1
|
Trujillo-Cirilo L, Weiss-Steider B, Vargas-Angeles CA, Corona-Ortega MT, Rangel-Corona R. Immune microenvironment of cervical cancer and the role of IL-2 in tumor promotion. Cytokine 2023; 170:156334. [PMID: 37598478 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2023.156334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a heterogeneous mixture of resident and tumor cells that maintain close communication through their secretion products. The composition of the TME is dynamic and complex among the different types of cancer, where the immune cells play a relevant role in the elimination of tumor cells, however, under certain circumstances they contribute to tumor development. In cervical cancer (CC) the human papilloma virus (HPV) shapes the microenvironment in order to mediate persistent infections that favors transformation and tumor development. Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is an important TME cytokine that induces CD8+ effector T cells and NKs to eliminate tumor cells, however, IL-2 can also suppress the immune response through Treg cells. Recent studies have shown that CC cells express the IL-2 receptor (IL-2R), that are induced to proliferate at low concentrations of exogenous IL-2 through alterations in the JAK/STAT pathway. This review provides an overview of the main immune cells that make up the TME in CC, as well as the participation of IL-2 in the tumor promotion. Finally, it is proposed that the low density of IL-2 produced by immunocompetent cells is used by tumor cells through its IL-2R as a mechanism to proliferate simultaneously depleting this molecule in order to evade immune response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Trujillo-Cirilo
- Laboratory of Cellular Oncology, Research Unit Cell Differentiation and Cancer, L-4 P.B. FES Zaragoza, National University of Mexico, Av., Guelatao No. 66 Col. Ejercito de Oriente, Iztapalapa, C.P. 09230 Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Benny Weiss-Steider
- Laboratory of Cellular Oncology, Research Unit Cell Differentiation and Cancer, L-4 P.B. FES Zaragoza, National University of Mexico, Av., Guelatao No. 66 Col. Ejercito de Oriente, Iztapalapa, C.P. 09230 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Carlos Adrian Vargas-Angeles
- Laboratory of Cellular Oncology, Research Unit Cell Differentiation and Cancer, L-4 P.B. FES Zaragoza, National University of Mexico, Av., Guelatao No. 66 Col. Ejercito de Oriente, Iztapalapa, C.P. 09230 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Maria Teresa Corona-Ortega
- Laboratory of Cellular Oncology, Research Unit Cell Differentiation and Cancer, L-4 P.B. FES Zaragoza, National University of Mexico, Av., Guelatao No. 66 Col. Ejercito de Oriente, Iztapalapa, C.P. 09230 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Rosalva Rangel-Corona
- Laboratory of Cellular Oncology, Research Unit Cell Differentiation and Cancer, L-4 P.B. FES Zaragoza, National University of Mexico, Av., Guelatao No. 66 Col. Ejercito de Oriente, Iztapalapa, C.P. 09230 Mexico City, Mexico
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Condrat CE, Cretoiu D, Radoi VE, Mihele DM, Tovaru M, Bordea CI, Voinea SC, Suciu N. Unraveling Immunological Dynamics: HPV Infection in Women-Insights from Pregnancy. Viruses 2023; 15:2011. [PMID: 37896788 PMCID: PMC10611104 DOI: 10.3390/v15102011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2023] [Revised: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
During pregnancy, hormonal and immune adaptations are vital for supporting the genetically distinct fetus during elevated infection risks. The global prevalence of HPV necessitates its consideration during pregnancy. Despite a seemingly mild immune response, historical gestational viral infections underscore its significance. Acknowledging the established HPV infection risks during pregnancy, our review explores the unfolding immunological changes in pregnant women with HPV. Our analysis aims to uncover strategies for safely modulating the immune system, mitigating adverse pregnancy consequences, and enhancing maternal and child health. This comprehensive narrative review delves into the existing knowledge and studies on this topic.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Elena Condrat
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Polizu Clinical Hospital, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 8 Eroii Sanitari Blvd., 050474 Bucharest, Romania; (C.E.C.)
| | - Dragos Cretoiu
- Department of Genetics, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 8 Eroii Sanitari Blvd., 050474 Bucharest, Romania; (D.C.); (V.E.R.)
- Fetal Medicine Excellence Research Center, Alessandrescu-Rusescu National Institute for Mother and Child Health, 020395 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Viorica Elena Radoi
- Department of Genetics, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 8 Eroii Sanitari Blvd., 050474 Bucharest, Romania; (D.C.); (V.E.R.)
- Fetal Medicine Excellence Research Center, Alessandrescu-Rusescu National Institute for Mother and Child Health, 020395 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Dana Mihaela Mihele
- Department of Dermatology, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 8 Eroii Sanitari Blvd., 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Dermatology Department, Victor Babes Clinical Hospital of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, 030303 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Mihaela Tovaru
- Department of Dermatology, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 8 Eroii Sanitari Blvd., 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Dermatology Department, Victor Babes Clinical Hospital of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, 030303 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Cristian Ioan Bordea
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Prof. Dr. Alexandru Trestioreanu Oncology Institute, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 252 Fundeni Rd., 022328 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Silviu Cristian Voinea
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Prof. Dr. Alexandru Trestioreanu Oncology Institute, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 252 Fundeni Rd., 022328 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Nicolae Suciu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Polizu Clinical Hospital, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 8 Eroii Sanitari Blvd., 050474 Bucharest, Romania; (C.E.C.)
- Fetal Medicine Excellence Research Center, Alessandrescu-Rusescu National Institute for Mother and Child Health, 020395 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Polizu Clinical Hospital, Alessandrescu-Rusescu National Institute for Mother and Child Health, 020395 Bucharest, Romania
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Aguayo F, Perez-Dominguez F, Osorio JC, Oliva C, Calaf GM. PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathway in HPV-Driven Head and Neck Carcinogenesis: Therapeutic Implications. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:biology12050672. [PMID: 37237486 DOI: 10.3390/biology12050672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
High-risk human papillomaviruses (HR-HPVs) are the causal agents of cervical, anogenital and a subset of head and neck carcinomas (HNCs). Indeed, oropharyngeal cancers are a type of HNC highly associated with HR-HPV infections and constitute a specific clinical entity. The oncogenic mechanism of HR-HPV involves E6/E7 oncoprotein overexpression for promoting cell immortalization and transformation, through the downregulation of p53 and pRB tumor suppressor proteins, among other cellular targets. Additionally, E6/E7 proteins are involved in promoting PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway alterations. In this review, we address the relationship between HR-HPV and PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway activation in HNC with an emphasis on its therapeutic importance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Aguayo
- Departamento de Biomedicina, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica 1000000, Chile
| | - Francisco Perez-Dominguez
- Laboratorio de Oncovirología, Programa de Virología, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas (ICBM), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380000, Chile
| | - Julio C Osorio
- Laboratorio de Oncovirología, Programa de Virología, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas (ICBM), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380000, Chile
| | - Carolina Oliva
- Laboratorio de Oncovirología, Programa de Virología, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas (ICBM), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380000, Chile
| | - Gloria M Calaf
- Instituto de Alta Investigación, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica 1000000, Chile
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Lin G, Li J. Circulating HPV DNA in HPV-associated cancers. Clin Chim Acta 2023; 542:117269. [PMID: 36841427 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2023.117269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/26/2023]
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) infections are the primary cause of almost all cervical cancers, anal cancers, and a variable proportion of other anogenital tumors, as well as head and neck cancers. Circulating HPV DNA (cHPV-DNA) is emerging as a biomarker with extensive potential in the management of HPV-driven malignancies. There has been a rapid advancement in the development of techniques for analyzing cHPV-DNA for the detection, characterization, and monitoring of HPV-associated cancers. As clinical evidence accumulates, it is becoming evident that cHPV-DNA can be used as a diagnostic tool. By conducting clinical trials assessing the clinical utility of cHPV-DNA, the full potential of cHPV-DNA for the screening, diagnosis, and treatment of HPV-related malignancies can be corroborated. In this review, we examine the current landscape of applications for cHPV-DNA liquid biopsies throughout the cancer care continuum, highlighting future opportunities for research and integration into clinical practice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guigao Lin
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing Hospital/National Center of Gerontology, Beijing, PR China; Graduate School, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, PR China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Laboratory Medicine, Beijing Hospital, Beijing, PR China.
| | - Jinming Li
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing Hospital/National Center of Gerontology, Beijing, PR China; Graduate School, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, PR China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Laboratory Medicine, Beijing Hospital, Beijing, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hewavisenti RV, Arena J, Ahlenstiel CL, Sasson SC. Human papillomavirus in the setting of immunodeficiency: Pathogenesis and the emergence of next-generation therapies to reduce the high associated cancer risk. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1112513. [PMID: 36960048 PMCID: PMC10027931 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1112513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV), a common sexually transmitted virus infecting mucosal or cutaneous stratified epithelia, is implicated in the rising of associated cancers worldwide. While HPV infection can be cleared by an adequate immune response, immunocompromised individuals can develop persistent, treatment-refractory, and progressive disease. Primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) associated with HPV-related disease include inborn errors of GATA, EVER1/2, and CXCR4 mutations, resulting in defective cellular function. People living with secondary immunodeficiency (e.g. solid-organ transplants recipients of immunosuppression) and acquired immunodeficiency (e.g. concurrent human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection) are also at significant risk of HPV-related disease. Immunocompromised people are highly susceptible to the development of cutaneous and mucosal warts, and cervical, anogenital and oropharyngeal carcinomas. The specific mechanisms underlying high-risk HPV-driven cancer development in immunocompromised hosts are not well understood. Current treatments for HPV-related cancers include surgery with adjuvant chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy, with clinical trials underway to investigate the use of anti-PD-1 therapy. In the setting of HIV co-infection, persistent high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia can occur despite suppressive antiretroviral therapy, resulting in an ongoing risk for transformation to overt malignancy. Although therapeutic vaccines against HPV are under development, the efficacy of these in the setting of PID, secondary- or acquired- immunodeficiencies remains unclear. RNA-based therapeutic targeting of the HPV genome or mRNA transcript has become a promising next-generation therapeutic avenue. In this review, we summarise the current understanding of HPV pathogenesis, immune evasion, and malignant transformation, with a focus on key PIDs, secondary immunodeficiencies, and HIV infection. Current management and vaccine regimes are outlined in relation to HPV-driven cancer, and specifically, the need for more effective therapeutic strategies for immunocompromised hosts. The recent advances in RNA-based gene targeting including CRISPR and short interfering RNA (siRNA), and the potential application to HPV infection are of great interest. An increased understanding of both the dysregulated immune responses in immunocompromised hosts and of viral persistence is essential for the design of next-generation therapies to eliminate HPV persistence and cancer development in the most at-risk populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rehana V. Hewavisenti
- Immunovirology and Pathogenesis Program, The Kirby Institute, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Joshua Arena
- Immunovirology and Pathogenesis Program, The Kirby Institute, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- UNSW RNA Institute, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Chantelle L. Ahlenstiel
- Immunovirology and Pathogenesis Program, The Kirby Institute, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- UNSW RNA Institute, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Sarah C. Sasson
- Immunovirology and Pathogenesis Program, The Kirby Institute, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- *Correspondence: Sarah C. Sasson,
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Rattay S, Hufbauer M, Hagen C, Putschli B, Coch C, Akgül B, Hartmann G. Human Beta Papillomavirus Type 8 E1 and E2 Proteins Suppress the Activation of the RIG-I-like Receptor MDA5. Viruses 2022; 14:v14071361. [PMID: 35891343 PMCID: PMC9317666 DOI: 10.3390/v14071361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Persistent infections of the skin with the human papillomavirus of genus beta (β-HPV) in immunocompetent individuals are asymptomatic, but in immunosuppressed patients, β-HPV infections exhibit much higher viral loads on the skin and are associated with an increased risk of skin cancer. Unlike with HPV16, a high-risk α-HPV, the impact of β-HPV early genes on the innate immune sensing of viral nucleic acids has not been studied. Here, we used primary skin keratinocytes and U2OS cells expressing HPV8 or distinct HPV8 early genes and well-defined ligands of the nucleic-acid-sensing receptors RIG-I, MDA5, TLR3, and STING to analyze a potential functional interaction. We found that primary skin keratinocytes and U2OS cells expressed RIG-I, MDA5, TLR3, and STING, but not TLR7, TLR8, or TLR9. While HPV16-E6 downregulated the expression of RIG-I, MDA5, TLR3, and STING and, in conjunction with HPV16-E7, effectively suppressed type I IFN in response to MDA5 activation, the presence of HPV8 early genes showed little effect on the expression of these immune receptors, except for HPV8-E2, which was associated with an elevated expression of TLR3. Nevertheless, whole HPV8 genome expression, as well as the selective expression of HPV8-E1 or HPV8-E2, was found to suppress MDA5-induced type I IFN and the proinflammatory cytokine IL-6. Furthermore, RNA isolated from HPV8-E2 expressing primary human keratinocytes, but not control cells, stimulated a type I IFN response in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, indicating that the expression of HPV8-E2 in keratinocytes leads to the formation of stimulatory RNA ligands that require the active suppression of immune recognition. These results identify HPV8-E1 and HPV8-E2 as viral proteins that are responsible for the immune escape of β-HPV from the innate recognition of viral nucleic acids, a mechanism that may be necessary for establishing persistent β-HPV infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Rattay
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital, University of Bonn, Gebäude 12, Venusberg-Campus 1, 53127 Bonn, Germany; (C.H.); (B.P.); (C.C.); (G.H.)
- Institute of Virology, Medical Faculty and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Fürst-Pückler-Str. 56., 50935 Cologne, Germany; (M.H.); (B.A.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-221-478-85821; Fax: +49-221-478-85802
| | - Martin Hufbauer
- Institute of Virology, Medical Faculty and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Fürst-Pückler-Str. 56., 50935 Cologne, Germany; (M.H.); (B.A.)
| | - Christian Hagen
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital, University of Bonn, Gebäude 12, Venusberg-Campus 1, 53127 Bonn, Germany; (C.H.); (B.P.); (C.C.); (G.H.)
| | - Bastian Putschli
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital, University of Bonn, Gebäude 12, Venusberg-Campus 1, 53127 Bonn, Germany; (C.H.); (B.P.); (C.C.); (G.H.)
| | - Christoph Coch
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital, University of Bonn, Gebäude 12, Venusberg-Campus 1, 53127 Bonn, Germany; (C.H.); (B.P.); (C.C.); (G.H.)
| | - Baki Akgül
- Institute of Virology, Medical Faculty and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Fürst-Pückler-Str. 56., 50935 Cologne, Germany; (M.H.); (B.A.)
| | - Gunther Hartmann
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital, University of Bonn, Gebäude 12, Venusberg-Campus 1, 53127 Bonn, Germany; (C.H.); (B.P.); (C.C.); (G.H.)
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Alternative Splicing in Cancer and Immune Cells. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14071726. [PMID: 35406498 PMCID: PMC8996879 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14071726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Splicing is a phenomenon enabling the excision of introns from pre-mRNA to give rise to mature mRNA. All the 20,000 genes of the human genome are concerned by this mechanism. Nevertheless, it is estimated that the proteome is composed of more than 100,000 proteins. How to go from 20,000 genes to more than 100,000 proteins? Alternative splicing (AS) is in charge of this diversity of proteins. AS which is found in most of the cells of an organism, participates in normal cells and in particular in immune cells, in the regulation of cellular behavior. In cancer, AS is highly dysregulated and involved in almost all of the hallmarks that characterize tumor cells. In view of the close link that exists between tumors and the immune system, we present in this review the literature relating to alternative splicing and immunotherapy. We also provide a global but not exhaustive view of AS in the immune system and tumor cells linked to the events that can lead to AS dysregulation in tumors.
Collapse
|
8
|
Muntinga CLP, de Vos van Steenwijk PJ, Bekkers RLM, van Esch EMG. Importance of the Immune Microenvironment in the Spontaneous Regression of Cervical Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions (cSIL) and Implications for Immunotherapy. J Clin Med 2022; 11:jcm11051432. [PMID: 35268523 PMCID: PMC8910829 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11051432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Cervical high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (cHSILs) develop as a result of a persistent high-risk human papilloma virus (hrHPV) infection. The natural course of cHSIL is hard to predict, depending on a multitude of viral, clinical, and immunological factors. Local immunity is pivotal in the pathogenesis, spontaneous regression, and progression of cervical dysplasia; however, the underlying mechanisms are unknown. The aim of this review is to outline the changes in the immune microenvironment in spontaneous regression, persistence, and responses to (immuno)therapy. In lesion persistence and progression, the immune microenvironment of cHSIL is characterized by a lack of intraepithelial CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+ T cell infiltrates and Langerhans cells compared to the normal epithelium and by an increased number of CD25+FoxP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) and CD163+ M2 macrophages. Spontaneous regression is characterized by low numbers of Tregs, more intraepithelial CD8+ T cells, and a high CD4+/CD25+ T cell ratio. A ‘hot’ immune microenvironment appears to be essential for spontaneous regression of cHSIL. Moreover, immunotherapy, such as imiquimod and therapeutic HPV vaccination, may enhance a preexisting pro-inflammatory immune environment contributing to lesion regression. The preexisting immune composition may reflect the potential for lesion regression, leading to a possible immune biomarker for immunotherapy in cHSILs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caroline L. P. Muntinga
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Catharina Ziekenhuis Eindhoven, Michelangelolaan 2, 5623 EJ Eindhoven, The Netherlands; (C.L.P.M.); (R.L.M.B.)
- GROW—School for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands;
| | - Peggy J. de Vos van Steenwijk
- GROW—School for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands;
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Maastricht Universitair Medisch Centrum, P. Debyelaan 25, 6229 HX Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Ruud L. M. Bekkers
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Catharina Ziekenhuis Eindhoven, Michelangelolaan 2, 5623 EJ Eindhoven, The Netherlands; (C.L.P.M.); (R.L.M.B.)
- GROW—School for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands;
| | - Edith M. G. van Esch
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Catharina Ziekenhuis Eindhoven, Michelangelolaan 2, 5623 EJ Eindhoven, The Netherlands; (C.L.P.M.); (R.L.M.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +31-402-399-111
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Lebeau A, Bruyere D, Roncarati P, Peixoto P, Hervouet E, Cobraiville G, Taminiau B, Masson M, Gallego C, Mazzucchelli G, Smargiasso N, Fleron M, Baiwir D, Hendrick E, Pilard C, Lerho T, Reynders C, Ancion M, Greimers R, Twizere JC, Daube G, Schlecht-Louf G, Bachelerie F, Combes JD, Melin P, Fillet M, Delvenne P, Hubert P, Herfs M. HPV infection alters vaginal microbiome through down-regulating host mucosal innate peptides used by Lactobacilli as amino acid sources. Nat Commun 2022; 13:1076. [PMID: 35228537 PMCID: PMC8885657 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-28724-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the high prevalence of both cervico-vaginal human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and bacterial vaginosis (BV) worldwide, their causal relationship remains unclear. While BV has been presumed to be a risk factor for HPV acquisition and related carcinogenesis for a long time, here, supported by both a large retrospective follow-up study (n = 6,085) and extensive in vivo data using the K14-HPV16 transgenic mouse model, we report a novel blueprint in which the opposite association also exists. Mechanistically, by interacting with several core members (NEMO, CK1 and β-TrCP) of both NF-κB and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways, we show that HPV E7 oncoprotein greatly inhibits host defense peptide expression. Physiologically secreted by the squamous mucosa lining the lower female genital tract, we demonstrate that some of these latter are fundamental factors governing host-microbial interactions. More specifically, several innate molecules down-regulated in case of HPV infection are hydrolyzed, internalized and used by the predominant Lactobacillus species as amino acid source sustaining their growth/survival. Collectively, this study reveals a new viral immune evasion strategy which, by its persistent/negative impact on lactic acid bacteria, ultimately causes the dysbiosis of vaginal microbiota.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alizee Lebeau
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Diane Bruyere
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Patrick Roncarati
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Paul Peixoto
- INSERM, EFS BFC, UMR 1098, Interactions Hôte-Greffon-Tumeur/Ingénierie Cellulaire et Génique, University of Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
- EPIGENEXP platform, University of Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
| | - Eric Hervouet
- INSERM, EFS BFC, UMR 1098, Interactions Hôte-Greffon-Tumeur/Ingénierie Cellulaire et Génique, University of Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
- EPIGENEXP platform, University of Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
| | - Gael Cobraiville
- Laboratory for the Analysis of Medicines, Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Medicines (CIRM), University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Bernard Taminiau
- Department of Food Sciences-Microbiology, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals and Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Murielle Masson
- Ecole Supérieure de Biotechnologie Strasbourg, UMR 7242, CNRS, University of Strasbourg, Illkirch, France
| | - Carmen Gallego
- INSERM UMR 996, Inflammation Microbiome and Immunosurveillance, University of Paris-Saclay, Clamart, France
| | - Gabriel Mazzucchelli
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry, Department of Chemistry, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Nicolas Smargiasso
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry, Department of Chemistry, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Maximilien Fleron
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry, Department of Chemistry, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
- GIGA Proteomic Facility, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Dominique Baiwir
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry, Department of Chemistry, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
- GIGA Proteomic Facility, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Elodie Hendrick
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Charlotte Pilard
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Thomas Lerho
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Celia Reynders
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Marie Ancion
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Roland Greimers
- Department of Pathology, University Hospital Center of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Jean-Claude Twizere
- Laboratory of Signaling and Protein Interactions, GIGA-Molecular Biology of Diseases, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Georges Daube
- Department of Food Sciences-Microbiology, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals and Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Geraldine Schlecht-Louf
- INSERM UMR 996, Inflammation Microbiome and Immunosurveillance, University of Paris-Saclay, Clamart, France
| | - Françoise Bachelerie
- INSERM UMR 996, Inflammation Microbiome and Immunosurveillance, University of Paris-Saclay, Clamart, France
| | - Jean-Damien Combes
- Infections and Cancer Epidemiology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, Lyon, France
| | - Pierrette Melin
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, University Hospital Center of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Marianne Fillet
- Laboratory for the Analysis of Medicines, Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Medicines (CIRM), University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Philippe Delvenne
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
- Department of Pathology, University Hospital Center of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Pascale Hubert
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Michael Herfs
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Human Papillomaviruses-Associated Cancers: An Update of Current Knowledge. Viruses 2021; 13:v13112234. [PMID: 34835040 PMCID: PMC8623401 DOI: 10.3390/v13112234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs), which are small, double-stranded, circular DNA viruses infecting human epithelial cells, are associated with various benign and malignant lesions of mucosa and skin. Intensive research on the oncogenic potential of HPVs started in the 1970s and spread across Europe, including Croatia, and worldwide. Nowadays, the causative role of a subset of oncogenic or high-risk (HR) HPV types, led by HPV-16 and HPV-18, of different anogenital and head and neck cancers is well accepted. Two major viral oncoproteins, E6 and E7, are directly involved in the development of HPV-related malignancies by targeting synergistically various cellular pathways involved in the regulation of cell cycle control, apoptosis, and cell polarity control networks as well as host immune response. This review is aimed at describing the key elements in HPV-related carcinogenesis and the advances in cancer prevention with reference to past and on-going research in Croatia.
Collapse
|
11
|
Chang YF, Yan GJ, Liu GC, Hong Y, Chen HL, Jiang S, Zhong Y, Xiyang YB, Hu T. HPV16 E6 Promotes the Progression of HPV Infection-Associated Cervical Cancer by Upregulating Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Expression. Front Oncol 2021; 11:718781. [PMID: 34692493 PMCID: PMC8529275 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.718781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cervical cancer, which is significantly associated with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, currently ranks the fourth most common cancer among women worldwide. Previous literature reported that the elevated expression of G6PD was significantly correlated with the occurrence and deterioration of human cervical cancer, especially with the cervical cancer with HPV16 and HPV18 infection. In this study, we verified that G6PD expression has a strong positive correlation with HPV16 E6 levels in cervical cancer tissues and cells. In addition, regulating the expression of HPV16 E6 significantly affected the proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and invasion in the cervical cancer HeLa cells, as well as the transcript and protein levels of G6PD. The luciferase reporter assay and ChIP assay proved that HPV16 E6 stimulated the transcription of G6PD mRNA and subsequently enhanced the expression of G6PD through directly binding to the specific sites in the promoter of G6PD. Our findings reveal that HPV16 E6 is a novel regulatory factor of G6PD. Furthermore, by regulating the expression of G6PD, HPV16 E6 might promote the proliferation and migration potential, and inhibit apoptosis of cervical cancer cells, which ultimately contributed to the progression and metastasis of cervical cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ye-Fei Chang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming, China
| | - Guo-Ji Yan
- Institute of Neuroscience, Basic Medical College, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Guang-Cai Liu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming, China
| | - Ying Hong
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming, China
| | - Hong-Lan Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming, China
| | - Shui Jiang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming, China
| | - Yong Zhong
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming, China
| | - Yan-Bin Xiyang
- Institute of Neuroscience, Basic Medical College, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Tao Hu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming, China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
Owing to the presence of known tumor-specific viral antigens, human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated cancers are well suited for treatment with immunotherapy designed to unleash, amplify or replace the T cell arm of the adaptive immune system. Immune checkpoint blockade designed to unleash existing T cell immunity is currently Food and Drug Administration approved for certain HPV-associated cancers. More specific immunotherapies such as therapeutic vaccines and T cell receptor-engineered cellular therapy are currently in clinical development. Such therapies may offer more specific immune activation against viral tumor antigens and decrease the risk of immune-related adverse events. Current and planned clinical study of these treatments will determine their utility in the treatment of patients with newly diagnosed advanced stage or relapsed HPV-associated cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maxwell Y Lee
- Section on Translational Tumor Immunology, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
| | - Clint T Allen
- Section on Translational Tumor Immunology, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Cosper PF, Bradley S, Luo L, Kimple RJ. Biology of HPV Mediated Carcinogenesis and Tumor Progression. Semin Radiat Oncol 2021; 31:265-273. [PMID: 34455982 DOI: 10.1016/j.semradonc.2021.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a ubiquitous DNA virus that infects squamous epithelia. Though HPV only encodes 8 genes, it is capable of causing cellular transformation and ultimately cancer in host cells. In this article we review the classification of HPV viruses, their genetic structure and life cycle, viral gene biology, and provide an overview of the role of HPV in cancer. We explain how the viral life cycle can lead to integration of viral DNA into the host genome leading to increased cell cycle progression, decreased apoptosis, altered DNA repair, and chromosomal instability. We describe the multifaceted roles of the canonical oncogenes E6 and E7 in promoting tumorigenesis and the important role of other viral genes in regulating cancer development. We also review how the virus actively suppresses innate and adaptive immunity to evade immune detection and promote a pro-tumorigenic microenvironment. The biology presented here will serve as a foundation to the other chapters in this edition and we hope it will incite enthusiasm for continued research on this fascinating virus that causes significant morbidity and mortality worldwide.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pippa F Cosper
- Department of Human Oncology, University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, Madison, WI; University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI.
| | - Samantha Bradley
- Department of Human Oncology, University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, Madison, WI
| | - Lexi Luo
- Department of Human Oncology, University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, Madison, WI
| | - Randall J Kimple
- Department of Human Oncology, University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, Madison, WI; University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Lei V, Petty AJ, Atwater AR, Wolfe SA, MacLeod AS. Skin Viral Infections: Host Antiviral Innate Immunity and Viral Immune Evasion. Front Immunol 2020; 11:593901. [PMID: 33240281 PMCID: PMC7677409 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.593901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The skin is an active immune organ that functions as the first and largest site of defense to the outside environment. Serving as the primary interface between host and pathogen, the skin’s early immune responses to viral invaders often determine the course and severity of infection. We review the current literature pertaining to the mechanisms of cutaneous viral invasion for classical skin-tropic, oncogenic, and vector-borne skin viruses. We discuss the skin’s evolved mechanisms for innate immune viral defense against these invading pathogens, as well as unique strategies utilized by the viruses to escape immune detection. We additionally explore the roles that demographic and environmental factors, such as age, biological sex, and the cutaneous microbiome, play in altering the host immune response to viral threats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vivian Lei
- Department of Dermatology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States.,School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Amy J Petty
- School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Amber R Atwater
- Department of Dermatology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Sarah A Wolfe
- Department of Dermatology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Amanda S MacLeod
- Department of Dermatology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States.,Department of Immunology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States.,Pinnell Center for Investigative Dermatology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States.,Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Jee B, Yadav R, Pankaj S, Shahi SK. Immunology of HPV-mediated cervical cancer: current understanding. Int Rev Immunol 2020; 40:359-378. [PMID: 32853049 DOI: 10.1080/08830185.2020.1811859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Human papilloma virus (HPV) has emerged as a primary cause of cervical cancer worldwide. HPV is a relatively small (55 nm in diameter) and non-enveloped virus containing approximately 8 kb long double stranded circular DNA genome. To date, 228 genotypes of HPV have been identified. Although all HPV infections do not lead to the development of malignancy of cervix, only persistent infection of high-risk types of HPV (mainly with HPV16 and HPV18) results in the disease. In addition, the immunity of the patients also acts as a key determinant in the carcinogenesis. Since, no HPV type specific medication is available for the patient suffering with cervical cancer, hence, a deep understanding of the disease etiology may be vital for developing an effective strategy for its prevention and management. From the immunological perspectives, the entire mechanisms of disease progression still remain unclear despite continuous efforts. In the present review, the recent developments in immunology of HPV-mediated cervix carcinoma were discussed. At the end, the prevention of disease using HPV type specific recombinant vaccines was also highlighted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Babban Jee
- Department of Health Research, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi, India
| | - Renu Yadav
- Department of Biotechnology, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, India
| | - Sangeeta Pankaj
- Department of Gynecological Oncology, Regional Cancer Centre, Indira Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, India
| | - Shivendra Kumar Shahi
- Department of Microbiology, Indira Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, India
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Quinlan S, May S, Weeks R, Yuan H, Luff JA. Abrogation of Constitutive and Induced Type I and Type III Interferons and Interferon-Stimulated Genes in Keratinocytes by Canine Papillomavirus 2 E6 and E7. Viruses 2020; 12:v12060677. [PMID: 32585804 PMCID: PMC7354437 DOI: 10.3390/v12060677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cutaneous papillomaviruses can cause severe, persistent infections and skin cancer in immunodeficient patients, including people with X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (XSCID). A similar phenotype is observed in a canine model of XSCID; these dogs acquire severe cutaneous papillomavirus infections that can progress to cancer in association with canine papillomavirus type 2 (CPV2). This canine model system provides a natural spontaneous animal model for investigation of papillomavirus infections in immunodeficient patients. Currently, it is unknown if CPV2 can subvert the innate immune system and interfere with its ability to express antiviral cytokines, which are critical in the host defense against viral pathogens. The aim of the current study was to determine if the oncogenes E6 and E7 from CPV2 interfere with expression of antiviral cytokines in keratinocytes, the target cells of papillomavirus infections. We determined that E6 but not E7 interferes with the constitutive expression of some antiviral cytokines, including interferon (IFN)-β and the IFN-stimulated gene IFIT1. Both E6 and E7 interfere with the transcriptional upregulation of the antiviral cytokines in response to stimulation with the dsDNA Poly(dA:dT). In contrast, while E6 also interferes with the transcriptional upregulation of antiviral cytokines in response to stimulation with the dsRNA Poly(I:C), E7 interferes with only a subset of these antiviral cytokines. Finally, we demonstrated that E7 but not E6 abrogates signaling through the type I IFN receptor. Taken together, CPV2 E6 and E7 both impact expression of antiviral cytokines in canine keratinocytes, albeit likely through different mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Quinlan
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27607, USA; (S.Q.); (S.M.); (R.W.)
| | - Susan May
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27607, USA; (S.Q.); (S.M.); (R.W.)
| | - Ryan Weeks
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27607, USA; (S.Q.); (S.M.); (R.W.)
| | - Hang Yuan
- Department of Pathology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20057, USA;
| | - Jennifer A. Luff
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27607, USA; (S.Q.); (S.M.); (R.W.)
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Subversion of Host Innate Immunity by Human Papillomavirus Oncoproteins. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9040292. [PMID: 32316236 PMCID: PMC7238203 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9040292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The growth of human papillomavirus (HPV)-transformed cells depends on the ability of the viral oncoproteins E6 and E7, especially those from high-risk HPV16/18, to manipulate the signaling pathways involved in cell proliferation, cell death, and innate immunity. Emerging evidence indicates that E6/E7 inhibition reactivates the host innate immune response, reversing what until then was an unresponsive cellular state suitable for viral persistence and tumorigenesis. Given that the disruption of distinct mechanisms of immune evasion is an attractive strategy for cancer therapy, the race is on to gain a better understanding of E6/E7-induced immune escape and cancer progression. Here, we review recent literature on the interplay between E6/E7 and the innate immune signaling pathways cGAS/STING/TBK1, RIG-I/MAVS/TBK1, and Toll-like receptors (TLRs). The overall emerging picture is that E6 and E7 have evolved broad-spectrum mechanisms allowing for the simultaneous depletion of multiple rather than single innate immunity effectors. The cGAS/STING/TBK1 pathway appears to be the most heavily impacted, whereas the RIG-I/MAVS/TBK1, still partially functional in HPV-transformed cells, can be activated by the powerful RIG-I agonist M8, triggering the massive production of type I and III interferons (IFNs), which potentiates chemotherapy-mediated cell killing. Overall, the identification of novel therapeutic targets to restore the innate immune response in HPV-transformed cells could transform the way HPV-associated cancers are treated.
Collapse
|
18
|
Suppression of a Subset of Interferon-Induced Genes by Human Papillomavirus Type 16 E7 via a Cyclin Dependent Kinase 8-Dependent Mechanism. Viruses 2020; 12:v12030311. [PMID: 32183180 PMCID: PMC7150855 DOI: 10.3390/v12030311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Persistent infection by human papillomaviruses (HPVs), small, double-stranded DNA viruses that infect keratinocytes of the squamous epithelia, can lead to the development of cervical and other cancers. The viral oncoprotein E7 contributes to viral persistence in part by regulating host gene expression through binding host transcriptional regulators, although mechanisms responsible for E7-mediated transcriptional regulation are incompletely understood. Type I IFN signaling promotes the expression of anti-viral genes, called interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs), through the phosphorylation and activation of STAT1. In this study, we have observed that the CR3 domain of E7 contributes to the episomal maintenance of viral genomes. Transcriptome analysis revealed that E7 transcriptionally suppresses a subset of ISGs but not through regulation of STAT1 activation. Instead, we discovered that E7 associates with Mediator kinase CDK8 and this is correlated with the recruitment of CDK8 to ISG promoters and reduced ISG expression. E7 fails to suppress ISGs in the absence of CDK8, indicating that CDK8 function contributes to the suppression of ISGs by E7. Altogether, E7/CDK8 association may be a novel mechanism by which E7 inhibits innate immune signaling.
Collapse
|
19
|
Ferreira AR, Ramalho AC, Marques M, Ribeiro D. The Interplay between Antiviral Signalling and Carcinogenesis in Human Papillomavirus Infections. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12030646. [PMID: 32164347 PMCID: PMC7139948 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12030646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are the causative agents of the most common sexually transmitted infection worldwide. While infection is generally asymptomatic and can be cleared by the host immune system, when persistence occurs, HPV can become a risk factor for malignant transformation. Progression to cancer is actually an unintended consequence of the complex HPV life cycle. Different antiviral defence mechanisms recognize HPV early in infection, leading to the activation of the innate immune response. However, the virus has evolved several specific strategies to efficiently evade the antiviral immune signalling. Here, we review and discuss the interplay between HPV and the host cell innate immunity. We further highlight the evasion strategies developed by different HPV to escape this cellular response and focus on the correlation with HPV-induced persistence and tumorigenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Daniela Ribeiro
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +351-234-247 014; Fax: +351-234-372-587
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
James CD, Fontan CT, Otoa R, Das D, Prabhakar AT, Wang X, Bristol ML, Morgan IM. Human Papillomavirus 16 E6 and E7 Synergistically Repress Innate Immune Gene Transcription. mSphere 2020; 5:e00828-19. [PMID: 31915229 PMCID: PMC6952203 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00828-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are causative agents in 5% of all cancers, including the majority of anogenital and oropharyngeal cancers. Downregulation of innate immune genes (IIGs) by HPV to promote the viral life cycle is well documented; E6 and E7 are known repressors of these genes. More recently, we demonstrated that E2 could also repress IIGs. These studies have been carried out in cells overexpressing the viral proteins, and to further investigate the role of individual viral proteins in this repression, we introduced stop codons into E6 and/or E7 in the entire HPV16 genome and generated N/Tert-1 cells stably maintaining the HPV16 genomes. We demonstrate that E6 or E7 individually is not sufficient to repress IIG expression in the context of the entire HPV16 genome; both are required for a synergistic repression. The DNA damage response (DDR) is activated by HPV16 irrespective of E6 and E7 expression, presumably due to viral replication; E1 is a known activator of the DDR. In addition, replication stress was apparent in HPV16-positive cells lacking E6 and E7, manifested by attenuated cellular growth and activation of replication stress genes. These studies led us to the following model. Viral replication per se can activate the DDR following infection, and this activation is a known inducer of IIG expression, which may induce cellular senescence. To combat this, E6 and E7 synergistically combine to manipulate the DDR and actively repress innate immune gene expression promoting cellular growth; neither protein by itself is able to do this.IMPORTANCE The role of human papillomavirus 16 (HPV16) in human cancers is well established; however, to date there are no antiviral therapeutics that are available for combatting these cancers. To identify such targets, we must enhance the understanding of the viral life cycle. Innate immune genes (IIGs) are repressed by HPV16, and we have reported that this repression persists through to cancer. Reversal of this repression would boost the immune response to HPV16-positive tumors, an area that is becoming more important given the advances in immunotherapy. This report demonstrates that E6 and E7 synergistically repress IIG expression in the context of the entire HPV16 genome. Removal of either protein activates the expression of IIGs by HPV16. Therefore, gaining a precise understanding of how the viral oncogenes repress IIG expression represents an opportunity to reverse this repression and boost the immune response to HPV16 infections for therapeutic gain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claire D James
- Philips Institute for Oral Health Research, School of Dentistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Christian T Fontan
- Philips Institute for Oral Health Research, School of Dentistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Raymonde Otoa
- Philips Institute for Oral Health Research, School of Dentistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Dipon Das
- Philips Institute for Oral Health Research, School of Dentistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Apurva T Prabhakar
- Philips Institute for Oral Health Research, School of Dentistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Xu Wang
- Philips Institute for Oral Health Research, School of Dentistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Molly L Bristol
- Philips Institute for Oral Health Research, School of Dentistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Iain M Morgan
- Philips Institute for Oral Health Research, School of Dentistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
- Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Human Papillomavirus 16 E5 Inhibits Interferon Signaling and Supports Episomal Viral Maintenance. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.01582-19. [PMID: 31666385 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01582-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) infect keratinocytes of stratified epithelia. Long-term persistence of infection is a critical risk factor for the development of HPV-induced malignancies. Through the actions of its oncogenes, HPV evades host immune responses to facilitate its productive life cycle. In this work, we discovered a previously unknown function of the HPV16 E5 oncoprotein in the suppression of interferon (IFN) responses. This suppression is focused on keratinocyte-specific IFN-κ and is mediated through E5-induced changes in growth factor signaling pathways, as identified through phosphoproteomics analysis. The loss of E5 in keratinocytes maintaining the complete HPV16 genome results in the derepression of IFNK transcription and subsequent JAK/STAT-dependent upregulation of several IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) at both the mRNA and protein levels. We also established a link between the loss of E5 and the subsequent loss of genome maintenance and stability, resulting in increased genome integration.IMPORTANCE Persistent human papillomavirus infections can cause a variety of significant cancers. The ability of HPV to persist depends on evasion of the host immune system. In this study, we show that the HPV16 E5 protein can suppress an important aspect of the host immune response. In addition, we find that the E5 protein is important for helping the virus avoid integration into the host genome, which is a frequent step along the pathway to cancer development.
Collapse
|
22
|
Liu Y, Li H, Pi R, Yang Y, Zhao X, Qi X. Current strategies against persistent human papillomavirus infection (Review). Int J Oncol 2019; 55:570-584. [PMID: 31364734 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2019.4847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted infection, exhibiting a tropism for the epidermis and mucosae. The link between persistent HPV infection and malignancies involving the anogenital tract as well as the head and neck has been well‑established, and it is estimated that HPV‑related cancers involving various anatomical sites account for 4.5% of all human cancers. Current prophylactic vaccines against HPV have enabled the prevention of associated malignancies. However, the sizeable population base of current infection in whom prophylactic vaccines are not applicable, certain high‑risk HPV types not included in vaccines, and the vast susceptible population in developing countries who do not have access to the costly prophylactic vaccines, put forward an imperative need for effective therapies targeting persistent infection. In this article, the life cycle of HPV, the mechanisms facilitating HPV evasion of recognition and clearance by the host immune system, and the promising therapeutic strategies currently under investigation, particularly antiviral drugs and therapeutic vaccines, are reviewed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Liu
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Development and Related Diseases of Women and Children Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Hongyi Li
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Development and Related Diseases of Women and Children Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Ruyu Pi
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Development and Related Diseases of Women and Children Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Yang Yang
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Development and Related Diseases of Women and Children Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Xia Zhao
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Development and Related Diseases of Women and Children Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Xiaorong Qi
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Development and Related Diseases of Women and Children Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Mamai O, Dodagatta-Marri E, Akhurst RJ. From prevention to cure, repurposing anti-viral vaccines for cancer immunotherapy. BIOTARGET 2018; 2:20. [PMID: 30906919 PMCID: PMC6428074 DOI: 10.21037/biotarget.2018.12.03] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ons Mamai
- UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Rosemary J Akhurst
- UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Nunes RAL, Morale MG, Silva GÁF, Villa LL, Termini L. Innate immunity and HPV: friends or foes. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 2018; 73:e549s. [PMID: 30328949 PMCID: PMC6157093 DOI: 10.6061/clinics/2018/e549s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Most human papillomavirus infections are readily cleared by the host immune response. However, in some individuals, human papillomavirus can establish a persistent infection. The persistence of high-risk human papillomavirus infection is the major risk factor for cervical cancer development. These viruses have developed mechanisms to evade the host immune system, which is an important step in persistence and, ultimately, in tumor development. Several cell types, receptors, transcription factors and inflammatory mediators involved in the antiviral immune response are viral targets and contribute to tumorigenesis. These targets include antigen-presenting cells, macrophages, natural killer cells, Toll-like receptors, nuclear factor kappa B and several cytokines and chemokines, such as interleukins, interferon and tumor necrosis factor. In the present review, we address both the main innate immune response mechanisms involved in HPV infection clearance and the viral strategies that promote viral persistence and may contribute to cancer development. Finally, we discuss the possibility of exploiting this knowledge to develop effective therapeutic strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rafaella Almeida Lima Nunes
- Centro de Investigacao Translacional em Oncologia, Instituto do Cancer do Estado de Sao Paulo (ICESP), Hospital das Clinicas HCFMUSP, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, BR
- Departamento de Radiologia e Oncologia, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, BR
| | - Mirian Galliote Morale
- Centro de Investigacao Translacional em Oncologia, Instituto do Cancer do Estado de Sao Paulo (ICESP), Hospital das Clinicas HCFMUSP, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, BR
- Departamento de Radiologia e Oncologia, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, BR
| | - Gabriela Ávila Fernandes Silva
- Centro de Investigacao Translacional em Oncologia, Instituto do Cancer do Estado de Sao Paulo (ICESP), Hospital das Clinicas HCFMUSP, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, BR
- Departamento de Radiologia e Oncologia, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, BR
| | - Luisa Lina Villa
- Centro de Investigacao Translacional em Oncologia, Instituto do Cancer do Estado de Sao Paulo (ICESP), Hospital das Clinicas HCFMUSP, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, BR
- Departamento de Radiologia e Oncologia, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, BR
| | - Lara Termini
- Centro de Investigacao Translacional em Oncologia, Instituto do Cancer do Estado de Sao Paulo (ICESP), Hospital das Clinicas HCFMUSP, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, BR
- *Corresponding author. E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Qiao L, Zhang Q, Zhang W, Chen JJ. The lysine acetyltransferase GCN5 contributes to human papillomavirus oncoprotein E7-induced cell proliferation via up-regulating E2F1. J Cell Mol Med 2018; 22:5333-5345. [PMID: 30079588 PMCID: PMC6201343 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.13806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Revised: 06/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
General control nondepressible 5 (GCN5), the first identified transcription-related lysine acetyltransferase (KAT), is an important catalytic component of a transcriptional regulatory SAGA (Spt-Ada-GCN5-Acetyltransferase) and ATAC (ADA2A-containing) complex. While GCN5 has been implicated in cancer development, its role in cervical cancer is not known. The human papillomavirus (HPV) oncoprotein E7 abrogates the G1 cell cycle checkpoint and induces genomic instability, which plays a central role in cervical carcinogenesis. In this study, we observed that GCN5 was up-regulated in HPV E7-expressing cells, knockdown of GCN5 inhibited cell cycle progression and DNA synthesis in HPV E7-expressing cells. Notably, GCN5 knockdown reduced the steady-state levels of transcription factor E2F1. Depletion of E2F1 caused G1 arrest while overexpression of E2F1 rescued the inhibitory effects of GCN5 knockdown on G1/S progression in HPV E7-expressing cells. Results from chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays demonstrated that GCN5 bound to the E2F1 promoter and increased the extent of histone acetylation within these regions. GCN5 also acetylated c-Myc and increased its ability to bind to the E2F1 promoter. Knockdown of c-Myc reduced the steady-state levels of E2F1 and caused G1 arrest. These results revealed a novel mechanism of E7 function whereby elevated GCN5 acetylates histones and c-Myc to regulate E2F1 expression and cell cycle progression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lijun Qiao
- The Cancer Research Center and Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Qishu Zhang
- The Cancer Research Center and Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Weifang Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity of Shandong Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Jason J Chen
- The Cancer Research Center and Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Ainouze M, Rochefort P, Parroche P, Roblot G, Tout I, Briat F, Zannetti C, Marotel M, Goutagny N, Auron P, Traverse-Glehen A, Lunel-Potencier A, Golfier F, Masson M, Robitaille A, Tommasino M, Carreira C, Walzer T, Henry T, Zanier K, Trave G, Hasan UA. Human papillomavirus type 16 antagonizes IRF6 regulation of IL-1β. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007158. [PMID: 30089163 PMCID: PMC6124776 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) and other oncoviruses have been shown to block innate immune responses and to persist in the host. However, to avoid viral persistence, the immune response attempts to clear the infection. IL-1β is a powerful cytokine produced when viral motifs are sensed by innate receptors that are members of the inflammasome family. Whether oncoviruses such as HPV16 can activate the inflammasome pathway remains unknown. Here, we show that infection of human keratinocytes with HPV16 induced the secretion of IL-1β. Yet, upon expression of the viral early genes, IL-1β transcription was blocked. We went on to show that expression of the viral oncoprotein E6 in human keratinocytes inhibited IRF6 transcription which we revealed regulated IL-1β promoter activity. Preventing E6 expression using siRNA, or using E6 mutants that prevented degradation of p53, showed that p53 regulated IRF6 transcription. HPV16 abrogation of p53 binding to the IRF6 promoter was shown by ChIP in tissues from patients with cervical cancer. Thus E6 inhibition of IRF6 is an escape strategy used by HPV16 to block the production IL-1β. Our findings reveal a struggle between oncoviral persistence and host immunity; which is centered on IL-1β regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Ainouze
- Centre International de recherche en Infectiologie, CIRI, Inserm, U1111, Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, France
| | - Pauline Rochefort
- Centre International de recherche en Infectiologie, CIRI, Inserm, U1111, Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, France
| | - Peggy Parroche
- Centre International de recherche en Infectiologie, CIRI, Inserm, U1111, Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, France
| | - Guillaume Roblot
- Centre International de recherche en Infectiologie, CIRI, Inserm, U1111, Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, France
| | - Issam Tout
- Centre International de recherche en Infectiologie, CIRI, Inserm, U1111, Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, France
| | - François Briat
- Centre International de recherche en Infectiologie, CIRI, Inserm, U1111, Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, France
| | - Claudia Zannetti
- Centre International de recherche en Infectiologie, CIRI, Inserm, U1111, Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, France
| | - Marie Marotel
- Centre International de recherche en Infectiologie, CIRI, Inserm, U1111, Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, France
| | - Nadege Goutagny
- Cancer Research Centre of Lyon, INSERM U1052-CNRS UMR5286, Lyon, France
| | - Philip Auron
- Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Alexandra Traverse-Glehen
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, France
- Cancer Research Centre of Lyon, INSERM U1052-CNRS UMR5286, Lyon, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Thierry Walzer
- Centre International de recherche en Infectiologie, CIRI, Inserm, U1111, Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, France
| | - Thomas Henry
- Centre International de recherche en Infectiologie, CIRI, Inserm, U1111, Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, France
| | | | | | - Uzma Ayesha Hasan
- Centre International de recherche en Infectiologie, CIRI, Inserm, U1111, Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, France
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Bordignon V, Di Domenico EG, Trento E, D'Agosto G, Cavallo I, Pontone M, Pimpinelli F, Mariani L, Ensoli F. How Human Papillomavirus Replication and Immune Evasion Strategies Take Advantage of the Host DNA Damage Repair Machinery. Viruses 2017; 9:v9120390. [PMID: 29257060 PMCID: PMC5744164 DOI: 10.3390/v9120390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Revised: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 12/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The DNA damage response (DDR) is a complex signalling network activated when DNA is altered by intrinsic or extrinsic agents. DDR plays important roles in genome stability and cell cycle regulation, as well as in tumour transformation. Viruses have evolved successful life cycle strategies in order to ensure a chronic persistence in the host, virtually avoiding systemic sequelae and death. This process promotes the periodic shedding of large amounts of infectious particles to maintain a virus reservoir in individual hosts, while allowing virus spreading within the community. To achieve such a successful lifestyle, the human papilloma virus (HPV) needs to escape the host defence systems. The key to understanding how this is achieved is in the virus replication process that provides by itself an evasion mechanism by inhibiting and delaying the host immune response against the viral infection. Numerous studies have demonstrated that HPV exploits both the ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) and ataxia-telangiectasia and rad3-related (ATR) DDR pathways to replicate its genome and maintain a persistent infection by downregulating the innate and cell-mediated immunity. This review outlines how HPV interacts with the ATM- and ATR-dependent DDR machinery during the viral life cycle to create an environment favourable to viral replication, and how the interaction with the signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) protein family and the deregulation of the Janus kinase (JAK)-STAT pathways may impact the expression of interferon-inducible genes and the innate immune responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Bordignon
- Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Unit, San Gallicano Dermatology Institute, IRCCS, IFO, Via Elio Chianesi 53, 00144 Rome, Italy.
| | - Enea Gino Di Domenico
- Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Unit, San Gallicano Dermatology Institute, IRCCS, IFO, Via Elio Chianesi 53, 00144 Rome, Italy.
| | - Elisabetta Trento
- Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Unit, San Gallicano Dermatology Institute, IRCCS, IFO, Via Elio Chianesi 53, 00144 Rome, Italy.
| | - Giovanna D'Agosto
- Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Unit, San Gallicano Dermatology Institute, IRCCS, IFO, Via Elio Chianesi 53, 00144 Rome, Italy.
| | - Ilaria Cavallo
- Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Unit, San Gallicano Dermatology Institute, IRCCS, IFO, Via Elio Chianesi 53, 00144 Rome, Italy.
| | - Martina Pontone
- Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Unit, San Gallicano Dermatology Institute, IRCCS, IFO, Via Elio Chianesi 53, 00144 Rome, Italy.
| | - Fulvia Pimpinelli
- Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Unit, San Gallicano Dermatology Institute, IRCCS, IFO, Via Elio Chianesi 53, 00144 Rome, Italy.
| | - Luciano Mariani
- HPV Unit, Department of Gynaecologic Oncology, National Cancer Institute Regina Elena, IRCCS, IFO, Via Elio Chianesi 53, 00144 Rome, Italy.
| | - Fabrizio Ensoli
- Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Unit, San Gallicano Dermatology Institute, IRCCS, IFO, Via Elio Chianesi 53, 00144 Rome, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Steinbach A, Riemer AB. Immune evasion mechanisms of human papillomavirus: An update. Int J Cancer 2017; 142:224-229. [PMID: 28865151 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.31027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most frequently sexually transmitted agent in the world. It can cause cervical and other anogenital malignancies, and oropharyngeal cancer. HPV has the unique ability to persist in the host's epithelium for a long time-longer than most viruses do-which is necessary to complete its replication cycle. To this end, HPV has developed a variety of immune evasion mechanisms, which unfortunately also favor the progression of the disease from infection to chronic dysplasia and eventually to cancer. This article summarizes the current knowledge about HPV immune evasion strategies. A special emphasis lies in HPV-mediated changes of the antigen processing machinery, which is generating epitopes for T cells and contributes to the detectability of infected cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alina Steinbach
- Immunotherapy & Immunoprevention, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Molecular Vaccine Design, German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Angelika B Riemer
- Immunotherapy & Immunoprevention, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Molecular Vaccine Design, German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Smola S. Immunopathogenesis of HPV-Associated Cancers and Prospects for Immunotherapy. Viruses 2017; 9:E254. [PMID: 28895886 PMCID: PMC5618020 DOI: 10.3390/v9090254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a causative factor for various cancers of the anogenital region and oropharynx, and is supposed to play an important cofactor role for skin carcinogenesis. Evasion from immunosurveillance favors viral persistence. However, there is evidence that the mere presence of oncogenic HPV is not sufficient for malignant progression and that additional tumor-promoting steps are required. Recent studies have demonstrated that HPV-transformed cells actively promote chronic stromal inflammation and conspire with cells in the local microenvironment to promote carcinogenesis. This review highlights the complex interplay between HPV-infected cells and the local immune microenvironment during oncogenic HPV infection, persistence, and malignant progression, and discusses new prospects for diagnosis and immunotherapy of HPV-associated cancers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sigrun Smola
- Institute of Virology, Saarland University Medical Center, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Analysis of Class I Major Histocompatibility Complex Gene Transcription in Human Tumors Caused by Human Papillomavirus Infection. Viruses 2017; 9:v9090252. [PMID: 28891951 PMCID: PMC5618018 DOI: 10.3390/v9090252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2017] [Revised: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 09/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncoproteins from high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPV) downregulate the transcription of the class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC-I) antigen presentation apparatus in tissue culture model systems. This could allow infected or transformed cells to evade the adaptive immune response. Using data from over 800 human cervical and head & neck tumors from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), we determined the impact of HPV status on the mRNA expression of all six MHC-I heavy chain genes, and the β2 microglobulin light chain. Unexpectedly, these genes were all expressed at high levels in HPV positive (HPV+) cancers compared with normal control tissues. Indeed, many of these genes were expressed at significantly enhanced levels in HPV+ tumors. Similarly, the transcript levels of several other components of the MHC-I peptide-loading complex were also high in HPV+ cancers. The coordinated expression of high mRNA levels of the MHC-I antigen presentation apparatus could be a consequence of the higher intratumoral levels of interferon γ in HPV+ carcinomas, which correlate with signatures of increased infiltration by T- and NK-cells. These data, which were obtained from both cervical and oral tumors in large human cohorts, indicates that HPV oncoproteins do not efficiently suppress the transcription of the antigen presentation apparatus in human tumors.
Collapse
|
31
|
Epigenetic Alterations in Human Papillomavirus-Associated Cancers. Viruses 2017; 9:v9090248. [PMID: 28862667 PMCID: PMC5618014 DOI: 10.3390/v9090248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Revised: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Approximately 15–20% of human cancers are caused by viruses, including human papillomaviruses (HPVs). Viruses are obligatory intracellular parasites and encode proteins that reprogram the regulatory networks governing host cellular signaling pathways that control recognition by the immune system, proliferation, differentiation, genomic integrity, and cell death. Given that key proteins in these regulatory networks are also subject to mutation in non-virally associated diseases and cancers, the study of oncogenic viruses has also been instrumental to the discovery and analysis of many fundamental cellular processes, including messenger RNA (mRNA) splicing, transcriptional enhancers, oncogenes and tumor suppressors, signal transduction, immune regulation, and cell cycle control. More recently, tumor viruses, in particular HPV, have proven themselves invaluable in the study of the cancer epigenome. Epigenetic silencing or de-silencing of genes can have cellular consequences that are akin to genetic mutations, i.e., the loss and gain of expression of genes that are not usually expressed in a certain cell type and/or genes that have tumor suppressive or oncogenic activities, respectively. Unlike genetic mutations, the reversible nature of epigenetic modifications affords an opportunity of epigenetic therapy for cancer. This review summarizes the current knowledge on epigenetic regulation in HPV-infected cells with a focus on those elements with relevance to carcinogenesis.
Collapse
|
32
|
Smola S, Trimble C, Stern PL. Human papillomavirus-driven immune deviation: challenge and novel opportunity for immunotherapy. THERAPEUTIC ADVANCES IN VACCINES 2017; 5:69-82. [PMID: 28794879 DOI: 10.1177/2051013617717914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
It is now recognized that the immune system can be a key component of restraint and control during the neoplastic process. Human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated cancers of the anogenital tract and oropharynx represent a significant clinical problem but there is a clear opportunity for immune targeting of the viral oncogene expression that drives cancer development. However, high-risk HPV infection of the target epithelium and the expression of the E6/E7 oncogenes can lead to early compromise of the innate immune system (loss of antigen-presenting cells) facilitating viral persistence and increased risk of cancer. In these circumstances, a succession of interacting and self-reinforcing events mediated through modulation of different immune receptors, chemokine and cytokine responses (CCL20; CCL2; CCR2; IL-6; CCR7; IL-12) further promote the generation of an immune suppressive microenvironment [increased levels of Tregs, Th17, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and PD-L1]. The overexpression of E6/E7 expression also compromises the ability to repair cellular DNA, leading to genomic instability, with the acquisition of genetic changes providing for the selection of advantaged cancer cells including additional strategies for immune escape. Therapeutic vaccines targeting the HPV oncogenes have shown some encouraging success in some recent early-phase clinical trials tested in patients with HPV-associated high-grade anogenital lesions. A significant hurdle to success in more advanced disease will be the local and systemic immune suppressive factors. Interventions targeting the different immunosuppressive components can provide opportunity to release existing or generate new and effective antitumour immunity. Treatments that alter the protumour inflammatory environment including toll-like receptor stimulation, inhibition of IL-6-related pathways, immune-checkpoint inhibition, direct modulation of MDSCs, Tregs and macrophages could all be useful in combination with therapeutic HPV vaccination. Future progress in delivering successful immunotherapy will depend on the configuration of treatment protocols in an insightful and timely combination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sigrun Smola
- Institute of Virology, Saarland University Medical Center, Germany
| | - Connie Trimble
- Departments of Gynecology/Obstetrics, Oncology, and Pathology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, USA
| | - Peter L Stern
- Division of Molecular and Clinical Cancer Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Paterson Building, Wilmslow Road, Manchester, M20 4BX, UK
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Westrich JA, Warren CJ, Pyeon D. Evasion of host immune defenses by human papillomavirus. Virus Res 2017; 231:21-33. [PMID: 27890631 PMCID: PMC5325784 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A majority of human papillomavirus (HPV) infections are asymptomatic and self-resolving in the absence of medical interventions. Various innate and adaptive immune responses, as well as physical barriers, have been implicated in controlling early HPV infections. However, if HPV overcomes these host immune defenses and establishes persistence in basal keratinocytes, it becomes very difficult for the host to eliminate the infection. The HPV oncoproteins E5, E6, and E7 are important in regulating host immune responses. These oncoproteins dysregulate gene expression, protein-protein interactions, posttranslational modifications, and cellular trafficking of critical host immune modulators. In addition to the HPV oncoproteins, sequence variation and dinucleotide depletion in papillomavirus genomes has been suggested as an alternative strategy for evasion of host immune defenses. Since anti-HPV host immune responses are also considered to be important for antitumor immunity, immune dysregulation by HPV during virus persistence may contribute to immune suppression essential for HPV-associated cancer progression. Here, we discuss cellular pathways dysregulated by HPV that allow the virus to evade various host immune defenses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph A Westrich
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Cody J Warren
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA; Current address: BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - Dohun Pyeon
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Songock WK, Kim SM, Bodily JM. The human papillomavirus E7 oncoprotein as a regulator of transcription. Virus Res 2016; 231:56-75. [PMID: 27818212 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
High-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) encode oncoproteins which manipulate gene expression patterns in the host keratinocytes to facilitate viral replication, regulate viral transcription, and promote immune evasion and persistence. In some cases, oncoprotein-induced changes in host cell behavior can cause progression to cancer, but a complete picture of the functions of the viral oncoproteins in the productive HPV life cycle remains elusive. E7 is the HPV-encoded factor most responsible for maintaining cell cycle competence in differentiating keratinocytes. Through interactions with dozens of host factors, E7 has an enormous impact on host gene expression patterns. In this review, we will examine the role of E7 specifically as a regulator of transcription. We will discuss mechanisms of regulation of cell cycle-related genes by E7 as well as genes involved in immune regulation, growth factor signaling, DNA damage responses, microRNAs, and others pathways. We will also discuss some unanswered questions about how transcriptional regulation by E7 impacts the biology of HPV in both benign and malignant conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William K Songock
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, USA
| | - Seong-Man Kim
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, USA
| | - Jason M Bodily
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Crow MS, Lum KK, Sheng X, Song B, Cristea IM. Diverse mechanisms evolved by DNA viruses to inhibit early host defenses. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 2016; 51:452-481. [PMID: 27650455 PMCID: PMC5285405 DOI: 10.1080/10409238.2016.1226250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In mammalian cells, early defenses against infection by pathogens are mounted through a complex network of signaling pathways shepherded by immune-modulatory pattern-recognition receptors. As obligate parasites, the survival of viruses is dependent on the evolutionary acquisition of mechanisms that tactfully dismantle and subvert the cellular intrinsic and innate immune responses. Here, we review the diverse mechanisms by which viruses that accommodate DNA genomes are able to circumvent activation of cellular immunity. We start by discussing viral manipulation of host defense protein levels by either transcriptional regulation or protein degradation. We next review viral strategies used to repurpose or inhibit these cellular immune factors by molecular hijacking or by regulating their post-translational modification status. Additionally, we explore the infection-induced temporal modulation of apoptosis to facilitate viral replication and spread. Lastly, the co-evolution of viruses with their hosts is highlighted by the acquisition of elegant mechanisms for suppressing host defenses via viral mimicry of host factors. In closing, we present a perspective on how characterizing these viral evasion tactics both broadens the understanding of virus-host interactions and reveals essential functions of the immune system at the molecular level. This knowledge is critical in understanding the sources of viral pathogenesis, as well as for the design of antiviral therapeutics and autoimmunity treatments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marni S. Crow
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Washington Road, Princeton, NJ 08544
| | - Krystal K. Lum
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Washington Road, Princeton, NJ 08544
| | - Xinlei Sheng
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Washington Road, Princeton, NJ 08544
| | - Bokai Song
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Washington Road, Princeton, NJ 08544
| | - Ileana M. Cristea
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Washington Road, Princeton, NJ 08544
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) represent a large collection of viral types associated with significant clinical disease of cutaneous and mucosal epithelium. HPV-associated cancers are found in anogenital and oral mucosa, and at various cutaneous sites. Papillomaviruses are highly species and tissue restricted, and these viruses display both mucosotropic, cutaneotropic or dual tropism for epithelial tissues. A subset of HPV types, predominantly mucosal, are also oncogenic and cancers with these HPV types account for more than 200,000 deaths world-wide. Host control of HPV infections requires both innate and adaptive immunity, but the viruses have developed strategies to escape immune detection. Viral proteins can disrupt both innate pathogen-sensing pathways and T-cell based recognition and subsequent destruction of infected tissues. Current treatments to manage HPV infections include mostly ablative strategies in which recurrences are common and only active disease is treated. Although much is known about the papillomavirus life cycle, viral protein functions, and immune responsiveness, we still lack knowledge in a number of key areas of PV biology including tissue tropism, site-specific cancer progression, codon usage profiles, and what are the best strategies to mount an effective immune response to the carcinogenic stages of PV disease. In this review, disease transmission, protection and control are discussed together with questions related to areas in PV biology that will continue to provide productive opportunities of discovery and to further our understanding of this diverse set of human viral pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neil D Christensen
- The Jake Gittlen Laboratories for Cancer Research, Penn State College of Medicine, 500 University Drive, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Passmore JAS, Williamson AL. Host Immune Responses Associated with Clearance or Persistence of Human Papillomavirus Infections. CURRENT OBSTETRICS AND GYNECOLOGY REPORTS 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s13669-016-0163-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
38
|
Walch-Rückheim B, Pahne-Zeppenfeld J, Fischbach J, Wickenhauser C, Horn LC, Tharun L, Büttner R, Mallmann P, Stern P, Kim YJ, Bohle RM, Rübe C, Ströder R, Juhasz-Böss I, Solomayer EF, Smola S. STAT3/IRF1 Pathway Activation Sensitizes Cervical Cancer Cells to Chemotherapeutic Drugs. Cancer Res 2016; 76:3872-83. [DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-14-1306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
39
|
Wu L, Zhang X, Zhao Z, Wang L, Li B, Li G, Dean M, Yu Q, Wang Y, Lin X, Rao W, Mei Z, Li Y, Jiang R, Yang H, Li F, Xie G, Xu L, Wu K, Zhang J, Chen J, Wang T, Kristiansen K, Zhang X, Li Y, Yang H, Wang J, Hou Y, Xu X. Full-length single-cell RNA-seq applied to a viral human cancer: applications to HPV expression and splicing analysis in HeLa S3 cells. Gigascience 2015; 4:51. [PMID: 26550473 PMCID: PMC4635585 DOI: 10.1186/s13742-015-0091-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Viral infection causes multiple forms of human cancer, and HPV infection is the primary factor in cervical carcinomas. Recent single-cell RNA-seq studies highlight the tumor heterogeneity present in most cancers, but virally induced tumors have not been studied. HeLa is a well characterized HPV+ cervical cancer cell line. Result We developed a new high throughput platform to prepare single-cell RNA on a nanoliter scale based on a customized microwell chip. Using this method, we successfully amplified full-length transcripts of 669 single HeLa S3 cells and 40 of them were randomly selected to perform single-cell RNA sequencing. Based on these data, we obtained a comprehensive understanding of the heterogeneity of HeLa S3 cells in gene expression, alternative splicing and fusions. Furthermore, we identified a high diversity of HPV-18 expression and splicing at the single-cell level. By co-expression analysis we identified 283 E6, E7 co-regulated genes, including CDC25, PCNA, PLK4, BUB1B and IRF1 known to interact with HPV viral proteins. Conclusion Our results reveal the heterogeneity of a virus-infected cell line. It not only provides a transcriptome characterization of HeLa S3 cells at the single cell level, but is a demonstration of the power of single cell RNA-seq analysis of virally infected cells and cancers. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13742-015-0091-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liang Wu
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China
| | - Xiaolong Zhang
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China ; College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 China
| | - Zhikun Zhao
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China ; State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096 China ; School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096 China
| | - Ling Wang
- Department of Vascular and Endocrine Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032 China
| | - Bo Li
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China
| | - Guibo Li
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China ; Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 1599 Denmark
| | - Michael Dean
- Cancer and Inflammation Program, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Building 560, Frederick, MD 21702 USA
| | - Qichao Yu
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China ; BGI-Education Center, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518083 China
| | | | | | | | | | - Yang Li
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China
| | | | - Huan Yang
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China
| | | | | | - Liqin Xu
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China
| | - Kui Wu
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China
| | - Jie Zhang
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China
| | - Jianghao Chen
- Department of Vascular and Endocrine Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032 China
| | - Ting Wang
- Department of Vascular and Endocrine Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032 China
| | | | - Xiuqing Zhang
- The Guangdong Enterprise Key Laboratory of Human Disease Genomics, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China
| | - Yingrui Li
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China ; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Huanming Yang
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China ; James D. Watson Institute of Genome Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058 China
| | - Jian Wang
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China ; James D. Watson Institute of Genome Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058 China
| | - Yong Hou
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China ; Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 1599 Denmark
| | - Xun Xu
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083 China
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Doorbar J, Egawa N, Griffin H, Kranjec C, Murakami I. Human papillomavirus molecular biology and disease association. Rev Med Virol 2015; 25 Suppl 1:2-23. [PMID: 25752814 PMCID: PMC5024016 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.1822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 493] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2014] [Revised: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 06/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) have evolved over millions of years to propagate themselves in a range of different animal species including humans. Viruses that have co‐evolved slowly in this way typically cause chronic inapparent infections, with virion production in the absence of apparent disease. This is the case for many Beta and Gamma HPV types. The Alpha papillomavirus types have however evolved immunoevasion strategies that allow them to cause persistent visible papillomas. These viruses activate the cell cycle as the infected epithelial cell differentiates in order to create a replication competent environment that allows viral genome amplification and packaging into infectious particles. This is mediated by the viral E6, E7, and E5 proteins. High‐risk E6 and E7 proteins differ from their low‐risk counterparts however in being able to drive cell cycle entry in the upper epithelial layers and also to stimulate cell proliferation in the basal and parabasal layers. Deregulated expression of these cell cycle regulators underlies neoplasia and the eventual progression to cancer in individuals who cannot resolve high‐risk HPV infection. Most work to date has focused on the study of high‐risk HPV types such as HPV 16 and 18, which has led to an understanding of the molecular pathways subverted by these viruses. Such approaches will lead to the development of better strategies for disease treatment, including targeted antivirals and immunotherapeutics. Priorities are now focused toward understanding HPV neoplasias at sites other than the cervix (e.g. tonsils, other transformation zones) and toward understanding the mechanisms by which low‐risk HPV types can sometimes give rise to papillomatosis and under certain situations even cancers. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John Doorbar
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Regulation of the Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway by Human Papillomavirus E6 and E7 Oncoproteins. Viruses 2015; 7:4734-55. [PMID: 26295406 PMCID: PMC4576203 DOI: 10.3390/v7082842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Revised: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell signaling pathways are the mechanisms by which cells transduce external stimuli, which control the transcription of genes, to regulate diverse biological effects. In cancer, distinct signaling pathways, such as the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, have been implicated in the deregulation of critical molecular processes that affect cell proliferation and differentiation. For example, changes in β-catenin localization have been identified in Human Papillomavirus (HPV)-related cancers as the lesion progresses. Specifically, β-catenin relocates from the membrane/cytoplasm to the nucleus, suggesting that this transcription regulator participates in cervical carcinogenesis. The E6 and E7 oncoproteins are responsible for the transforming activity of HPV, and some studies have implicated these viral oncoproteins in the regulation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Nevertheless, new interactions of HPV oncoproteins with cellular proteins are emerging, and the study of the biological effects of such interactions will help to understand HPV-related carcinogenesis. This review addresses the accumulated evidence of the involvement of the HPV E6 and E7 oncoproteins in the activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.
Collapse
|
42
|
Chopjitt P, Pientong C, Bumrungthai S, Kongyingyoes B, Ekalaksananan T. Activities of E6 Protein of Human Papillomavirus 16 Asian Variant on miR-21 Up-regulation and Expression of Human Immune Response Genes. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2015; 16:3961-8. [DOI: 10.7314/apjcp.2015.16.9.3961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
|
43
|
Shimauchi T, Piguet V. Manipulated microenvironment in human papilloma virus-infected epithelial cells: is the CD40-CD154 pathway beneficial for host or virus? J Invest Dermatol 2015; 134:2866-2868. [PMID: 25381767 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2014.357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In this issue, Tummers et al. (2014) demonstrate that high-risk human papilloma viruses (hrHPVs) attenuate the magnitude of responses to CD40 ligation and the epithelial cells' (ECs) capacity to attract leukocytes. These results suggest that hrHPVs can escape from host immune surveillance by modulating pro-inflammatory responses in infected ECs, resulting in persistent infections and potential carcinogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Takatoshi Shimauchi
- Department of Dermatology and Academic Wound Healing, Institute of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University and University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, UK
| | - Vincent Piguet
- Department of Dermatology and Academic Wound Healing, Institute of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University and University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Mao L, Zhang Y, Mo W, Yu Y, Lu H. BANF1 is downregulated by IRF1-regulated microRNA-203 in cervical cancer. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0117035. [PMID: 25658920 PMCID: PMC4319761 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0117035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play important roles in various biological processes and are closely associated with the development of cancer. In fact, aberrant expression of miRNAs has been implicated in numerous cancers. In cervical cancer, miR-203 levels are decreased, although the cause of this aberrant expression remains unclear. In this study, we investigate the molecular mechanisms regulating miR-203 gene transcription. We identify the miR-203 transcription start site by 5' rapid amplification of cDNA ends and subsequently identify the miR-203 promoter region. Promoter analysis revealed that IRF1, a transcription factor, regulates miR-203 transcription by binding to the miR-203 promoter. We also demonstrate that miR-203 targets the 3' untranslated region of BANF1, thus downregulating its expression, whereas miR-203 expression is driven by IRF1. MiR-203 is involved in cell cycle regulation and overexpression of miR-203 suppresses cervical cancer cell proliferation, colony formation, migration and invasion. The inhibitory effect of miR-203 on the cancer cells is partially mediated by downregulating its target, BANF1, since knockdown of BANF1 also suppresses colony formation, migration and invasion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Langyong Mao
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Changhai Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenjuan Mo
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yao Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Microorganisms, Shanghai, China
| | - Hong Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Microorganisms, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology, Shanghai, China
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Sunthamala N, Thierry F, Teissier S, Pientong C, Kongyingyoes B, Tangsiriwatthana T, Sangkomkamhang U, Ekalaksananan T. E2 proteins of high risk human papillomaviruses down-modulate STING and IFN-κ transcription in keratinocytes. PLoS One 2014; 9:e91473. [PMID: 24614210 PMCID: PMC3948877 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In the early stages of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, the viral proteins elicit specific immune responses that can participate to regression of ano-genital lesions. HPV E6 protein for instance can reduce type I interferon (IFN) including IFN-κ that is involved in immune evasion and HPV persistence. To evaluate the role of E2 protein in innate immunity in HPV16-associated cervical lesions, genome-wide expression profiling of human primary keratinocytes (HPK) transduced by HPV16 E2 was investigated using microarrays and innate immunity associated genes were specifically analyzed. The analyses showed that the expression of 779 genes was modulated by HPV16E2 and 92 of them were genes associated with innate immunity. Notably IFN-κ and STING were suppressed in HPK expressing the E2 proteins of HPV16 or HPV18 and the trans-activation amino-terminal domain of E2 was involved in the suppressive effect. The relationship between STING, IFN-κ and interferon stimulated genes (ISGs) in HPK was confirmed by gene silencing and real time PCR. The expression of STING and IFN-κ were further determined in clinical specimens by real time PCR. STING and IFN-κ were down-modulated in HPV positive low grade squamous intraepithelial lesions compared with HPV negative controls. This study demonstrates that E2 proteins of high risk HPV reduce STING and IFN-κ transcription and its downstream target genes that might be an immune evasion mechanism involved in HPV persistence and cervical cancer development.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Adenoviridae/metabolism
- Cells, Cultured
- DNA-Binding Proteins/chemistry
- DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Down-Regulation/drug effects
- Female
- Gene Regulatory Networks
- Genome, Human/genetics
- Green Fluorescent Proteins/metabolism
- Humans
- Interferon Type I/genetics
- Interferon Type I/metabolism
- Keratinocytes/drug effects
- Keratinocytes/metabolism
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/metabolism
- Oncogene Proteins, Viral/chemistry
- Oncogene Proteins, Viral/metabolism
- Poly I-C/pharmacology
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/metabolism
- Recombination, Genetic
- Transcription, Genetic/drug effects
- Transduction, Genetic
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nuchsupha Sunthamala
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
- Papillomavirus Regulation and Cancer, Institute of Medical Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Francoise Thierry
- Papillomavirus Regulation and Cancer, Institute of Medical Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Sebastien Teissier
- Papillomavirus Regulation and Cancer, Institute of Medical Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Chamsai Pientong
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | - Bunkerd Kongyingyoes
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | | | | | - Tipaya Ekalaksananan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
|
47
|
Prognostic significance of immunohistochemical phenotypes in patients treated for high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 2013:831907. [PMID: 24455729 PMCID: PMC3878632 DOI: 10.1155/2013/831907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2013] [Revised: 10/02/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Strong evidence exists that the host's immune system plays a crucial role for the development of human papillomavirus-related cervical premalignant and malignant lesions. In particular, effective cell-mediated immunity (CMI) promotes spontaneous infection clearance and cancer precursors regression in healthy subjects, while immunosuppressed individuals are more likely to experience infection persistence, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) lesions, and cervical cancer. In this study, the prognostic significance of immunohistochemical profiling of CD4+ T-cells, CD8+ T-cells, dendritic cells (CD11c+), T-bet+, and GATA-3+ transcription factors has been studied in surgical specimens of 34 consecutive women affected by high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN2-3) submitted to cervical conization. Results have been correlated with the clinical outcomes at 24 months after treatment and statistically analyzed. Higher rates of CD4+ T-cells, CD11c+ dendritic cells, and T-bet+ transcription factor positivity showed a strong statistically significative correlation with favourable clinical outcomes (P ≤ 0.0001). These data reinforce the evidence of the relevance of the host's immune status in the natural history of HPV-related cervical disease and add a prognostic significance of the cervical immunological profile in terms of predicting significant lower recurrence rates.
Collapse
|
48
|
Srivastava P, Mangal M, Agarwal SM. Understanding the transcriptional regulation of cervix cancer using microarray gene expression data and promoter sequence analysis of a curated gene set. Gene 2013; 535:233-8. [PMID: 24291025 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2013.11.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2013] [Revised: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 11/15/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Cervical cancer, the malignant neoplasm of the cervix uteri is the second most common cancer among women worldwide and the top-most cancer in India. Several factors are responsible for causing cervical cancer, which alter the expression of oncogenic genes resulting in up or down-regulation of gene expression and inactivation of tumor-suppressor genes/gene products. Gene expression is regulated by interactions between transcription factors (TFs) and specific regulatory elements in the promoter regions of target genes. Thus, it is important to decipher and analyze TFs that bind to regulatory regions of diseased genes and regulate their expression. In the present study, computational methods involving the combination of gene expression data from microarray experiments and promoter sequence analysis of a curated gene set involved in the cervical cancer causation have been utilized for identifying potential regulatory elements. Consensus predictions of two approaches led to the identification of twelve TFs that might be crucial to the regulation of cervical cancer progression. Subsequently, TF enrichment and oncomine expression analysis suggested that the transcription factor family E2F played an important role for the regulation of genes involve in cervical carcinogenesis. Our results suggest that E2F possesses diagnostic/prognostic value and can act as a potential drug target in cervical cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Prashant Srivastava
- Integrative Genomics and Medicine, MRC Clinical Sciences, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Manu Mangal
- Bioinformatics Division, Institute of Cytology and Preventive Oncology, Noida-201301, India
| | - Subhash Mohan Agarwal
- Bioinformatics Division, Institute of Cytology and Preventive Oncology, Noida-201301, India.
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Amador-Molina A, Hernández-Valencia JF, Lamoyi E, Contreras-Paredes A, Lizano M. Role of innate immunity against human papillomavirus (HPV) infections and effect of adjuvants in promoting specific immune response. Viruses 2013; 5:2624-42. [PMID: 24169630 PMCID: PMC3856406 DOI: 10.3390/v5112624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2013] [Revised: 09/30/2013] [Accepted: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
During the early stages of human papillomavirus (HPV) infections, the innate immune system creates a pro-inflammatory microenvironment by recruiting innate immune cells to eliminate the infected cells, initiating an effective acquired immune response. However, HPV exhibits a wide range of strategies for evading immune-surveillance, generating an anti-inflammatory microenvironment. The administration of new adjuvants, such as TLR (Toll-like receptors) agonists and alpha-galactosylceramide, has been demonstrated to reverse the anti-inflammatory microenvironment by down-regulating a number of adhesion molecules and chemo-attractants and activating keratinocytes, dendritic (DC), Langerhans (LC), natural killer (NK) or natural killer T (NKT) cells; thus, promoting a strong specific cytotoxic T cell response. Therefore, these adjuvants show promise for the treatment of HPV generated lesions and may be useful to elucidate the unknown roles of immune cells in the natural history of HPV infection. This review focuses on HPV immune evasion mechanisms and on the proposed response of the innate immune system, suggesting a role for the surrounding pro-inflammatory microenvironment and the NK and NKT cells in the clearance of HPV infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo Amador-Molina
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología, Av. San Fernando No. 22, Col. Sección XVI, Tlalpan 14080, México; E-Mails: (A.A.-M.); (J.F.H.-V.); (A.C.-P.)
| | - José Fernando Hernández-Valencia
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología, Av. San Fernando No. 22, Col. Sección XVI, Tlalpan 14080, México; E-Mails: (A.A.-M.); (J.F.H.-V.); (A.C.-P.)
| | - Edmundo Lamoyi
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Apartado postal 70228, Ciudad Universitaria, Distrito Federal CP 04510, México; E-Mail:
| | - Adriana Contreras-Paredes
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología, Av. San Fernando No. 22, Col. Sección XVI, Tlalpan 14080, México; E-Mails: (A.A.-M.); (J.F.H.-V.); (A.C.-P.)
| | - Marcela Lizano
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología, Av. San Fernando No. 22, Col. Sección XVI, Tlalpan 14080, México; E-Mails: (A.A.-M.); (J.F.H.-V.); (A.C.-P.)
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Apartado postal 70228, Ciudad Universitaria, Distrito Federal CP 04510, México; E-Mail:
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.:+52-55-5573-4662
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Gildener-Leapman N, Lee J, Ferris RL. Tailored immunotherapy for HPV positive head and neck squamous cell cancer. Oral Oncol 2013; 50:780-4. [PMID: 24126224 DOI: 10.1016/j.oraloncology.2013.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2013] [Revised: 09/03/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Human papilloma virus (HPV) associated oropharynx carcinoma (OPC) is increasingly common, with a distinct biology from HPV negative OPC. In spite of this better prognosis, morbidity is significant and treatment related after effects can be debilitating. Because the foreign viral proteins that drive HPV+ cancers are known, there are multiple options for tailored immune therapies. Herein we review the immunologic basis for disease and emerging immune therapies. The oncogenesis of HPV+ SCCHN goes beyond cell cycle deregulation, and relies on the immune escape through (E5, E6, and E7) downregulating antigen processing, interferon response, as well as STAT-1 signaling. Individual susceptibilities to HPV infection may vary. The treatment of HPV+ cancers has had a wide range of successes and failures. Perhaps the shining example of immunoprevention has been the L1 protein vaccines developed for cervical cancer prevention, however this vaccine has not been beneficial for people already infected. Therefore multiple strategies have been employed in the cancer therapeutic realm for people with existing disease. These agents range from peptides, to viral vectors, to adoptive cell therapy. In this review we consider the work done in both SCCHN and cervical cancer, as these therapeutic targets are the similar. The listed studies are not exhaustive, but rather illustrate experimental design and approach.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neil Gildener-Leapman
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, United States.
| | - John Lee
- Sanford Ear, Nose, and Throat Clinic, Sioux Falls, SD, United States
| | - Robert L Ferris
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| |
Collapse
|