Infralimbic D2 receptor influences on anxiety-like behavior and active memory/attention in CD-1 mice

Sleep-sensitive dopamine receptor expression in male mice underlies attention deficits after a critical period of early adversity

Early life stress (ELS) yields cognitive impairments of unknown molecular and physiological origin. We found that fragmented maternal care of mice during a neonatal critical period from postnatal days P2-9 elevated dopamine receptor D2R and suppressed D4R expression, specifically within the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in only the male offspring. This was associated with poor performance on a two-choice visual attention task, which was acutely rescued in adulthood by local or systemic pharmacological rebalancing of D2R/D4R activity. Furthermore, ELS male mice demonstrated heightened hypothalamic orexin and persistently disrupted sleep. Given that acute sleep deprivation in normally reared male mice mimicked the ACC dopamine receptor subtype modulation and disrupted attention of ELS mice, sleep loss likely underlies cognitive deficits in ELS mice. Likewise, sleep impairment mediated the attention deficits associated with early adversity in human children, as demonstrated by path analysis on data collected with multiple questionnaires for a large child cohort. A deeper understanding of the sex-specific cognitive consequences of ELS thus has the potential to reveal therapeutic strategies for overcoming them.

Dopamine D2-like receptors on conditioned and unconditioned fear: A systematic review of rodent pharmacological studies

Growing evidence supports dopamine's role in aversive states, yet systematic reviews focusing on dopamine receptors in defensive behaviors are lacking. This study presents a systematic review of the literature examining the influence of drugs acting on dopamine D2-like receptors on unconditioned and conditioned fear in rodents. The review reveals a predominant use of adult male rats in the studies, with limited inclusion of female rodents. Commonly employed tests include the elevated plus maze and auditory-cued fear conditioning. The findings indicate that systemic administration of D2-like drugs has a notable impact on both innate and learned aversive states. Generally, antagonists tend to increase unconditioned fear, while agonists decrease it. Moreover, both agonists and antagonists typically reduce conditioned fear. These effects are attributed to the involvement of distinct neural circuits in these states. The observed increase in unconditioned fear induced by D2-like antagonists aligns with dopamine's role in suppressing midbrain-mediated responses. Conversely, the reduction in conditioned fear is likely a result of blocking dopamine activity in the mesolimbic pathway. The study highlights the need for future research to delve into sex differences, explore alternative testing paradigms, and identify specific neural substrates. Such investigations have the potential to advance our understanding of the neurobiology of aversive states and enhance the therapeutic application of dopaminergic agents.

A brain-enriched circular RNA controls excitatory neurotransmission and restricts sensitivity to aversive stimuli

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a large class of noncoding RNAs. Despite the identification of thousands of circular transcripts, the biological significance of most of them remains unexplored, partly because of the lack of effective methods for generating loss-of-function animal models. In this study, we focused on circTulp4, an abundant circRNA derived from the Tulp4 gene that is enriched in the brain and synaptic compartments. By creating a circTulp4-deficient mouse model, in which we mutated the splice acceptor site responsible for generating circTulp4 without affecting the linear mRNA or protein levels, we were able to conduct a comprehensive phenotypic analysis. Our results demonstrate that circTulp4 is critical in regulating neuronal and brain physiology, modulating the strength of excitatory neurotransmission and sensitivity to aversive stimuli. This study provides evidence that circRNAs can regulate biologically relevant functions in neurons, with modulatory effects at multiple levels of the phenotype, establishing a proof of principle for the regulatory role of circRNAs in neural processes.

Synergistic effect between quinpirole and L-NAME as well as sulpiride and L-arginine on the modulation of anxiety and memory processes in the 6-OHDA mouse model of Parkinson's disease: An isobologram analysis

We evaluated interactions between dopamine D2 receptor and nitric oxide (NO) actions on the regulation of anxiety and memory in the 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) mouse model of Parkinson's disease (PD). A unilateral guide cannula was stereotaxically implanted over the right striatum. Elevated plus-maze test (EPM) test-retest protocol was employed to evaluate anxiety and memory in mice. The results revealed that injection of L-NAME (9 mg/kg) induced anxiolytic and amnesic effects, while L-arginine (9 mg/kg) produced anxiogenic and memory-improvement effects in the 6-OHDA mouse model of PD. Administration of sulpiride (20 mg/kg) induced anxiogenic and memory-improvement effects, whereas quinpirole (20 mg/kg) caused anxiolytic and amnesic effects in PD mice. Co-injection of sulpiride (5, 10, and 20 mg/kg) plus L-NAME (3 mg/kg) induced anxiolytic and amnesic effects. Co-injection of sulpiride (20 mg/kg) plus L-arginine (3 mg/kg) induced anxiogenic and memory-improvement effects. Co-administrations of quinpirole (20 mg/kg) and L-NAME (3 mg/kg) induced anxiolytic effect, but co-administration of quinpirole (20 mg/kg) plus L-arginine (3 mg/kg) caused anxiogenic and memory-improvement effects. The isobologram analysis revealed that there is a synergistic effect between sulpiride and L-arginine as well as quinpirole and L-NAME upon induction of anxiogenic and anxiolytic effects, respectively in PD mice. Our results suggested: (1) NO and dopamine D2 receptor mechanisms affect anxiety and memory in PD mice; (2) L-NAME reversed anxiogenic and memory-improvement effect induced by sulpiride; (3) Anxiolytic and amnesic effects induced by quinpirole reversed by L-arginine; (4) There is a synergistic effect between dopamine D2 receptor and NO systems on the modulation of anxiety and memory.

Abnormal brain structure and behavior in MyD88-deficient mice

While the original protein Toll in Drosophila melanogaster regulates both host defense and morphogenesis, the role of its ortholog Toll-like receptors (TLRs), the interleukin 1 receptor (IL-1R) family, and the associated signaling pathways in mammalian brain development and structure is poorly understood. Because the adaptor protein myeloid differentiation primary response protein 88 (MyD88) is essential for downstream signaling of most TLRs and IL-1R, we systematically investigated the effect of MyD88 deficiency on murine brain structure during development and on behavior. In neonatal Myd88^-/- mice, neocortical thickness was reduced, while density of cortical neurons was increased. In contrast, microglia, astrocyte, oligodendrocyte, and proliferating cell numbers were unchanged in these mice compared to wild-type mice. In adult Myd88^-/- mice, neocortical thickness was unaltered, but neuronal density in neocortex and hippocampus was increased. Neuron arborization was less pronounced in adult Myd88^-/- mice compared to wild-type animals. In addition, numbers of microglia and proliferating cells were increased in the neocortex and subventricular zone, respectively, with unaltered astrocyte and oligodendrocyte numbers, and myelinization was enhanced in the adult Myd88^-/- neocortex. These morphologic changes in the brain of adult Myd88^-/- mice were accompanied by specific behavioral traits, such as decreased locomotor activity, increased anxiety-like behavior, but normal day/light activity, satisfactory learning, short- and long-term spatial memory, potential cognitive inflexibility, and increased hanging and locomotor behavior within their home cage. Taken together, MyD88 deficiency results in morphologic and cellular changes in the mouse brain, as well as in altered natural and specific behaviors. Our data indicate a pathophysiological significance of MyD88 for mammalian CNS development, structure, and function.

Brain tumor necrosis factor-α mediates anxiety-like behavior in a mouse model of severe obesity

Although the high prevalence of anxiety in obesity increasingly emerges as significant risk factor for related severe health complications, the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms remain poorly understood. Considering that chronic inflammation is a key component of obesity and is well known to impact brain function and emotional behavior, we hypothesized that it may similarly contribute to the development of obesity-related anxiety. This hypothesis was experimentally tested by measuring whether chronic food restriction, a procedure known to reduce inflammation, or chronic anti-inflammatory treatment with ibuprofen improved anxiety-like behavior and concomitantly decreased peripheral and/or hippocampal inflammation characterizing a model of severe obesity, the db/db mice. In both experiments, reduced anxiety-like behaviors in the open-field and/or elevated plus-maze were selectively associated with decreased hippocampal tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) mRNA expression. Highlighting the causality of both events, chronic central infusion of the TNF-α blocker etanercept was then shown to be sufficient to improve anxiety-like behavior in db/db mice. Lastly, by measuring the impact of ex-vivo etanercept on hippocampal synaptic processes underlying anxiety-like behaviors, we showed that the anxiolytic effect of central TNF-α blockade likely involved modulation of synaptic transmission within the ventral hippocampus. Altogether, these results uphold the role of brain TNF-α in mediating obesity-related anxiety and provide important clues about how it may modulate brain function and behavior. They may therefore help to introduce novel therapeutic strategies to reduce anxiety associated with inflammatory conditions.

Crybb2 Mutations Consistently Affect Schizophrenia Endophenotypes in Mice

As part of the βγ-superfamily, βB2-crystallin (CRYBB2) is an ocular structural protein in the lens, and mutation of the corresponding gene can cause cataracts. CRYBB2 also is expressed in non-lens tissue such as the adult mouse brain and is associated with neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. Nevertheless, the robustness of this association as well as how CRYBB2 may contribute to disease-relevant phenotypes is unknown. To add further clarity to this issue, we performed a comprehensive analysis of behavioral and neurohistological alterations in mice with an allelic series of mutations in the C-terminal end of the Crybb2 gene. Behavioral phenotyping of these three βB2-mutant lines Crybb2^O377, Crybb2^Philly, and Crybb2^Aey2 included assessment of exploratory activity and anxiety-related behavior in the open field, sensorimotor gating measured by prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle reflex, cognitive performance measured by social discrimination, and spontaneous alternation in the Y-maze. In each mutant line, we also quantified the number of parvalbumin-positive (PV+) GABAergic interneurons in selected brain regions that express CRYBB2. While there were allele-specific differences in individual behaviors and affected brain areas, all three mutant lines exhibited consistent alterations in PPI that paralleled alterations in the PV+ cell number in the thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN). The direction of the PPI change mirrored that of the TRN PV+ cell number thereby suggesting a role for TRN PV+ cell number in modulating PPI. Moreover, as both altered PPI and PV+ cell number are schizophrenia-associated endophenotypes, our result implicates mutated Crybb2 in the development of this neuropsychiatric disorder.

Levo-Tetrahydroberberrubine Produces Anxiolytic-Like Effects in Mice through the 5-HT1A Receptor

Tetrahydroprotoberberines (THPBs) are isoquinoline alkaloids isolated from the Chinese herb Corydalis yanhusuo. In the present study, we performed competitive binding assays to examine the binding of l-THBr to neurotransmitter receptors known to be involved in sedation, hypnosis and anxiety. Our results show that l-THBr does not interact with GABAergic receptors but has binding affinities for dopamine and serotonin receptors. In addition, cAMP and [³⁵S]GTPγS assays were used to determine the agonist or antagonist properties of l-THBr at dopamine (D₁, D₂) or serotonin (5-HT) receptors. Our results show that l-THBr displays D₁ and D₂ antagonist and 5-HT_1A agonist properties. Moreover, l-THBr-treated rodents exhibit anxiolytic-like effects in the light/dark box and elevated plus-maze tests, and the anxiolytic effect of l-THBr can be reduced by WAY-100635, a selective 5-HT_1A receptor antagonist. Our results suggest that l-THBr may produce potent anxiolytic-like effects mainly through serotonin receptors.

Serum Response Factor (SRF) Ablation Interferes with Acute Stress-Associated Immediate and Long-Term Coping Mechanisms

Stress experience modulates behavior, metabolism, and energy expenditure of organisms. One molecular hallmark of an acute stress response is a rapid induction of immediate early genes (IEGs) such as c-Fos and Egr family members. IEG transcription in neurons is mediated by the neuronal activity-driven gene regulator serum response factor (SRF). We show a first role of SRF in immediate and long-lasting acute restraint stress (AS) responses. For this, we employed a standardized mouse phenotyping protocol at the German Mouse Clinic (GMC) including behavioral, metabolic, and cardiologic tests as well as gene expression profiling to analyze the consequences of forebrain-specific SRF deletion in mice exposed to AS. Adult mice with an SRF deletion in glutamatergic neurons (Srf; ^{CaMKIIa-CreERT2} ) showed hyperactivity, decreased anxiety, and impaired working memory. In response to restraint AS, instant stress reactivity including locomotor behavior and corticosterone induction was impaired in Srf mutant mice. Interestingly, even several weeks after previous AS exposure, SRF-deficient mice showed long-lasting AS-associated changes including altered locomotion, metabolism, energy expenditure, and cardiovascular changes. This suggests a requirement of SRF for mediating long-term stress coping mechanisms in wild-type mice. SRF ablation decreased AS-mediated IEG induction and activity of the actin severing protein cofilin. In summary, our data suggest an SRF function in immediate AS reactions and long-term post-stress-associated coping mechanisms.

Role of Dopamine 2 Receptor in Impaired Drug-Cue Extinction in Adolescent Rats

Adolescent drug users display resistance to treatment such as cue exposure therapy (CET), as well as increased liability to relapse. The basis of CET is extinction learning, which involves dopamine signaling in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). This system undergoes dramatic alterations during adolescence. Therefore, we investigated extinction of a cocaine-associated cue in adolescent and adult rats. While cocaine self-administration and lever-alone extinction were not different between the two ages, we observed that cue extinction reduced cue-induced reinstatement in adult but not adolescent rats. Infusion of the selective dopamine 2 receptor (D2R)-like agonist quinpirole into the infralimbic cortex (IL) of the mPFC prior to cue extinction significantly reduced cue-induced reinstatement in adolescents. This effect was replicated by acute systemic treatment with the atypical antipsychotic aripiprazole (Abilify), a partial D2R-like agonist. These data suggest that adolescents may be more susceptible to relapse due to a deficit in cue extinction learning, and highlight the significance of D2R signaling in the IL for cue extinction during adolescence. These findings inspire new tactics for improving adolescent CET, with aripiprazole representing an exciting potential pharmacological adjunct for behavioral therapy.

Nuance and behavioral cogency: How the Visible Burrow System inspired the Stress-Alternatives Model and conceptualization of the continuum of anxiety

By creating the Visible Burrow System (VBS) Bob Blanchard found a way to study the interaction of genetics, physiology, environment, and adaptive significance in a model with broad validity. The VBS changed the way we think about anxiety and affective disorders by allowing the mechanisms which control them to be observed in a dynamic setting. Critically, Blanchard used the VBS and other models to show how behavioral systems like defense are dependent upon context and behavioral elements unique to the individual. Inspired by the VBS, we developed a Stress Alternatives Model (SAM) to further explore the multifaceted dynamics of the stress response with a dichotomous choice condition. Like the VBS, the SAM is a naturalistic model built upon risk assessment and defensive behavior, but with a choice of response: escape or submission to a large conspecific aggressor. The anxiety of novelty during the first escape must be weighed against fear of the aggressor, and a decision must be made. Both outcomes are adaptively significant, evidenced by a 50/50 split in outcome across several study systems. By manipulating the variables of the SAM, we show that a gradient of anxiety exists that spans the contextual settings of escaping an open field, escaping from aggression, and submitting to aggression. These findings correspond with increasing levels of corticosterone and increasing levels of NPS and BDNF in the central amygdala as the context changes.Whereas some anxiolytics were able to reduce the latency to escape for some animals, only with the potent anxiolytic drug antalarmin (CRF1R-blocker) and the anxiogenic drug yohimbine (α2 antagonist) were we able to reverse the outcome for a substantial proportion of individuals. Our findings promote a novel method for modeling anxiety, offering a distinction between low-and-high levels, and accounting for individual variability. The translational value of the VBS is immeasurable, and it guided us and many other researchers to seek potential clinical solutions through a deeper understanding of regional neurochemistry and gene expression in concert with an ecological behavioral model.

Conditional Reduction of Adult Born Doublecortin-Positive Neurons Reversibly Impairs Selective Behaviors

Adult neurogenesis occurs in the adult mammalian subventricular zone (SVZ) along the walls of the lateral ventricles and the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampal dentate gyrus. While a burgeoning body of research implicates adult neurogenesis in olfactory bulb (OB)- and hippocampal-related behaviors, the precise function continues to elude. To further assess the behavioral importance of adult neurogenesis, we herein generated a novel inducible transgenic mouse model of adult neurogenesis reduction where mice with CreER^T2 under doublecortin (DCX) promoter control were crossed with mice where diphtheria toxin A (DTA) was driven by the Rosa26 promoter. Activation of DTA, through the administration of tamoxifen (TAM), results in a specific reduction of DCX+ immature neurons in both the hippocampal dentate gyrus and OB. We show that the decrease of DCX+ cells causes impaired social discrimination ability in both young adult (from 3 months) and middle aged (from 10 months) mice. Furthermore, these animals showed an age-independent altered coping behavior in the Forced Swim Test without clear changes in anxiety-related behavior. Notably, these behavior changes were reversible on repopulating the neurogenic zones with DCX+ cells on cessation of the TAM treatment, demonstrating the specificity of this effect. Overall, these results support the notion that adult neurogenesis plays a role in social memory and in stress coping but not necessarily in anxiety-related behavior.

Complete or partial reduction of the Met receptor tyrosine kinase in distinct circuits differentially impacts mouse behavior

BACKGROUND

Our laboratory discovered that the gene encoding the receptor tyrosine kinase, MET, contributes to autism risk. Expression of MET is reduced in human postmortem temporal lobe in autism and Rett Syndrome. Subsequent studies revealed a role for MET in human and mouse functional and structural cortical connectivity. To further understand the contribution of Met to brain development and its impact on behavior, we generated two conditional mouse lines in which Met is deleted from select populations of central nervous system neurons. Mice were then tested to determine the consequences of disrupting Met expression.

METHODS

Mating of Emx1 (cre) and Met (fx/fx) mice eliminates receptor signaling from all cells arising from the dorsal pallium. Met (fx/fx) and Nestin (cre) crosses result in receptor signaling elimination from all neural cells. Behavioral tests were performed to assess cognitive, emotional, and social impairments that are observed in multiple neurodevelopmental disorders and that are in part subserved by circuits that express Met.

RESULTS

Met (fx/fx) /Emx1 (cre) null mice displayed significant hypoactivity in the activity chamber and in the T-maze despite superior performance on the rotarod. Additionally, these animals showed a deficit in spontaneous alternation. Surprisingly, Met (fx/fx; fx/+) /Nestin (cre) null and heterozygous mice exhibited deficits in contextual fear conditioning, and Met (fx/+) /Nestin (cre) heterozygous mice spent less time in the closed arms of the elevated plus maze.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest a complex contribution of Met in the development of circuits mediating social, emotional, and cognitive behavior. The impact of disrupting developmental Met expression is dependent upon circuit-specific deletion patterns and levels of receptor activity.

Involvement of 2-arachidonoylglycerol signaling in social challenge responding of male CD1 mice

RATIONALE

Endocannabinoids are strong modulators of emotionality and present a novel target for psychotropic drug development. Increasing evidence suggests that endocannabinoids anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) affect behavior differentially. While the roles of anandamide have been investigated extensively, studies regarding the specific roles of 2-AG became possible only recently, and its involvement in social behaviors has not yet been studied.

OBJECTIVE

We studied the impact of 2-AG signaling on aggression as a first attempt to characterize the role of this endocannabinoid in social behaviors.

METHODS

2-AG signaling was enhanced by the monoacylglycerol lipase inhibitor JZL184 (8, and 16 mg/kg) in mice later submitted to the resident/intruder paradigm.

RESULTS

JZL184 near completely abolished aggressiveness in residents and increased victimization (i.e., attacks by the opponent). Interestingly, the level of defensiveness remained unaltered, despite the large increase in bites received. The CB1 receptor blocker AM251 (0.5 mg/kg) did not influence the effects of JZL184. In intruders, JZL184 near completely suppressed bites and offensive behavior in a fashion similar to residents, but it also increased agitation and defensiveness during, and the corticosterone response to, aggressive encounters. Experiments involving the corticosterone synthesis inhibitor metyrapone (30 mg/kg) suggest that the suppression of biting and offensive behavior is directly influenced by JZL184, whereas increased agitation and defensiveness (seen in intruders only) are a secondary development of the stress-endocrine effects of JZL184.

CONCLUSIONS

2-AG signaling emerges as a surprisingly strong negative modulator of aggressiveness, which warrants further studies into its general role in social behavior and the target receptors involved.

NMDA and D1 receptors are involved in one-trial tolerance to the anxiolytic-like effects of diazepam in the elevated plus maze test in rats

The elevated plus maze (EPM) test is used to examine anxiety-like behaviors in rodents. One interesting phenomenon in the EPM test is one-trial tolerance (OTT), which refers to the reduction in the anxiolytic-like effects of benzodiazepines when rodents are re-exposed to the EPM. However, the underlying mechanism of OTT is still unclear. In this study, we reported that OTT occurred when re-exposure to the EPM (trial 2) only depended on the prior experience of the EPM (trial 1) rather than diazepam treatment. This process was memory-dependent, as it was prevented by the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors antagonist MK-801 1.5h before trial 2. In addition, OTT was maintained for at least one week but was partially abolished after an interval of 28 days. Furthermore, the administration of the D1-like receptors agonist SKF38393 to the bilateral dorsal hippocampus largely prevented OTT, as demonstrated by the ability of the diazepam treatment to produce significant anxiolytic-like effects in trial 2 after a one-day interval. These findings suggest that OTT to the EPM test may occur via the activation of NMDA receptors and the inactivation of D1-like receptors in certain brain regions, including the hippocampus.

Distinct mu, delta, and kappa opioid receptor mechanisms underlie low sociability and depressive-like behaviors during heroin abstinence

Addiction is a chronic disorder involving recurring intoxication, withdrawal, and craving episodes. Escaping this vicious cycle requires maintenance of abstinence for extended periods of time and is a true challenge for addicted individuals. The emergence of depressive symptoms, including social withdrawal, is considered a main cause for relapse, but underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Here we establish a mouse model of protracted abstinence to heroin, a major abused opiate, where both emotional and working memory deficits unfold. We show that delta and kappa opioid receptor (DOR and KOR, respectively) knockout mice develop either stronger or reduced emotional disruption during heroin abstinence, establishing DOR and KOR activities as protective and vulnerability factors, respectively, that regulate the severity of abstinence. Further, we found that chronic treatment with the antidepressant drug fluoxetine prevents emergence of low sociability, with no impact on the working memory deficit, implicating serotonergic mechanisms predominantly in emotional aspects of abstinence symptoms. Finally, targeting the main serotonergic brain structure, we show that gene knockout of mu opioid receptors (MORs) in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) before heroin exposure abolishes the development of social withdrawal. This is the first result demonstrating that intermittent chronic MOR activation at the level of DRN represents an essential mechanism contributing to low sociability during protracted heroin abstinence. Altogether, our findings reveal crucial and distinct roles for all three opioid receptors in the development of emotional alterations that follow a history of heroin exposure and open the way towards understanding opioid system-mediated serotonin homeostasis in heroin abuse.

Integration of animal behaviors under stresses with different time courses

We used animal models of "forced swim stress" and "chronic unpredictable stress", and tried to reveal whether a passive coping style of high flotation behavior in forced swim stress predicts anhedonia behavior after chronic unpredictable stress, and whether the dopamine system regulates floating and anhedonia behaviors. Our results confirmed that depression-prone rats use "floating behavior" as a coping strategy in forced swim stress and more readily suffer from anhedonia during chronic unpredictable stress. Intraperitoneal injection or nucleus accumbens microinjection of the dopamine 2/3 receptor subtype agonist ropinirole reduced floating behaviors in depression-prone animals, but increased sucrose preference in rats showing anhedonia. These data indicate that floating behavior is a defensive mode that is preferred by susceptible individuals under conditions of acute stress. Simultaneously, these animals more readily experienced anhedonia under long-term stress; that is, they were more readily affected by depression. Our results suggest that dopamine 2/3 receptor subtypes in the nucleus accumbens play an important role in floating behaviors and anhedonia.

Crybb2 coding for βB2-crystallin affects sensorimotor gating and hippocampal function

βB2-crystallin (gene symbol: Crybb2/CRYBB2) was first described as a structural protein of the ocular lens. This gene, however, is also expressed in several regions of the mammalian brain, although its function in this organ remains entirely unknown. To unravel some aspects of its function in the brain, we combined behavioral, neuroanatomical, and physiological analyses in a novel Crybb2 mouse mutant, O377. Behavioral tests with male O377 mutants revealed altered sensorimotor gating, suggesting modified neuronal functions. Since these mouse mutants also displayed reduced hippocampal size, we concentrated further investigations on the hippocampus. Free intracellular Ca²⁺ levels were increased and apoptosis was enhanced in the hippocampus of O377 mutants. Moreover, the expression of the gene encoding calpain 3 (gene symbol Capn3) was elevated and the expression of genes coding for the NMDA receptor subunits was downregulated. Additionally, the number of parvalbumin-positive interneurons was decreased in the hippocampus but not in the cortex of the mutants. High-speed voltage-sensitive dye imaging demonstrated an increased translation of input-to-output neuronal activity in the dentate gyrus of this Crybb2 mutant. These results point to an important function of βB2-crystallin in the hippocampal network. They indicate pleiotropic effects of mutations in the Crybb2 gene, which previously had been considered to be specific to the ocular lens. Moreover, our results are the first to demonstrate that βB2-crystallin has a role in hippocampal function and behavioral phenotypes. This model can now be further explored by future experiments.

Involvement of NR1, NR2A different expression in brain regions in anxiety-like behavior of prenatally stressed offspring

Prenatal stress (PS) has been shown to be associated with anxiety. However, the underlying neurological mechanisms are not well understood. To determine the effects of PS on anxiety-like behavior in the adult offspring, we evaluated anxiety-like behavior using open field test (OFT) and elevated plus maze (EPM) in the 3-month offspring. Both male and female offspring showed a significant reduction of crossing counts in the center, total crossing counts, rearing counts and time spent in the center in the OFT, and only male offspring showed a decreased percentage of open-arm entries and open-arm time in open arms in the EPM. Additionally, expression of NR1 and NR2A subunit of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) in the hippocampus (HIP), prefrontal cortex (PFC) and striatum (STR) was studied. Our results showed that PS reduced NR1 and NR2A expression in the HIP, NR2A expression in the PFC and STR in the offspring. The altered NR1 and NR2A could have potential impact on anxiety-like behavior in the adult offspring exposed to PS.

Enhanced excitability in the infralimbic cortex produces anxiety-like behaviors

The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) has been implicated in modulating anxiety. However, it is unknown whether excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmission in the infralimbic (IL) subregion of the mPFC underlies the pathology of anxiety-related behavior. To address this issue, we infused the GABAA receptor (GABAAR) antagonist bicuculline to temporarily activate the IL cortex. IL cortex activation decreased the time spent in the center area in the open field test, decreased exploration of the open-arms in the elevated plus maze test, and increased the latency to bite food in the novelty-suppressed feeding test. These findings substantiate the GABAergic system's role in anxiety-related behaviors. IL cortex inactivation with the AMPA receptor (AMPAR) antagonist CNQX produced opposite, anxiolytic effects. However, infusion of the NMDA receptor (NMDAR) antagonist AP5 into the IL cortex had no significant effect. Additionally, we did not observe motor activity deficits or appetite deficits following inhibition of GABAergic or glutamatergic neurotransmission. Interestingly, we found parallel and corresponding electrophysiological changes in anxious mice; compared to mice with relatively low anxiety, the relatively high anxiety mice exhibited smaller evoked inhibitory postsynaptic currents (eIPSCs) and larger AMPA-mediated evoked excitatory postsynaptic currents (eEPSCs) in pyramidal neurons in the IL cortex. The changes of eIPSCs and eEPSCs were due to presynaptic mechanisms. Our results suggest that imbalances of neurotransmission in the IL cortex may cause a net increase in excitatory inputs onto pyramidal neurons, which may underlie the pathogenic mechanism of anxiety disorders.

Monoacylglycerol lipase inhibition-induced changes in plasma corticosterone levels, anxiety and locomotor activity in male CD1 mice

The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal-axis is strongly controlled by the endocannabinoid system. The specific impact of enhanced 2-arachidonoylglycerol signaling on corticosterone plasma levels, however, was not investigated so far. Here we studied the effects of the recently developed monoacylglycerol lipase inhibitor JZL184 on basal and stress-induced corticosterone levels in male CD1 mice, and found that this compound dramatically increased basal levels without affecting stress responses. Since acute changes in corticosterone levels can affect behavior, JZL184 was administered concurrently with the corticosterone synthesis inhibitor metyrapone, to investigate whether the previously shown behavioral effects of JZL184 are dependent on corticosterone. We found that in the elevated plus-maze, the effects of JZL184 on "classical" anxiety-related measures were abolished by corticosterone synthesis blockade. By contrast, effects on the "ethological" measures of anxiety (i.e. risk assessment) were not affected by metyrapone. In the open-field, the locomotion-enhancing effects of the compound were not changed either. These findings show that monoacylglycerol lipase inhibition dramatically increases basal levels of corticosterone. This endocrine effect partly affects the anxiolytic, but not the locomotion-enhancing effects of monoacylglycerol lipase blockade.

Neurobehavioral characterization of Endonuclease G knockout mice reveals a new putative molecular player in the regulation of anxiety

Endonuclease G (EndoG) has been largely related with a role in the modulation of a caspase-independent cell death pathway in many cellular systems. However, whether this protein plays a specific role in the brain remains to be elucidated. Here we have characterized the behavioral phenotype of EndoG(-/-) null mice and the expression of the nuclease among brain regions. EndoG(-/-) mice showed normal neurological function, learning, motor coordination and spontaneous behaviors. However, these animals displayed lower activity in a running wheel and, strikingly, they were consistently less anxious compared to EndoG(+/+) mice in different tests for anxiety such as plus maze and dark-light test. We next evaluated the expression of EndoG in different brain regions of wild type mice and found that it was expressed in all over but specially enriched in the striatum. Further, subcellular biochemical experiments in neocortical samples from wild type mice revealed that EndoG is localized in pre-synaptic compartments but not in post-synaptic compartments. Altogether these findings suggest that EndoG could play a highly specific role in the regulation of anxiety by modulating synaptic components.

A history of chronic morphine exposure during adolescence increases despair-like behaviour and strain-dependently promotes sociability in abstinent adult mice

A crucial issue in treating opiate addiction, a chronic relapsing disorder, is to maintain a drug-free abstinent state. Prolonged abstinence associates with mood disorders, strongly contributing to relapse. In particular, substance use disorders occurring during adolescence predispose to depression later in adulthood. Using our established mouse model of opiate abstinence, we characterized emotional consequences into adulthood of morphine exposure during adolescence. Our results indicate that morphine treatment in adolescent mice has no effect on anxiety-like behaviours in adult mice, after abstinence. In contrast, morphine treatment during adolescence increases behavioural despair in adult mice. We also show that morphine exposure strain-dependently enhances sociability in adult mice. Additional research will be required to understand where and how morphine acts during brain maturation to affect emotional and social behaviours into adulthood.

Modeling interneuron dysfunction in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a debilitating neurodevelopmental disorder affecting approximately 1% of the population and imposing a significant burden on society. One of the most replicated and well-established postmortem findings is a deficit in the expression of the gene encoding the 67-kDa isoform of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD67), the primary GABA-producing enzyme in the brain. GAD67 is expressed in various classes of interneurons, with vastly different morphological, molecular, and physiological properties. Importantly, GABA system deficits in schizophrenia encompass multiple interneuronal subtypes, raising several important questions. First, do different classes of interneurons regulate different aspects of behavior? Second, can we model cell-type-specific GABAergic deficits in mice, and will the rodent findings translate to human physiology? Finally, will this knowledge open the door to knowledge-based approaches to treat schizophrenia?

Cognitive deficits in a mouse model of pre-manifest Parkinson's disease

Early cognitive deficits are increasingly recognized in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), and represent an unmet need for the treatment of PD. These early deficits have been difficult to model in mice, and their mechanisms are poorly understood. α-Synuclein is linked to both familial and sporadic forms of PD, and is believed to accumulate in brains of patients with PD before cell loss. Mice expressing human wild-type α-synuclein under the Thy1 promoter (Thy1-aSyn mice) exhibit broad overexpression of α-synuclein throughout the brain and dynamic alterations in dopamine release several months before striatal dopamine loss. We now show that these mice exhibit deficits in cholinergic systems involved in cognition, and cognitive deficits in domains affected in early PD. Together with an increase in extracellular dopamine and a decrease in cortical acetylcholine at 4-6 months of age, Thy1-aSyn mice made fewer spontaneous alternations in the Y-maze and showed deficits in tests of novel object recognition (NOR), object-place recognition, and operant reversal learning, as compared with age-matched wild-type littermates. These data indicate that cognitive impairments that resemble early PD manifestations are reproduced by α-synuclein overexpression in a murine genetic model of PD. With high power to detect drug effects, these anomalies provide a novel platform for testing improved treatments for these pervasive cognitive deficits.

Modulatory influence of dopamine receptors on consolidation of object recognition memory

The role of dopamine receptors in regulating the formation of recognition memory remains poorly understood. Here we show the effects of systemic administration of dopamine receptor agonists and antagonists on the formation of memory for novel object recognition in rats. In Experiment I, rats received an intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of vehicle, the selective D1 receptor agonist SKF38393 (1.0 and 5.0mg/kg), or the D2 receptor agonist quinpirole (1.0 and 5.0mg/kg) immediately after training. In Experiment II, rats received an injection of vehicle, the dopamine receptor antagonist SCH23390 (0.1 and 0.05 mg/kg), or the D2 receptor antagonist raclopride (0.5 and 0.1mg/kg) before training, followed by an injection of vehicle or the nonselective dopamine receptor agonist apomorphine (0.05 mg/kg) immediately after training. SKF38393 at 5mg/kg produced an enhancement of novel object recognition memory measured at both 24 and 72 h after training, whereas the dose of 10mg/kg impaired 24-h retention. Posttraining administration of quinpirole did not affect 24-h retention. Apomorphine enhanced memory in rats given pretraining raclopride, suggesting that the effect was mediated by selective activation of D1 receptors. The results indicate that activation of D1 receptors can enhance recognition memory consolidation. Importantly, pharmacological activation of D1 receptors enhanced novel object recognition memory even under conditions in which control rats showed significant retention.

Fear learning and extinction are linked to neuronal plasticity through Rin1 signaling

The amygdala is known to have a crucial role in both the acquisition and extinction of conditioned fear, but the physiological changes and biochemical mechanisms underlying these forms of learning are only partly understood. The Ras effector Rin1 activates Abl tyrosine kinases and Rab5 GTPases and is highly expressed in mature neurons of the telencephalon including the amygdala, where it inhibits the acquisition of fear memories (Rin1(-/-) mice show enhanced learning of conditioned fear). Here we report that Rin1(-/-) mice exhibit profound deficits in both latent inhibition and fear extinction, suggesting a critical role for Rin1 in gating the acquisition and persistence of cue-dependent fear conditioning. Surprisingly, we also find that depotentiation, a proposed cellular mechanism of extinction, is enhanced at lateral-basolateral (LA-BLA) amygdaloid synapses in Rin1(-/-) mice. Inhibition of a single Rin1 downstream effector pathway, the Abl tyrosine kinases, led to reduced amygdaloid depotentiation, arguing that proper coordination of Abl and Rab5 pathways is critical for Rin1-mediated effects on plasticity. While demonstrating a correlation between amygdala plasticity and fear learning, our findings argue against models proposing a direct causative relationship between amygdala depotentiation and fear extinction. Taken together, the behavior and physiology of Rin1(-/-) mice provide new insights into the regulation of memory acquisition and maintenance. In addition, Rin1(-/-) mice should prove useful as a model for pathologies marked by enhanced fear acquisition and retention, such as posttraumatic stress disorder.

D2 antagonist during development decreases anxiety and infanticidal behavior in adult female prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster)

On postnatal day 8, prairie vole pups were randomly assigned a treatment of 1mg/kg SKF38393 (D1 agonist), quinpirole (D2 agonist), SCH23390 (D1 antagonist), eticlopride (D2 antagonist), or saline vehicle. As adults, females treated with eticlopride exhibited reduced anxiety-like behavior in an elevated plus maze and a reduction in infanticidal behavior. These behavioral effects were not seen in males. These data demonstrate that a single exposure to a D2 antagonist during development can have persistent, sex-specific effects on behavior into adulthood.

Reliability, robustness, and reproducibility in mouse behavioral phenotyping: a cross-laboratory study

Establishing standard operating procedures (SOPs) as tools for the analysis of behavioral phenotypes is fundamental to mouse functional genomics. It is essential that the tests designed provide reliable measures of the process under investigation but most importantly that these are reproducible across both time and laboratories. For this reason, we devised and tested a set of SOPs to investigate mouse behavior. Five research centers were involved across France, Germany, Italy, and the UK in this study, as part of the EUMORPHIA program. All the procedures underwent a cross-validation experimental study to investigate the robustness of the designed protocols. Four inbred reference strains (C57BL/6J, C3HeB/FeJ, BALB/cByJ, 129S2/SvPas), reflecting their use as common background strains in mutagenesis programs, were analyzed to validate these tests. We demonstrate that the operating procedures employed, which includes open field, SHIRPA, grip-strength, rotarod, Y-maze, prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle response, and tail flick tests, generated reproducible results between laboratories for a number of the test output parameters. However, we also identified several uncontrolled variables that constitute confounding factors in behavioral phenotyping. The EUMORPHIA SOPs described here are an important start-point for the ongoing development of increasingly robust phenotyping platforms and their application in large-scale, multicentre mouse phenotyping programs.

The effects of intra-cerebral drug infusions on animals' unconditioned fear reactions: a systematic review

Intra-cerebral (i.c.) microinfusion of selective receptor agonists and antagonists into behaving animals can provide both neuroanatomical and neurochemical insights into the neural mechanisms of anxiety. However, there have been no systematic reviews of the results of this experimental approach that include both a range of unconditioned anxiety reactions and a sufficiently broad theoretical context. Here we focus on amino acid, monoamine, cholinergic and peptidergic receptor ligands microinfused into neural structures previously implicated in anxiety, and subsequent behavioral effects in animal models of unconditioned anxiety or fear. GABAA receptor agonists and glutamate receptor antagonists produced the most robust anxiolytic-like behavioral effects, in the majority of neural substrates and animal models. In contrast, ligands of the other receptor systems had more selective, site-specific anti-anxiety effects. For example, 5-HT1A receptor agonists produced anxiolytic-like effects in the raphe nuclei, but inconsistent effects in the amygdala, septum, and hippocampus. Conversely, 5-HT3 receptor antagonists produced anxiolytic-like effects in the amygdala but not in the raphe nuclei. Nicotinic receptor agonists produced anxiolytic-like effects in the raphe and anxiogenic effects in the septum and hippocampus. Unexpectedly, physostigmine, a general cholinergic agonist, produced anxiolytic-like effects in the hippocampus. Neuropeptide receptors, although they are popular targets for the development of selective anxiolytic agents, had the least reliable effects across different animal models and brain structures, perhaps due in part to the fact that selective receptor ligands are relatively scarce. While some inconsistencies in the microinfusion data can easily be attributed to pharmacological variables such as dose or ligand selectivity, in other instances pharmacological explanations are more difficult to invoke: e.g., even the same dose of a known anxiolytic compound (midazolam) with a known mechanism of action (the benzodiazepine-GABAA receptor complex), can selectively affect different fear reactions depending upon the different subregions of the nucleus into which it is infused (CeA versus BLA). These particular functional dissociations are important and may depend on the ability of a GABAA receptor agonist to interact with distinct isoforms and combinations of GABAA receptor subunits (e.g., alpha1-6, beta1-3, Upsilon1-2, delta), many of which are unevenly distributed throughout the brain. Although this molecular hypothesis awaits thorough evaluation, the microinfusion data overall give some support for a model of "anxiety" that is functionally segregated along different levels of a neural hierarchy, analogous in some ways to the organization of sensorimotor systems.

Periadolescent stress exposure exerts long-term effects on adult stress responding and expression of prefrontal dopamine receptors in male and female rats

Recent research has demonstrated that experiential/environmental factors in early life can program the adult stress response in rats, and this is manifest as altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical activity and behavior in response to a stressor. Very little work has been devoted to investigating whether the environment during adolescence plays a similar role in modulating ongoing developmental processes and how this might affect adult stress responding. Periadolescent predator odor (PPO) exposure was used here as a naturalistic model of repeated psychological stress. Behavioral and endocrine responses to PPO changed across the exposure period, and behavioral alterations persisted into adulthood. While adolescent rats showed pronounced avoidance responses upon initial PPO exposure, hyperactivity increased across the exposure period, especially in females. Corticosterone (cort) responses to stressor exposure also changed in females, with higher physiological baseline levels observed at the end of the exposure period. In adulthood, relative to rats who had received a control manipulation during adolescence, PPO-exposed rats were more fearful in a novel open field and displayed altered responses to a predator odor stress test in adulthood. Moreover, lower levels of the D2 dopamine (DA) receptor were measured in prefrontal (infralimbic and dorsopeduncular) cortices of PPO-exposed rats. These findings suggest that the adolescent period may represent a sensitive period during which developmental programming of the stress response occurs.

Selective loss of dopamine D2 receptors in temporal cortex in dementia with Lewy bodies, association with cognitive decline

Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) is a progressive dementia frequently accompanied by psychotic symptoms. Similar symptoms can occur in Alzheimer's disease (AD) to a lesser extent. The use of neuroleptic medication to treat psychosis in both diseases is of modest efficacy and can induce severe adverse reactions in DLB. Dopamine D2 receptors in the cerebral cortex are the putative target for the antipsychotic action of these drugs, but the status of these receptors in DLB is unknown. Autoradiography was used to examine the density D2 receptors in postmortem temporal cortex tissue from prospectively assessed patients with neuropathologically confirmed DLB and AD. D2 receptors were substantially (over 40%) and significantly (P < 0.001) reduced in temporal cortex in DLB, and in DLB with concomitant Alzheimer pathology, but was not significantly changed in AD. This reduction correlated with greater cognitive decline (P < 0.01), but was not significantly related to visual or auditory hallucinations or delusions. D2 receptor density was inversely correlated with cortical Lewy body pathology in the neocortex (P < 0.001). The specific loss of D2 receptors associated with Lewy body pathology, in conjunction with our previous finding of low D2 receptors in striatum in DLB, provides a possible explanation for neuroleptic intolerance. That the reduction of D2 receptors correlated with cognitive decline suggests that neuroleptics, as dopamine D2 receptor antagonists, may have a deleterious effect on cognition in DLB.

Effects of acute and chronic apomorphine on sex behavior and copulation-induced neural activation in the male rat

Apomorphine is a non-selective dopaminergic receptor agonist. Because of its pro-erectile effects, apomorphine is clinically used for treatment of erectile dysfunction. We investigated the effects of subcutaneous apomorphine administration (0.4 mg/kg rat) on sexual behavior and mating-induced Fos-expression following acute (day 1) or chronic apomorphine treatment (days 8 and 15) in sexually experienced male rats. Consistent facilitatory effects of apomorphine were observed in the reduced numbers of mounts and intromissions over time and an increased ejaculation frequency on day 1. The first post-ejaculatory interval, however, was lengthened, while other behavioral parameters were unaffected. Fos-immunoreactivity induced by acute apomorphine administration (barrel cortex, paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus, central amygdala and locus coeruleus) was strongly reduced after chronic administration. After mating, induction of Fos-immunoreactivity was observed in well-known areas like medial preoptic nucleus and the posterodorsal medial amygdaloid area. Apomorphine, however, reduced mating-induced Fos-immunoreactivity in the nucleus accumbens shell and prevented its occurrence in its core area. This remarkable apomorphine effect was not observed in any other brain area. We conclude that the behavioral (pro-erectile) effects of apomorphine are consistent over time, and that the diminished accumbens-Fos-immunoreactivity and the elongated post-ejaculatory interval may reflect a decreased response to remote cues from the estrus female.

Use of the elevated plus-maze test with opaque or transparent walls in the detection of mouse strain differences and the anxiolytic effects of diazepam

The elevated plus-maze is a widely employed behavioural assay for anxiolytic and anxiogenic agents in rodents. Among laboratories, however, the apparatus often differs between the use of transparent and opaque walls. This inconsistency may represent an unnecessary confound in the literature when comparing results. Here, we directly contrasted the two designs with respect to (1) mouse strain differences (C57BL/6, 129/Sv, and C3H/He) and (2) sensitivity to diazepam (0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 mg/kg, intraperitoneal). Both mazes yielded similar results indicating that 129/Sv mice were more anxious than C57BL/6 or C3H mice, with the transparent elevated plus-maze tending to encourage open-arm exploration in all three strains. Next, we examined the effect of diazepam in the 129/Sv strain across the two mazes. Systemic diazepam at 1.5 mg/kg led to increased percentage time spent in the open arms in both elevated plus-mazes; the drug was ineffective in both elevated plus-mazes at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg. Although our results revealed little practical difference between the two mazes in terms of their ability to detect differences in anxiety-related behaviour, the baseline difference in open-arm exploration between the two elevated plus-mazes suggests that the transparent design may be more congenial for the detection of anxiogenic manipulations, and the opaque maze for anxiolytic manipulations.

5-HT(1B) receptors, ventral orbitofrontal cortex, and aggressive behavior in mice

RATIONALE

Systemic injections of 5-HT(1B) receptor agonists have been shown to have specific anti-aggressive effects in aggressive individuals. One site of action for these drugs is the 5-HT(1B) receptors in the ventral orbitofrontal cortex (VO PFC), an area that has been implicated in the inhibitory control of behavior and is a terminal region for 5-HT projections.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the anti-aggressive effects of the 5-HT(1B) receptor agonist CP-94,253 when microinjected into the VO PFC (0.1, 0.56, and 1.0 microg/0.2 microl) or into the infralimbic prefrontal cortex (IL PFC; 1.0 microg/0.2 microl) in separate groups of aggressive resident male mice. To confirm the 5-HT(1B) receptor as the critical site of action for the anti-aggressive effects, the 5-HT(1B/D) antagonist GR-127,935 was microinjected at 10.0 microg/0.2 microl into the VO PFC. After recovery from surgery, the anti-aggressive effects of microinjected CP-94,253 were studied during 5-min resident-intruder confrontations that were recorded and analyzed.

RESULTS

Microinjections of CP-94,253 (0.56 and 1.0 microg/0.2 microl) dose-dependently reduced the frequency of attack bites and sideways threats. This effect was behaviorally specific because non-aggressive motor activities were not significantly altered by the drug. In the IL vmPFC or in an area lateral to the VO PFC, CP-94,253 (1.0 microg/0.2 microl) did not have significant behavioral effects.

CONCLUSIONS

The results highlight the 5-HT(1B) receptors in the VO PFC as a particularly important site for the inhibition of species-typical aggressive behavior in male mice.

Mesocortical dopamine and HPA axis regulation: Role of laterality and early environment

The infralimbic (IL) cortex is importantly involved in regulating behavioral and physiological responses to stress, including those of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The mesocortical dopamine (DA) system is an important afferent modulator of this region, is highly stress sensitive and frequently shows functional hemispheric asymmetry. Postnatal handling stimulation facilitates development of cortical asymmetry and is also associated with optimal HPA axis regulation. The present study examines the poorly understood role of the mesocortical DA system in regulating HPA axis function in adult rats which were handled (H) or nonhandled (NH) postnatally. In the first experiment, unilateral intra-IL cortex injection of the DA (D1/D2) antagonist alpha-flupenthixol into either hemisphere significantly exaggerated the restraint stress-induced increases in plasma adrenocorticotrophic hormone and corticosterone in NH rats. In H rats, the same effect was lateralized to the right IL cortex. In a second experiment, post mortem neurochemical analysis of DAergic measures in the IL cortex was conducted in H and NH animals following either acute or repeated (5 times) restraint stress. DAergic measures in the right IL cortex were significantly correlated with reduced stress hormone activation in both H and NH rats, especially in repeatedly restrained rats. However, while H rats showed a significant rightward shift in DA metabolism with repeated stress experience, NH rats shifted DA metabolism to the left. It is suggested that, during stress, mesocortical DA release normally acts in an adaptive, negative feedback capacity preventing excessive HPA activation and, with repeated stress, the right IL cortex is particularly important in this capacity. As well, the selective enhancement of DA metabolism in the right IL cortex of H rats may underlie, in part, their typically superior ability to adapt to stress and constrain HPA activity.

Prenatal cocaine exposure specifically alters spontaneous alternation behavior

Our laboratory has previously characterized a rabbit model of gestational cocaine exposure in which permanent alterations in neuronal morphology, cell signaling and psychostimulant-induced behavior are observed. The cellular and molecular neuroadaptations produced by prenatal cocaine occur in brain regions involved in executive function and attention, such as the anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortices. Therefore, in the present study, we have measured the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on specific behavioral tasks in adult offspring whose mothers were treated with cocaine (3mg/kg, twice a day, E16-E25). We assessed non-spatial, short-term memory in a two-object recognition task and found no deficits in memory or exploratory behaviors in cocaine-exposed offspring in this paradigm. We also evaluated a different memory task with a more robust attentional component, using spontaneous alternation in a Y maze. In this task, young adult rabbits exposed to cocaine prenatally exhibited a significant deficit in performance. Deficits in spontaneous alternation can be induced by a wide variety of behavioral and cognitive dysfunctions, but taken together with previous findings in this and other animal models, we hypothesize that prenatal exposure to cocaine alters highly specific aspects of cognitive and emotional development.

Differential effects of infralimbic vs. ventromedial orbital PFC lidocaine infusions in CD-1 mice on defensive responding in the mouse defense test battery and rat exposure test

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) is extremely sensitive to a variety of stressful situations and threatening events, and has been suggested to be an associative cortical brain system processing the integration of anxiety-related cognitive, affective and motivated behavior in rodents, primates and humans. In addition, recent evidence suggests that (a) anxiety-related affective processing appears to be lateralized to the right hemisphere vmPFC; and (b) there appears to be functional heterogeneity within the rodent vmPFC. The present study evaluated the possibility that distinct sub-areas of the right hemisphere ventral PFC might differentially influence anxiety-like defensive responding in two different predator stress situations following transient inactivation of the ventromedial orbital (vMO) or infralimbic (IL) vmPFC in CD-1 mice. In week 1, IL vmPFC lidocaine infusions reduced anxiety-like defensive responding in mice (enhanced approach and contact) confronted with a hand-held anesthetized rat stimulus in the mouse defense test battery (vMO inactivation exerted minimal effects). In week 2, vMO lidocaine infusions enhanced anxiety-like defensive responding (enhanced avoidance and protected risk assessment) toward a barricaded live rat in the rat exposure test (IL inactivation exerted minimal effects). Although it is unclear whether week 1 mouse defense test battery testing influenced week 2 rat exposure test results, these preliminary data suggest functional differences within the mouse right hemisphere ventral PFC related to cautious evaluation of predator threat. Given the dense unilateral reciprocal connectivity between the IL and vMO subregions of the PFC, both associative ventromedial cortical areas may exert complimentary yet dissociable roles in the processing of threat stimuli. This suggests that while the IL vmPFC may mediate cautious evaluation of threat situations (risk assessment), the vMO PFC may inhibit prepotent avoidance responses to facilitate such IL-mediated adaptive behavioral responses.

Protean behavior under barn-owl attack: voles alternate between freezing and fleeing and spiny mice flee in alternating patterns

When attacking a spiny mouse in an experimental arena, a barn owl launched a few attacks from distant perches, made repetitive short-distance swoops in each attack and remained in the vicinity of the prey while chasing it. The spiny mouse fled in response, and typically oriented to face the owl whenever it stopped. When attacking a vole, the barn owl performed a greater number of attacks from distant perches, and left the vicinity of the prey after a few short-distance chases or capture attempts. Voles responded to these attacks in unspecific combinations of freezing and fleeing, and did not turn to face the owl when they stopped. Four conclusions are drawn from these encounters. First, two strategies characterized these predator-prey interactions; in one, both predator and prey continuously maintained awareness of each other's location; whereas in the other they continuously attempted to avoid the attention of the other. Second, responses of spiny mice and voles were a manifestation of protean behavior, with spiny mice fleeing in an alternating pattern and voles alternating between running and freezing. Third, locomotor response to owl attack comprised behavior that is an augmentation of normal behavior, with voles clinging to the walls and spiny mice running with frequent and irregular changes in direction. Fourth, the different defensive responses accord with the motor capacities and habitat of each rodent species. All in all, these results demonstrate the dynamic and multidimensional nature of predator-prey interactions.

Characterization of the anxiolytic-like effects of fluvoxamine, milnacipran and risperidone in mice using the conditioned fear stress paradigm

It has been known that rodents exhibit the immobility when tested in the same environment in which they had been previously exposed to aversive stimuli. This behavior is called conditioned fear stress-induced freezing behavior, and has been used as a model of anxiety. Using this animal model, the present study tried to characterize the anxiolytic-like effects of fluvoxamine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, milnacipran, a serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor and risperidone, an atypical antipsychotic in mice. Fluvoxamine (1.25-10 mg/kg, intraperitoneally (i.p.)) and milnacipran (0.5-4 mg/kg, i.p.) each dose-dependently and significantly suppressed the conditioned fear stress-induced freezing behavior in mice, an indicator of anxiety, and milnacipran had a weaker effect than fluvoxamine. While risperidone also significantly suppressed freezing behavior at a low dose (0.01 mg/kg, i.p.), a high dose (0.04 mg/kg, i.p.) decreased spontaneous motor activity. On the contrary, sulpiride, a typical antipsychotic (2-8 mg/kg, i.p.), did not affect freezing behavior. In a combination study, the suppressive effect of a low dose of risperidone (0.01 mg/kg, i.p.) on freezing behavior was significantly antagonized by the co-administration of low/middle doses of fluvoxamine (1.25 and 2.5 mg/kg, i.p.), whereas a high dose of fluvoxamine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) was unaffected. Additionally, the co-administration of milnacipran (0.5-2 mg/kg, i.p.) also tended to inhibit the suppressive effect of risperidone (0.01 mg/kg, i.p.). These findings indicate that fluvoxamine, milnacipran and risperidone may each be clinically effective at treating anxiety disorders, but their effects may be attenuated in combination with other medications.

Selective antagonism of medial prefrontal cortex D4 receptors decreases fear-related behaviour in rats

It is well known that the mesolimbocortical dopamine pathway is highly active during periods of stress and fear. However, very little research has directly examined how dopamine receptors in this pathway influence fear-related behaviour. The present study examined the effects of selective antagonism of D(4), D(1) and D(2) dopamine receptors of the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) on rats' fear behaviour in the elevated plus-maze and the shock-probe burying tests. The results demonstrated that bilateral intra-MPFC infusions of the highly selective D(4) antagonist, L-745 870 (0.2, 1 or 10 nmol/0.5 microL), increased the percentage of open-arm entries and open-arm time in the elevated plus-maze test (1 nmol/0.5 microL), and decreased the duration of burying in the shock-probe test (0.2 or 1 nmol/0.5 microL). Furthermore, none of the doses of the D(4) antagonist affected measures of general activity or pain sensitivity. Intra-MPFC infusions of the D(1) antagonist, SCH-23390 (0.2 or 1 nmol/0.5 microL), or the D(2) antagonist, remoxipride (0.2, 1 or 10 nmol/0.5 microL), had no significant behavioural effects in either test. Taken together, these findings suggest that MPFC D(4) receptors may play an important role in the mediation of fear-related behaviour.