 2.1 to 217 ng/g dry wt. For the vegetable, the highest concentration of 19.9 ng/g dry wt. was observed in the shoot of Brassica alboglabra L. BDE 209 was the predominant congener in all samples. In comparison with other e-waste contaminated sites in China, lower concentrations of PBDEs and higher concentrations of PCBs were observed in both soils and plants suggesting different e-waste types involved in the present study. The PBDEs contaminated vegetables around the e-waste dismantling site may pose a potential health risk to the local inhabitants.

The cytotoxic and genetoxic effects of dust and soil samples from E-waste recycling area on L02 cells

Electrical and electronic waste (E-waste) has now become the fastest growing solid waste around the world. Primitive recycling operations for E-waste have resulted in severe contamination of toxic metals and organic chemicals in the related areas. In this study, six dust and soil samples collected from E-waste recycling workshops and open-burning sites in Longtang were analyzed to investigate their cytotoxicity and genotoxicity on L02 cells. These six samples were: dust No. 1 collected at the gate of the workshop; dust No. 2 collected from air conditioning compressor dismantling site; dust No. 3 collected from where some motors, wires, and aluminium products since the 1980s were dismantled; soil No. 1 collected at the circuit board acid washing site; soil No. 2 collected from a wire open-burning site; soil No. 3 collected near a fiber open-burning site. At the same time, two control soil samples were collected from farmlands approximately 8 km away from the dismantling workshops. The results showed that all of these samples could inhibit cell proliferation and cause cell membrane lesion, among which dust No. 3 and soil No. 2 had the strongest toxicity. Moreover, the comet assay showed that the dust No. 3 had the most significant capability to cause DNA single-strand beaks (SSB), while the road dust (dust No. 1) collected at the gate of the workshop, a relatively farer site, showed the slightest capability to induce DNA SSB. The intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) detection showed that ROS level was elevated with the increase of dust and soil samples concentration. Dust No. 3 and soil No. 2 had the highest ROS level, followed by dust No. 2 and 1, soil No. 3 and 1. All of the above results indicated that polluted soil and dust from the E-waste area had cytotoxicity and genotoxicity on L02 cells, the mechanism might involve the increased ROS level and consequent DNA SSB.

Interspecies differences in the accumulation of tributyltin and its metabolites under dietary exposure in sea perch, Lateolabrax japonicus, and red sea bream, Pagrus major

Interspecies differences in the accumulation of dietary tributyltin (TBT) between sea perch, Lateolabrax japonicus, and red sea bream, Pagrus major, were studied. Although TBTs in both species reached steady-state condition in low-concentration group (L-group, 200 ng/g nominal concentration) by 1 week, it increased up to the end of exposure in high-concentration group (H-group, 3000 ng/g nominal concentration). In H-group, the accumulation rate of TBT in sea perch from 1 to 2 weeks was much higher than in red sea bream, which were 2.4-fold for sea perch and 1.7-fold for red sea bream, although TBT concentrations were similar between sea perch and red sea bream in L-group. Furthermore, in the H-group, the concentrations of TBT at 1 and 2 weeks were about 1.3- and 1.9-fold, respectively, higher in the sea perch than in the red sea bream. On the other hand, DBT residue in red sea bream was about 1.4-fold higher in sea perch for the L-group but concentrations were similar in both fishes for the H-group. These results suggest that red sea bream could metabolize faster the TBT to DBT than sea perch. This study also reveals that fish probably could absorb TBT through the food chain. The uptake of TBT by fish should be regarded in the real environment, because TBT concentration in seawater has been decreasing and now already at significantly low level.

Induction of tributyltin-binding protein type 2 in Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus, by exposure to tributyltin-d27

In this study, individual Japanese flounder were intraperitoneally injected with 2 μg tributyltin-d27 (TBT-d27) fish⁻¹. Blood samples were collected on day 7 after injection. TBT-binding protein types 1 and 2 (TBT-bp1, -bp2) in the blood serum were quantified by western blotting analysis. As a result, the concentration of TBT-bp2 in TBT-d27 treated group increased to 220% of that in the solvent control, whereas the TBT-bp1 concentration decreased to 65% of that in the solvent control. Additionally, a positive relationship between the concentrations of TBT-bp2 and TBT was observed in blood sera of wild and cultured flounder. We suggest that TBT-bp2 is produced in response to TBT exposure and may play an important role in fish physiology.

Butyltin accumulation in marine bivalves under field conditions in Taiwan

This study aimed to characterize the butyltin bioaccumulation in a simple food chain under varied conditions. Significant trophic level magnification factors of tributyltin (21.5-1546) were observed in two filter-feeders, oysters (Crassostrea gigas) and mussels (Perna viridis), in an environment with low tributyltin pollution levels (0.4-13.1 ng L(-1) as tin). Both of these bivalve species showed higher bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) of tributyltin under low pollution levels, while smaller magnification factors (5.4-6.4), an up-regulated tributyltin metabolism and smaller BAFs of tributyltin were found in oysters at higher tributyltin pollution levels (39.6-99.3 ng L(-1) as tin). Unlike oysters, mussels cannot up-regulate their tributyltin metabolism, which caused a dramatic change in butyltin accumulation between oysters and mussels as tributyltin pollution levels increased. In addition, higher BAF values of tributyltin were also obtained under the water summer conditions when higher temperatures and phytoplankton contents, and lower tributyltin pollution levels were observed.

Enhanced inhibitory effects of TBT chloride on the development of F1 rats

Neurotoxicity is one of the major effects of tributyltin (TBT). The effects on the next generation of F(1) rats exposed to TBT via the placenta and their dams' milk may be stronger than those on adults. Pregnant Wister rats were exposed to TBT at 0 and 125 ppm in their food. Half of the female F(1) rats in both groups were exposed to TBT at 125 ppm in their food from 9 to 15 weeks of age. Female F(1) rats were divided into the following groups: the control-control (CC) group, with no exposure; the TBT-control (TC) group, exposed to TBT via the placenta and their dams' milk; the control-TBT (CT) group, exposed to TBT via their food from 9 to 15 weeks of age; and the TBT-TBT (TT) group, exposed to TBT via the placenta, their dams' milk, and their food (n = 10/group). After administration, an open-field test and prepulse inhibition (PPI) test were performed at 15 weeks of age. The mean body weights of the TC and TT groups were significantly lower than that of the CC group from 9 to 15 weeks of age. The mean relative thymus weight of the TC and TT groups was significantly lower than that of the CC group. In the open-field test, a marked decrease in the total locomotion distance was observed in the TT group. The mean values in the TT and TC groups were significantly lower than that in the CC group. For the locomotion distance between 15 and 20 min, the mean values in the CT, TC, and TT groups were significantly lower than that in the CC group. The mean locomotor distance between 25 and 30 min in the TT group was significantly lower than that in the CC and TC groups. The mean values of instances of wall rearing in the TC, CT, and TT groups were significantly lower than that in the CC group. The mean value of face washing or body washing in the TT group was significantly lower than that in the CT group. There were no significant differences in indexes of the PPI test. Exposure to TBT via the placenta and their dams' milk inhibited the development of F(1) rats, which continued after weaning. Inhibition of the rats' activity induced by exposure to TBT via the placenta and their dams' milk and/or via their food was suggested. The effects were most evident in the TT group.

Temporal and spatial trends of organotin contamination in the livers of finless porpoises (Neophocaena phocaenoides) and their association with parasitic infection status

Organotins (OTs) are globally ubiquitous contaminants. Contamination of OTs, particularly butyltins (BTs), has been suspected to cause immunosuppressive effects leading to subsequent infectious diseases or opportunistic infection by pathogens in marine mammals. In the present study, we collected individuals from five different populations of finless porpoises (Neophocaena phocaenoides) from coastal areas of Japan (Seto Inland Sea, Ise Bay, Omura Bay, and Pacific coast) and Hong Kong, and measured OT concentrations in their livers. In addition, infection status of lung nematodes and liver trematodes was also observed to analyze the relationship between OT contamination and parasitic infection in finless porpoises. Hepatic OT concentrations were highest in the Hong Kong population, while levels in the Japanese populations were equivalent to those of other cetaceans from different locations. OT levels in Japan have been decreasing in the past few decades, while OT contamination has shown little improvement in Hong Kong. Observation of parasite infection in Seto Inland Sea porpoises revealed that 16 and 11 out of 22 individuals were infected by lung nematodes and liver trematodes, respectively. Additionally, a significant association between BT levels and parasitic infection status of lung nematodes was detected. Thus, the present study suggests that BTs could be a factor affecting parasitic infection, especially the presence or severity of lung nematodes in finless porpoises. Since chemical exposure may alter the susceptibility of organisms to infectious diseases, the interaction of chemical contamination with infectious diseases needs to be investigated in greater depth to understand the risk of population decline due to these factors in marine mammals.

Distribution of synthetic organotins and total tin levels in Mytilus galloprovincialis along the Portuguese coast

Despite the huge amount of literature available on butyltins (BuTs), few studies addressed the environmental levels of phenyltins (PhTs), octyltins (OcTs) and total tin (Sn(T)) in environmental samples. In 2006 a mussel watch survey was developed for the Portuguese coast (total of 29 sampling sites) in order to describe the concentrations of BuTs , PhTs, OcTs and Sn(T) in the whole tissues of Mytilus galloprovincialis (Lamarck, 1819). BuTs were detected in all analyzed samples accounting, in average, for 98.6% of total organotins (Sigma OTs=BuTs+PhTs+OcTs), and presented highest values in the vicinity of harbors. Tributyltin (TBT) was the dominant butyltin, representing, in average, 62% of summation operatorBuTs (Sigma BuTs=TBT+DBT+MBT) suggesting that fresh inputs of TBT are still occurring in the Portuguese coast, particularly near harbors. The contribution of organotin compounds derived from antifouling paints to the total tin levels in M. galloprovincialis is discussed.

Detection of agonistic activities against five human nuclear receptors in river environments of Japan using a yeast two-hybrid assay

A total of 16 water samples from four rivers in Japan were examined for their agonistic activities against five human nuclear receptors (estrogen receptor [ER] alpha, thyroid hormone receptor alpha, retinoic acid receptor [RAR] alpha, retinoid X receptor alpha, and vitamin D receptor) by using a yeast two-hybrid assay. The results suggest that the river environment is contaminated with endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that can interact with a variety of nuclear receptors and that contamination with those that have RAR agonistic activity may be more serious than contamination with well-known EDCs that act as ER agonists.

Accelerator analysis of tributyltin adsorbed onto the surface of a tributyltin resistant marine Pseudoalteromonas sp. cell

Tributyltin (TBT) released into seawater from ship hulls is a stable marine pollutant and obviously remains in marine environments. We isolated a TBT resistant marine Pseudoalteromonas sp. TBT1 from sediment of a ship's ballast water. The isolate (10(9.3 +/- 0.2) colony-forming units mL(-1)) adsorbed TBT in proportion to the concentrations of TBTCl externally added up to 3 mM, where the number of TBT adsorbed by a single cell was estimated to be 10(8.2). The value was reduced to about one-fifth when the lysozyme-treated cells were used. The surface of ethanol treated cells became rough, but the capacity of TBT adsorption was the same as that for native cells. These results indicate that the function of the cell surface, rather than that structure, plays an important role to the adsorption of TBT. The adsorption state of TBT seems to be multi-layer when the number of more than 10(6.8) TBT molecules is adsorbed by a single cell.

Implications of the ban on organotins for protection of global coastal and marine ecology

Organotin-based antifouling paints are highly effective against most fouling organisms, and their application results in a large amount of savings for the shipping industry. On the other hand, TBT (tributyltin) in antifouling paints is described as the most toxic substance ever introduced into the marine environment. Consequential environmental impacts of TBT led to its regulation in many countries, although concerns were raised regarding the complete prohibition of organotin-based compounds in antifouling paints. Serious concerns were also raised regarding the complete banning of organotins. After long deliberations, the AFS Convention (convention to control the use of harmful antifouling systems on ships) was adopted on 5 October 2001. The Convention, which prohibits the use of harmful organotins in antifouling paints used on ships, will enter into force on 17 September 2008. In view of the concerns raised against the prohibition of organotin-based compounds in antifouling paints, this paper focuses on a review of the AFS Convention, with a gap analysis on the difficulties in implementation of the Convention. It also offers some recommendations for improved policies.

Tributyltin-binding protein type 1 has a distinctive lipocalin-like structure and is involved in the excretion of tributyltin in Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus

Tributyltin-binding protein type 1 (TBT-bp1) is a newly discovered protein that binds with TBT in the blood of the Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus. We determined the genomic sequence of TBT-bp1 and found that this protein has a conserved exon-intron structure that is common to the lipocalin protein family. The secondary and tertiary structures of TBT-bp1, predicted from amino acid sequence, included at least two alpha-helices and eight beta-sheets that are conserved in all lipocalins and form a barrel structure that may bind with ligands. Analysis of the gene structure, secondary structure, and tertiary structure demonstrated that TBT-bp1 could be classified as a lipocalin. A homology search revealed the presence of TBT-bp1-like proteins in eight species of teleost. When flounder were injected intraperitoneally with TBT-d27 at 11.6mug/fish, TBT-d27 was detected in the blood and in the skin mucus. The concentration of TBT-d27 in mucus was approximately 1/100 of that in the serum. Western blotting analysis revealed that TBT-bp1 was present in the skin mucus. These results suggest that TBT-bp1 in Japanese flounder binds with TBT and is excreted from the body via the mucus.

Bioaccumulation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in wild aquatic species from an electronic waste (e-waste) recycling site in South China

Water and several wild aquatic species including Chinese mysterysnail, prawn, fish, and water snake were collected from a reservoir surrounded by several e-waste recycling workshops in South China. The samples were examined to investigate the levels and bioaccumulation extent of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) released from electronic waste (e-waste) which was processed by crude recycling method. Elevated levels of PBDEs [52.7 to 1702 ng/g wet weight (ww)] and PCBs (20.2-25958 ng/g ww) were found in the collected biota species compared to that in the reference samples (13.0-20.5 ng/g ww for PBDEs and 75.4-82.8 ng/g ww for PCBs). log BAF (bioaccumulation factor) ranged from 2.9 to 5.3 for PBDEs and from 1.2 to 8.4 for PCBs, depending on congeners and species. The relationship between log BAFs and log K(OW) (octanol-water partition coefficient) can be adequately described by species-specific parabolic models wherein log BAFs generally increased at log K(OW)<7 then decreased with further increasing log K(OW) both for PBDEs and PCBs. The exceptions were for Chinese mysterysnail and prawn, in which the log BAFs showed a positive linear correlation with log K(OW) for PBDEs. Some PBDE and PCB congeners showed BAF values declining from the general trend predicted by K(OW), largely attributing to metabolism of these congeners in species sampled.

Skipjack tuna as a bioindicator of contamination by perfluorinated compounds in the oceans

Perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) have emerged as global environmental contaminants. Studies have reported the widespread occurrence of PFCs in biota from marine coastal waters and in remote polar regions. However, few studies have reported the distribution of PFCs in biota from offshore waters and open oceans. In this study, concentrations of nine PFCs were determined in the livers of 60 skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) collected from offshore waters and the open ocean along the Pacific Rim, including the Sea of Japan, the East China Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Western North Pacific Ocean, during 1997-1999. At least one of the nine PFCs was found in every tuna sample analyzed. Overall, perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) were the predominant compounds found in livers of tuna at concentrations of <1-58.9 and <1-31.6 ng/g, wet wt, respectively. Long-chain perfluorocarboxylates such as perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) and perfluorododecanoic acid (PFDoDA) were common in the tuna livers. In livers of tuna from several offshore and open-ocean locations, concentrations of PFUnDA were greater than the concentrations of PFOS. The profiles and concentrations of PFCs in tuna livers suggest that the sources in East Asia are dominated by long-chain perfluorocarboxylates, especially PFUnDA. High concentrations of PFUnDA in tuna may indicate a shift in sources of PFCs in East Asia. The spatial distribution of PFOS in skipjack tuna reflected the concentrations previously reported in seawater samples from the Pacific and Indian Oceans, suggesting that tuna are good bioindicators of pollution by PFOS. Despite its predominance in ocean waters, PFOA was rarely found in tuna livers, indicative of the low bioaccumulation potential of this compound. Our study establishes baseline concentrations of PFCs in skipjack tuna from the oceans of the Asia-Pacific region, enabling future temporal trend studies of PFCs in oceans.

Adsorption of tributyltin by tributyltin resistant marine Pseudoalteromonas sp. cells

The isolate, Pesudoalteromonas sp. TBT1, could grow to overcome the toxicity of tributyltin chloride (TBTCl) up to 30 microM in the absence of Cl(-) in the medium until the cells reached an exponential phase of growth. The viability, however, was reduced after the cells reached a stationary phase. The degradation products, such as dibutyltin (DBT) and monobutyltin (MBT), were not detected in the growth medium, indicating that the isolate has no ability to degrade TBT into less toxic DBT and MBT. Up to about 10(7.5) TBT molecules were adsorbed by a single cell. The observation of morphological changes with an electron microscope showed that the cell surface became wrinkled after exposure to the lethal concentration of 10 mM TBTCl. These results indicate that the resistance of the isolate toward the toxicity of TBTCl is not related to the unique cell surface, which seems to play an important role in preventing the diffusion of TBTCl into the cytoplasm.

Biomarkers of Contaminant Exposure in Chub (Leuciscus cephalus L.) - Biomonitoring of Major Rivers in the Czech Republic

Biochemical analysis of organisms to assess exposure to environmental contaminants is of great potential use. Biochemical markers, specifically liver enzymes of the first and the second phase of xenobiotic transformation - cytochrome P₄₅₀ (CYP 450), ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD), glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and tripeptide reduced glutathione (GSH) - were used to assess contamination of the aquatic environment at 12 locations near the mouths of major rivers in the Czech Republic. These rivers were the Lužnice, Otava, Sázava, Berounka, Vltava, Labe, Ohře, Svratka, Dyje, Morava and Odra. The indicator species selected was the Chub (Leuciscus cephalus L.). The highest levels of CYP 450 and EROD catalytic activity were found in livers of fish from the Labe (Obříství; (0.32±0.10 nmol mg⁻¹ protein and 1061.38±545.51 pmol min⁻¹ mg⁻¹ protein, respectively). The highest levels of GST catalytic activity and GSH content were found in fish from the Otava (35.39±13.35 nmol min⁻¹ mg⁻¹ protein and 4.29±2.10 nmol GSH mg⁻¹ protein, respectively). They were compared with levels of specific inductors of these biochemical markers in muscle. The results confirmed contamination of some river locations (Labe Obříství, Svratka;.

Development and application of an ultratrace method for speciation of organotin compounds in cryogenically archived and homogenized biological materials

An accurate, ultra-sensitive and robust method for speciation of mono, di, and tributyltin (MBT, DBT, and TBT) by speciated isotope-dilution gas chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (SID-GC-ICPMS) has been developed for quantification of butyltin concentrations in cryogenic biological materials maintained in an uninterrupted cryo-chain from storage conditions through homogenization and bottling. The method significantly reduces the detection limits, to the low pg g(-1) level (as Sn), and was validated by using the European reference material (ERM) CE477, mussel tissue, produced by the Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements. It was applied to three different cryogenic biological materials-a fresh-frozen mussel tissue (SRM 1974b) together with complex materials, a protein-rich material (whale liver control material, QC03LH03), and a lipid-rich material (whale blubber, SRM 1945) containing up to 72% lipids. The commutability between frozen and freeze-dried materials with regard to spike equilibration/interaction, extraction efficiency, and the absence of detectable transformations was carefully investigated by applying complementary methods and by varying extraction conditions and spiking strategies. The inter-method results enabled assignment of reference concentrations of butyltins in cryogenic SRMs and control materials for the first time. The reference concentrations of MBT, DBT, and TBT in SRM 1974b were 0.92 +/- 0.06, 2.7 +/- 0.4, and 6.58 +/- 0.19 ng g(-1) as Sn (wet-mass), respectively; in SRM 1945 they were 0.38 +/- 0.06, 1.19 +/- 0.26, and 3.55 +/- 0.44 ng g(-1), respectively, as Sn (wet-mass). In QC03LH03, DBT and TBT concentrations were 30.0 +/- 2.7 and 2.26 +/- 0.38 ng g(-1) as Sn (wet-mass). The concentration range of butyltins in these materials is one to three orders of magnitude lower than in ERM CE477. This study demonstrated that cryogenically processed and stored biological materials are a promising alternative to conventional freeze-dried materials for organotin speciation analysis, because these are, at present, the best conditions for minimizing degradation of thermolabile species and for long-term archival. Finally, the potential of the analytical method was illustrated by analysis of polar bear (Ursus maritimus) and beluga whale (Delphinapterus leuca) liver samples that had been collected in the Arctic and archived at the Marine Environmental Specimen Bank. Significant concentrations of butyltin compounds were found in the samples and provide the first evidence of the presence of this class of contaminant in the Arctic marine ecosystem. Figure Eye catch image.

Alteration of monoamine concentrations in the brain of medaka, Oryzias latipes, exposed to tributyltin

We measured the concentrations of monoamines in the brain of Japanese medaka, Oryzias latipes, exposed to tributyltin (TBT). Fish were exposed to 0, 1, 5, 25, or 125 microg g(-1) of TBT via the diet for 21 days. After the administration period, six males and six females in each treatment group were dissected and their brains were collected. The following monoamines were analyzed: dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (NE), epinephrine (E), and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). The metabolites of DA, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid and homovanilic acid, and the metabolite of 5-HT, 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid were also analyzed. The concentration of DA in the brain of male medaka and the concentrations of 5-HT and NE in the female brains were significantly decreased by exposure to 125 microg TBT g(-1). The concentrations of 5-HT and NE in males and of DA in females were slightly decreased by 125 micrg g(-1) of TBT, although the differences were not statistically significant. The present study demonstrates that TBT alters monoamine concentrations in the brain of medaka.

Effects of tributyltin, benzo[a]pyrene, and their mixture on antioxidant defense systems in Sebastiscus marmoratus

It has been reported that there is a metabolic interaction between tributyltin (TBT), an organometal used as an antifouling biocide, and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), a widespread carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon. This study was therefore designed to examine the potential in vivo influence of TBT, BaP, and their mixture on hepatic antioxidant defense systems of Sebastiscus marmoratus, which were given a single ip injection of TBT (0.5, 1, 5, and 10mg/kg), BaP (0.5, 1, 5, and 10mg/kg), or both in combination (0.5, 1, 5, and 10mg/kg); control fish received olive oil vehicle only. Samples were collected for biochemical analysis after injection for 7 days. Cotreatment with BaP caused a significant inhibition of TBT-mediated malondialdehyde contents elevation. Cotreatment with TBT decreased BaP-mediated glutathione peroxidase activity induction. Cotreatment with TBT and BaP did not significantly alter the reduced glutathione levels, which were significantly induced by TBT or BaP alone. TBT-induced suppression of BaP bioactivation or BaP-induced stimulation of the phase II metabolism of TBT and its biliary excretion, both of which have been reported previously, could explain the observed antagonism. The results suggest that combined exposure of TBT and BaP increases the vulnerability of the fish to oxidative stress. BaP cotreatment decreased the induction of glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity by the lower dose of TBT, while cotreatment with TBT and BaP at the highest dose (10mg/kg) resulted in inhibition of the GST activity by 4.8-fold. The results suggest that these biomarkers should be interpreted with caution in biomonitoring studies. Combined effects of TBT and BaP exposure at environmental levels on these biomarkers should be further researched.

Factors influencing organotin distribution in different marine environmental compartments, and their potential health risk

Tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPT) in different marine environmental compartments such as seawater, sediments, and inshore fishes were investigated in 21 Taiwanese harbors between 2001 and 2004 in order to determine the major factors influencing their distribution. The existence of major input sources and the limited water exchange rate inside the harbors were indicated by higher TBT concentrations in seawater from inner harbor than from outer harbor areas. The levels of TBT in sediments were found to be mainly affected by their geographic distribution, water exchange rates and shipping activity. No significant correlations in TBT concentrations between water, sediment and fish suggested TBT accumulation by fish might not result from water and sediment, but from their food. TPT were detected in most fish samples, but found in few sediment samples and none in seawater, indicating fish could be as a target element for monitoring contaminated levels of TPT in the aquatic environment. Mean concentrations of TBT in fish muscle higher than tolerable average residue levels (TARLs), and mean hazard indices of TBT and TPT higher than 1 suggested consumption of fishes from Taiwanese harbor areas might have potential high risk to human health.

Tributyltin contamination of bivalves in coastal areas around northern Kyushu, Japan

We determined tributyltin (TBT) concentrations in bivalve samples of blue mussel (Myitlus edulis), Manila clam (Ruditapes philippinarum) and pen shell (Atrina pectinata) collected from coastal areas around northern Kyushu in 1998 and 2001. TBT was detected in all bivalve samples collected, ranging in concentration from 0.008 to 0.135 microg/g wet wt. In Hakata Port, which is an industrial area, high TBT concentrations were detected in bivalves (blue mussel, maximum concentration of 0.135 microg/g wet wt). In the Ariake Sea, which is an important bivalve habitat, TBT concentrations in Manila clams ranged from 0.062 to 0.125 microg/g wet wt in 1998 and from 0.008 to 0.033 microg/g wet wt in 2001. In addition, concentrations of TBT in pen shells collected from the Ariake Sea in 2001 ranged from 0.009 to 0.095 microg/g wet wt. These results clearly demonstrate that, despite the regulation of TBT usage since 1990 in Japan, contamination of bivalves by TBT has persisted in coastal areas around northern Kyushu.

Effects of tributyltin maternal and/or waterborne exposure on the embryonic development of the Manila clam, Ruditapes philippinarum

We examined the effect of tributyltin (TBT) on embryonic development of the Manila clam, Ruditapes philippinarum. In a maternal exposure test, 100 clams were exposed to TBT at measured concentrations of <0.01 (control), 0.061, 0.310, or 0.350 microg/l at 20-22 degrees C for 3 weeks, and the embryo developmental success (the ratio of normal D-larvae to all larvae) was measured. There was a significant negative correlation between embryo developmental success and TBT concentration in the female Manila clams (p < 0.001). These results indicated that TBT accumulated in the female clam decreased embryo developmental success. In a waterborne exposure test, fertilized eggs (4 h after fertilization) were exposed to TBT at measured concentrations of <0.01 (control), 0.062, 0.140, 0.320, or 0.640 microg/l for 23 h. Embryo developmental success was also significantly decreased in all TBT treatment groups compared with that in the control group. TBT accumulated in female adults and waterborne TBT clearly inhibit reproductive success of the clam.

Some chemical contaminant of surface sediments at the Baltic Sea coastal region with special emphasis on androgenic and anti-androgenic compounds

Androgenic and anti-androgenic compounds including p,p'-DDE, Diuron, Linuron, Fenarimol, Vinclozolin, 1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl) urea (DCPU), 1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-3-methylurea, (DCPMU), tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPT) and their metabolites (DBT, MBT, DPT, MPT) as well as metallic elements (Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Pb, Co, Tl, Cr, Fe, Mn, Al, K, Mg, Na, Ca, Ba, Ti, Sn), PAHs (16 indicator compounds), DDTs and PCBs have been quantified in top layer (0-10 cm) of up to 37 surface sediment samples collected from several sites in costal zone of the Gulf of Gdańsk, an inland freshwater area of Brdyujście in Poland and the tidal flats of the Norderney Island, Wadden Sea in 2002-2003. These sites differed in the degree of anthropogenic activities, including chemical pollution and related impact on biota. Especially in sediments near shipyards, ship repair facilities, harbours, other industrial activities or close to municipal sewage treatment plant outlets butyltins, PAHs and some metallic elements were found at high concentrations. Diuron, Linuron and DCPMU were detected at a few sites, Fenarimol only once, while Vinclozolin and DCPU were not detected. DDT concentrations in the sediments from the Gdańsk and Gdynia region of the Gulf show a stepwise decrease following the ban for production and use, while diffusion of PCBs at some industrial sites seems to continue. Elevated PAH concentrations in sediments seem to be mainly due to pyrogenic and less to mixed pyrogenic and petrogenic sources, while for a few sites rather petrogenic sources dominated. The reference sites in the Norderney Island, Wadden Sea showed similar or slightly higher loads of DDTs, BTs, PAHs, PCBs and metallic elements when compared to sediments from the least contaminated sites in the coastal Gulf of Gdańsk area, while phenyltins were not detected at both spatially distant European areas.

Organotin contamination in fishes with different living patterns and its implications for human health risk in Taiwan

Contaminated levels of butyl- and phenyltin compounds, tributyltin (TBT), dibutyltin (DBT), monobutyltin (MBT), triphenyltin (TPT), diphenlytin (DPT), and monophenyltin (MPT), were investigated in pelagic, demersal and cultured fish species from different seasons and locations in Taiwan. Seasonal variations were found in fishes from Wuchi and Hsingta fishing harbors for their butyltin levels (winter>summer) with the opposite trend for phenyltins in fishes from Patoutzu fishing harbor and demersal fishes from four fishing harbors (summer>winter). Fish liver contained the lowest percentage of TBT and the highest percentage of TPT among six organotin compounds. Consumption of contaminated pelagic species and fishes from Hsingta fishing harbor had the highest hazard index. However, the hazard quotients and hazard indices were all less than 1, suggesting a daily exposure at these levels of TBT, DBT and TPT may not be likely to cause any deleterious effects during lifetime in human population.

Global pollution monitoring of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), furans (PCDFs) and coplanar polychlorinated biphenyls (coplanar PCBs) using skipjack tuna as bioindicator

In order to elucidate the global distribution of dioxins and related compounds, such as PCDDs, PCDFs and coplanar PCBs, levels of these compounds were determined in the muscle of skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) collected from the offshore waters and open seas near Japan, Taiwan, Philippines, Indonesia, Seychelles and Brazil, and the Japan Sea, the East China Sea, the South China Sea, the Indian Ocean and the North Pacific Ocean. PCDDs, PCDFs and coplanar PCBs were detected in almost all the specimens collected from all the locations surveyed, indicating widespread contamination by these compounds in the marine environment. Higher concentrations of dioxins and coplanar PCBs were detected in the samples from temperate Asian regions, plausibly due to larger usage and anthropogenic generation in highly industrialized countries around the East China Sea and the South China Sea, such as Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and coastal China.

Status of butyltin pollution along the coasts of western Japan in 2001, 11 years after partial restrictions on the usage of tributyltin

Restrictions on the use of tributyltin (TBT) in aquaculture and on boats in coastal regions, except for ocean-going vessels, have been in place in Japan since 1990 due to the strong toxic effects of TBT on marine organisms. However, TBT pollution along the Japanese coasts has been reported after this legislation was enacted. In order to elucidate the present status of contamination by butyltin (BT) compounds, we measured the levels of BTs [monobutyltin (MBT), dibutyltin (DBT) and TBT] in seawater and Caprella spp. samples obtained from the western part of Seto Inland Sea, Uwa Sea and Uranouchi Bay in western Japan during March to September, 2001. Butyltins were detected in more than 90% of the seawater samples (n = 59), with average concentrations of 8.2+/-9.2 (SD) ng MBT L(-1), 3.3+/-3.0 ng DBT L(-1) and 9.0+/-7.0 ng TBT L(-1). Among 41 stations situated on coastal lines, a sufficient number of Caprella organisms for chemical analysis could be collected from only 16 stations. The butyltin concentrations in seawater and Caprella samples from Uwa Sea and Uranouchi Bay, in which the dominant industry in both waters is aquaculture, showed significantly higher than or no significant differences from those samples from the western part of Seto Inland Sea, a major heavy-industry area in Japan. As the TBT concentration in seawater increased, the number of Caprella organisms collected decreased. The mean TBT concentration among the seawater samples was above the estimated lowest observable effect concentration (LOEC) that reduces the survival rate of Caprella danilevskii. Thus, the present study indicates that TBT is still a potential ecological hazard to the survival of marine invertebrates inhabiting coasts along western Japan, even 11 years after the partial ban on TBT usage was implemented.