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Matsuyama M, Horiuchi J. A descending pathway from the lateral/ventrolateral PAG to the rostroventral medulla mediating the vasomotor response evoked by social defeat stress in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2024; 327:R66-R78. [PMID: 38708545 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00295.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
The stress-induced cardiovascular response is based on the defensive reaction in mammals. It has been shown that the sympathetic vasomotor pathway of acute psychological stress is indirectly mediated via neurons in the rostroventral medulla (RVM) from the hypothalamic stress center. In this study, direct projections to the RVM and distribution of neuroexcitatory marker c-Fos-expressed neurons were investigated during social defeat stress (SDS) in conscious rats. The experimental rat that was injected with a neural tracer, FluoroGold (FG) into the unilateral RVM, was exposed to the SDS. Double-positive neurons of both c-Fos and FG were locally distributed in the lateral/ventrolateral periaqueductal gray matter (l/vl PAG) in the midbrain. These results suggest that the neurons in the l/vl PAG contribute to the defensive reaction evoked by acute psychological stress, such as the SDS. During the SDS period, arterial pressure (AP) and heart rate (HR) showed sustained increases in the rat. Therefore, we performed chemical stimulation by excitatory amino acid microinjection within the l/vl PAG and measured cardiovascular response and sympathetic nerve activity in some anesthetized rats. The chemical stimulation of neurons in the l/vl PAG caused significant increases in arterial pressure and renal sympathetic nerve activity. Taken together, our results suggest that neurons in the l/vl PAG are a possible candidate for the cardiovascular descending pathway that modulates sympathetic vascular resistance evoked by acute psychological stress, like the SDS.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The sympathetic vasomotor pathway of an acute psychological stress-induced cardiovascular response is mediated via neurons in the RVM indirectly from the hypothalamus. In this study, we showed the relaying area of the efferent sympathetic vasomotor pathway from the hypothalamus to the RVM. The results suggested that the pressor response during psychological stress is mediated via neurons in the lateral/ventrolateral PAG to the RVM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mio Matsuyama
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringToyo UniversityKawagoeJapan
| | - Jouji Horiuchi
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringToyo UniversityKawagoeJapan
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2
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Sniffen SE, Ryu SE, Kokoska MM, Bhattarai J, Wang Y, Thomas ER, Skates GM, Johnson NL, Chavez AA, Iaconis SR, Janke E, Ma M, Wesson DW. Bidirectional modulation of negative emotional states by parallel genetically-distinct basolateral amygdala pathways to ventral striatum subregions. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.06.19.599749. [PMID: 38948716 PMCID: PMC11213032 DOI: 10.1101/2024.06.19.599749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
Distinct basolateral amygdala (BLA) cell populations influence emotional responses in manners thought important for anxiety and anxiety disorders. The BLA contains numerous cell types which can broadcast information into structures that may elicit changes in emotional states and behaviors. BLA excitatory neurons can be divided into two main classes, one of which expresses Ppp1r1b (encoding protein phosphatase 1 regulatory inhibitor subunit 1B) which is downstream of the genes encoding the D1 and D2 dopamine receptors (drd1 and drd2 respectively). The role of drd1+ or drd2+ BLA neurons in learned and unlearned emotional responses is unknown. Here, we identified that the drd1+ and drd2+ BLA neuron populations form two parallel pathways for communication with the ventral striatum. These neurons arise from the basal nucleus of the BLA, innervate the entire space of the ventral striatum, and are capable of exciting ventral striatum neurons. Further, through three separate behavioral assays, we found that the drd1+ and drd2+ parallel pathways bidirectionally influence both learned and unlearned emotional states when they are activated or suppressed, and do so depending upon where they synapse in the ventral striatum - with unique contributions of drd1+ and drd2+ circuitry on negative emotional states. Overall, these results contribute to a model whereby parallel, genetically-distinct BLA to ventral striatum circuits inform emotional states in a projection-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. Sniffen
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Center for Smell and Taste, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Sang Eun Ryu
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Center for Smell and Taste, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Milayna M. Kokoska
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Center for Smell and Taste, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Janardhan Bhattarai
- Department of Neuroscience, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Yingqi Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Ellyse R. Thomas
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Center for Smell and Taste, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Graylin M. Skates
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Center for Smell and Taste, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Natalie L. Johnson
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Center for Smell and Taste, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Andy A. Chavez
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Center for Smell and Taste, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Sophia R. Iaconis
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Center for Smell and Taste, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Emma Janke
- Department of Neuroscience, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Minghong Ma
- Department of Neuroscience, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Daniel W. Wesson
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Center for Smell and Taste, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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3
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Battaglia S, Nazzi C, Lonsdorf TB, Thayer JF. Neuropsychobiology of fear-induced bradycardia in humans: progress and pitfalls. Mol Psychiatry 2024:10.1038/s41380-024-02600-x. [PMID: 38862673 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-024-02600-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
In the last century, the paradigm of fear conditioning has greatly evolved in a variety of scientific fields. The techniques, protocols, and analysis methods now most used have undergone a progressive development, theoretical and technological, improving the quality of scientific productions. Fear-induced bradycardia is among these techniques and represents the temporary deceleration of heart beats in response to negative outcomes. However, it has often been used as a secondary measure to assess defensive responding to threat, along other more popular techniques. In this review, we aim at paving the road for its employment as an additional tool in fear conditioning experiments in humans. After an overview of the studies carried out throughout the last century, we describe more recent evidence up to the most contemporary research insights. Lastly, we provide some guidelines concerning the best practices to adopt in human fear conditioning studies which aim to investigate fear-induced bradycardia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Battaglia
- Center for Studies and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- Department of Psychology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Claudio Nazzi
- Center for Studies and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Tina B Lonsdorf
- Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Psychology, Section for Biological Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Julian F Thayer
- Department of Psychological Science, 4201 Social and Behavioral Sciences Gateway, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
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4
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Ouyang W, Kilner KJ, Xavier RMP, Liu Y, Lu Y, Feller SM, Pitts KM, Wu M, Ausra J, Jones I, Wu Y, Luan H, Trueb J, Higbee-Dempsey EM, Stepien I, Ghoreishi-Haack N, Haney CR, Li H, Kozorovitskiy Y, Heshmati M, Banks AR, Golden SA, Good CH, Rogers JA. An implantable device for wireless monitoring of diverse physio-behavioral characteristics in freely behaving small animals and interacting groups. Neuron 2024; 112:1764-1777.e5. [PMID: 38537641 PMCID: PMC11256974 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2024.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
Comprehensive, continuous quantitative monitoring of intricately orchestrated physiological processes and behavioral states in living organisms can yield essential data for elucidating the function of neural circuits under healthy and diseased conditions, for defining the effects of potential drugs and treatments, and for tracking disease progression and recovery. Here, we report a wireless, battery-free implantable device and a set of associated algorithms that enable continuous, multiparametric physio-behavioral monitoring in freely behaving small animals and interacting groups. Through advanced analytics approaches applied to mechano-acoustic signals of diverse body processes, the device yields heart rate, respiratory rate, physical activity, temperature, and behavioral states. Demonstrations in pharmacological, locomotor, and acute and social stress tests and in optogenetic studies offer unique insights into the coordination of physio-behavioral characteristics associated with healthy and perturbed states. This technology has broad utility in neuroscience, physiology, behavior, and other areas that rely on studies of freely moving, small animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Ouyang
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA; Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - Keith J Kilner
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA; NeuroLux Inc., Northfield, IL 60093, USA
| | | | - Yiming Liu
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Yinsheng Lu
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | | | - Kayla M Pitts
- Department of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Mingzheng Wu
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | | | - Ian Jones
- NeuroLux Inc., Northfield, IL 60093, USA
| | - Yunyun Wu
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Haiwen Luan
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Jacob Trueb
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | | | - Iwona Stepien
- Developmental Therapeutics Core, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | | | - Chad R Haney
- Center for Advanced Molecular Imaging, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Hao Li
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Yevgenia Kozorovitskiy
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA; Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Mitra Heshmati
- Department of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Center of Excellence in Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion (NAPE), University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Anthony R Banks
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA; NeuroLux Inc., Northfield, IL 60093, USA
| | - Sam A Golden
- Department of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Center of Excellence in Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion (NAPE), University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
| | - Cameron H Good
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA; NeuroLux Inc., Northfield, IL 60093, USA.
| | - John A Rogers
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA; Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA; Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA; Department of Neurological Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
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5
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Klaassen FH, de Voogd LD, Hulsman AM, O'Reilly JX, Klumpers F, Figner B, Roelofs K. The neurocomputational link between defensive cardiac states and approach-avoidance arbitration under threat. Commun Biol 2024; 7:576. [PMID: 38755409 PMCID: PMC11099143 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06267-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Avoidance, a hallmark of anxiety-related psychopathology, often comes at a cost; avoiding threat may forgo the possibility of a reward. Theories predict that optimal approach-avoidance arbitration depends on threat-induced psychophysiological states, like freezing-related bradycardia. Here we used model-based fMRI analyses to investigate whether and how bradycardia states are linked to the neurocomputational underpinnings of approach-avoidance arbitration under varying reward and threat magnitudes. We show that bradycardia states are associated with increased threat-induced avoidance and more pronounced reward-threat value comparison (i.e., a stronger tendency to approach vs. avoid when expected reward outweighs threat). An amygdala-striatal-prefrontal circuit supports approach-avoidance arbitration under threat, with specific involvement of the amygdala and dorsal anterior cingulate (dACC) in integrating reward-threat value and bradycardia states. These findings highlight the role of human freezing states in value-based decision making, relevant for optimal threat coping. They point to a specific role for amygdala/dACC in state-value integration under threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix H Klaassen
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Thomas van Aquinostraat 4, 6525 GD, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Lycia D de Voogd
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Thomas van Aquinostraat 4, 6525 GD, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Radboud University, Behavioural Science Institute (BSI), Thomas van Aquinostraat 4, 6525 GD, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Leiden University, Institute of Psychology and Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition (LIBC), Rapenburg 70, 2311 EZ, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Anneloes M Hulsman
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Thomas van Aquinostraat 4, 6525 GD, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Radboud University, Behavioural Science Institute (BSI), Thomas van Aquinostraat 4, 6525 GD, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jill X O'Reilly
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Woodstock Road, OX2 6GG, Oxford, UK
| | - Floris Klumpers
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Thomas van Aquinostraat 4, 6525 GD, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Radboud University, Behavioural Science Institute (BSI), Thomas van Aquinostraat 4, 6525 GD, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Bernd Figner
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Thomas van Aquinostraat 4, 6525 GD, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Radboud University, Behavioural Science Institute (BSI), Thomas van Aquinostraat 4, 6525 GD, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Karin Roelofs
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Thomas van Aquinostraat 4, 6525 GD, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
- Radboud University, Behavioural Science Institute (BSI), Thomas van Aquinostraat 4, 6525 GD, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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6
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Takahashi R, Kaneko N, Yokoyama H, Sasaki A, Nakazawa K. Effects of arousal and valence on center of pressure and ankle muscle activity during quiet standing. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0297540. [PMID: 38635774 PMCID: PMC11025900 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0297540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Emotion affects postural control during quiet standing. Emotional states can be defined as two-dimensional models comprising valence (pleasant/unpleasant) and arousal (aroused/calm). Most previous studies have investigated the effects of valence on postural control without considering arousal. In addition, studies have focused on the center of pressure (COP) trajectory to examine emotional effects on the quiet standing control; however, the relationship between neuromuscular mechanisms and the emotionally affected quiet standing control is largely unknown. This study aimed to investigate the effects of arousal and valence on the COP trajectory and ankle muscle activity during quiet standing. Twenty-two participants were instructed to stand on a force platform and look at affective pictures for 72 seconds. The tasks were repeated six times, according to the picture conditions composed of arousal (High and Low) and valence (Pleasant, Neutral, and Unpleasant). During the task, the COP, electromyogram (EMG) of the tibialis anterior and soleus muscles, and electrocardiogram (ECG) were recorded. The heart rate calculated from the ECG was significantly affected by valence; the value was lower in Unpleasant than that in Neutral and Pleasant. The 95% confidence ellipse area and standard deviation of COP in the anterior-posterior direction were lower, and the mean power frequency of COP in the anterior-posterior direction was higher in Unpleasant than in Pleasant. Although the mean velocity of the COP in the medio-lateral direction was significantly lower in Unpleasant than in Pleasant, the effect was observed only when arousal was low. Although the EMG variables were not significantly affected by emotional conditions, some EMG variables were significantly correlated with the COP variables that were affected by emotional conditions. Therefore, ankle muscle activity may be partially associated with postural changes triggered by emotional intervention. In conclusion, both valence and arousal affect the COP variables, and ankle muscle activity may be partially associated with these COP changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryogo Takahashi
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naotsugu Kaneko
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hikaru Yokoyama
- Institute of Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Atsushi Sasaki
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Kimitaka Nakazawa
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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7
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Novello M, Bosman LWJ, De Zeeuw CI. A Systematic Review of Direct Outputs from the Cerebellum to the Brainstem and Diencephalon in Mammals. CEREBELLUM (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2024; 23:210-239. [PMID: 36575348 PMCID: PMC10864519 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-022-01499-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The cerebellum is involved in many motor, autonomic and cognitive functions, and new tasks that have a cerebellar contribution are discovered on a regular basis. Simultaneously, our insight into the functional compartmentalization of the cerebellum has markedly improved. Additionally, studies on cerebellar output pathways have seen a renaissance due to the development of viral tracing techniques. To create an overview of the current state of our understanding of cerebellar efferents, we undertook a systematic review of all studies on monosynaptic projections from the cerebellum to the brainstem and the diencephalon in mammals. This revealed that important projections from the cerebellum, to the motor nuclei, cerebral cortex, and basal ganglia, are predominantly di- or polysynaptic, rather than monosynaptic. Strikingly, most target areas receive cerebellar input from all three cerebellar nuclei, showing a convergence of cerebellar information at the output level. Overall, there appeared to be a large level of agreement between studies on different species as well as on the use of different types of neural tracers, making the emerging picture of the cerebellar output areas a solid one. Finally, we discuss how this cerebellar output network is affected by a range of diseases and syndromes, with also non-cerebellar diseases having impact on cerebellar output areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuele Novello
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Chris I De Zeeuw
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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8
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Bao L, Rao J, Yu D, Zheng B, Yin B. Decoding the language of fear: Unveiling objective and subjective indicators in rodent models through a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 157:105537. [PMID: 38215801 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
While rodent models are vital for studying mental disorders, the underestimation of construct validity of fear indicators has led to limitations in translating to effective clinical treatments. Addressing this gap, we systematically reviewed 5054 articles from the 1960 s, understanding underlying theoretical advancement, and selected 68 articles with at least two fear indicators for a three-level meta-analysis. We hypothesized correlations between different indicators would elucidate similar functions, while magnitude differences could reveal distinct neural or behavioral mechanisms. Our findings reveal a shift towards using freezing behavior as the primary fear indicator in rodent models, and strong, moderate, and weak correlations between freezing and conditioned suppression ratios, 22-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations, and autonomic nervous system responses, respectively. Using freezing as a reference, moderator analysis shows treatment types and fear stages significantly influenced differences in magnitudes between two indicators. Our analysis supports a two-system model of fear in rodents, where objective and subjective fears could operate on a threshold-based mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Bao
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, China; Key Laboratory for Learning and Behavioral Sciences, Fujian Normal University, China
| | - Jiaojiao Rao
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, China; Key Laboratory for Learning and Behavioral Sciences, Fujian Normal University, China
| | - Delin Yu
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, China; Key Laboratory for Learning and Behavioral Sciences, Fujian Normal University, China
| | - Benhuiyuan Zheng
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, China; Key Laboratory for Learning and Behavioral Sciences, Fujian Normal University, China
| | - Bin Yin
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, China; Key Laboratory for Learning and Behavioral Sciences, Fujian Normal University, China.
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9
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Cola RB, Roccaro-Waldmeyer DM, Naim S, Babalian A, Seebeck P, Alvarez-Bolado G, Celio MR. Chemo- and optogenetic activation of hypothalamic Foxb1-expressing neurons and their terminal endings in the rostral-dorsolateral PAG leads to tachypnea, bradycardia, and immobility. eLife 2024; 12:RP86737. [PMID: 38300670 PMCID: PMC10945554 DOI: 10.7554/elife.86737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Foxb1 -expressing neurons occur in the dorsal premammillary nucleus (PMd) and further rostrally in the parvafox nucleus, a longitudinal cluster of neurons in the lateral hypothalamus of rodents. The descending projection of these Foxb1+ neurons end in the dorsolateral part of the periaqueductal gray (dlPAG). The functional role of the Foxb1+ neuronal subpopulation in the PMd and the parvafox nucleus remains elusive. In this study, the activity of the Foxb1+ neurons and of their terminal endings in the dlPAG in mice was selectively altered by employing chemo- and optogenetic tools. Our results show that in whole-body barometric plethysmography, hM3Dq-mediated, global Foxb1+ neuron excitation activates respiration. Time-resolved optogenetic gain-of-function manipulation of the terminal endings of Foxb1+ neurons in the rostral third of the dlPAG leads to abrupt immobility and bradycardia. Chemogenetic activation of Foxb1+ cell bodies and ChR2-mediated excitation of their axonal endings in the dlPAG led to a phenotypical presentation congruent with a 'freezing-like' situation during innate defensive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reto B Cola
- Anatomy and program in Neuroscience, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of FribourgFribourgSwitzerland
| | - Diana M Roccaro-Waldmeyer
- Anatomy and program in Neuroscience, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of FribourgFribourgSwitzerland
| | - Samara Naim
- Anatomy and program in Neuroscience, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of FribourgFribourgSwitzerland
| | - Alexandre Babalian
- Anatomy and program in Neuroscience, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of FribourgFribourgSwitzerland
| | - Petra Seebeck
- Zurich integrative Rodent Physiology (ZIRP), University of ZürichZürichSwitzerland
| | | | - Marco R Celio
- Anatomy and program in Neuroscience, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of FribourgFribourgSwitzerland
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10
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Leake J, Leidl DM, Lay BPP, Fam JP, Giles MC, Qureshi OA, Westbrook RF, Holmes NM. What is Learned Determines How Pavlovian Conditioned Fear is Consolidated in the Brain. J Neurosci 2024; 44:e0513232023. [PMID: 37963767 PMCID: PMC10860607 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0513-23.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 10/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Activity in the basolateral amygdala complex (BLA) is needed to encode fears acquired through contact with both innate sources of danger (i.e., things that are painful) and learned sources of danger (e.g., being threatened with a gun). However, within the BLA, the molecular processes required to consolidate the two types of fear are not the same: protein synthesis is needed to consolidate the first type of fear (so-called first-order fear) but not the latter (so-called second-order fear). The present study examined why first- and second-order fears differ in this respect. Specifically, it used a range of conditioning protocols in male and female rats, and assessed the effects of a BLA infusion of the protein synthesis inhibitor, cycloheximide, on first- and second-order conditioned fear. The results revealed that the differential protein synthesis requirements for consolidation of first- and second-order fears reflect differences in what is learned in each case. Protein synthesis in the BLA is needed to consolidate fears that result from encoding of relations between stimuli in the environment (stimulus-stimulus associations, typical for first-order fear) but is not needed to consolidate fears that form when environmental stimuli associate directly with fear responses emitted by the animal (stimulus-response associations, typical for second-order fear). Thus, the substrates of Pavlovian fear conditioning in the BLA depend on the way that the environment impinges upon the animal. This is discussed with respect to theories of amygdala function in Pavlovian fear conditioning, and ways in which stimulus-response associations might be consolidated in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Leake
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Dana M Leidl
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Belinda P P Lay
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Justine P Fam
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Madeleine C Giles
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Omar A Qureshi
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
- Department of Psychology, Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec HB4 1R6, Canada
| | - R Frederick Westbrook
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Nathan M Holmes
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
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11
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Gonzalez-Palomares E, Boulanger-Bertolus J, Dupin M, Mouly AM, Hechavarria JC. Amplitude modulation pattern of rat distress vocalisations during fear conditioning. Sci Rep 2023; 13:11173. [PMID: 37429931 PMCID: PMC10333300 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-38051-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023] Open
Abstract
In humans, screams have strong amplitude modulations (AM) at 30 to 150 Hz. These AM correspond to the acoustic correlate of perceptual roughness. In bats, distress calls can carry AMs, which elicit heart rate increases in playback experiments. Whether amplitude modulation occurs in fearful vocalisations of other animal species beyond humans and bats remains unknown. Here we analysed the AM pattern of rats' 22-kHz ultrasonic vocalisations emitted in a fear conditioning task. We found that the number of vocalisations decreases during the presentation of conditioned stimuli. We also observed that AMs do occur in rat 22-kHz vocalisations. AMs are stronger during the presentation of conditioned stimuli, and during escape behaviour compared to freezing. Our results suggest that the presence of AMs in vocalisations emitted could reflect the animal's internal state of fear related to avoidance behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julie Boulanger-Bertolus
- CNRS, INSERM, Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon CRNL U1028 UMR5292, CMO, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69500, Bron, France
| | - Maryne Dupin
- CNRS, INSERM, Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon CRNL U1028 UMR5292, CMO, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69500, Bron, France
| | - Anne-Marie Mouly
- CNRS, INSERM, Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon CRNL U1028 UMR5292, CMO, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69500, Bron, France.
| | - Julio C Hechavarria
- Institute for Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Goethe University, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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12
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Paci E, Lumb BM, Apps R, Lawrenson CL, Moran RJ. Dynamic causal modeling reveals increased cerebellar- periaqueductal gray communication during fear extinction. Front Syst Neurosci 2023; 17:1148604. [PMID: 37266394 PMCID: PMC10229824 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2023.1148604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The extinction of fear memories is an important component in regulating defensive behaviors, contributing toward adaptive processes essential for survival. The cerebellar medial nucleus (MCN) has bidirectional connections with the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG) and is implicated in the regulation of multiple aspects of fear, such as conditioned fear learning and the expression of defensive motor outputs. However, it is unclear how communication between the MCN and vlPAG changes during conditioned fear extinction. Methods We use dynamic causal models (DCMs) to infer effective connectivity between the MCN and vlPAG during auditory cue-conditioned fear retrieval and extinction in the rat. DCMs determine causal relationships between neuronal sources by using neurobiologically motivated models to reproduce the dynamics of post-synaptic potentials generated by synaptic connections within and between brain regions. Auditory event related potentials (ERPs) during the conditioned tone offset were recorded simultaneously from MCN and vlPAG and then modeled to identify changes in the strength of the synaptic inputs between these brain areas and the relationship to freezing behavior across extinction trials. The DCMs were structured to model evoked responses to best represent conditioned tone offset ERPs and were adapted to represent PAG and cerebellar circuitry. Results With the use of Parametric Empirical Bayesian (PEB) analysis we found that the strength of the information flow, mediated through enhanced synaptic efficacy from MCN to vlPAG was inversely related to freezing during extinction, i.e., communication from MCN to vlPAG increased with extinction. Discussion The results are consistent with the cerebellum contributing to predictive processes that underpin fear extinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Paci
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Bridget M. Lumb
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Apps
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Charlotte L. Lawrenson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Rosalyn J. Moran
- Department of Neuroimaging, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
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13
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Rubin DC, Bell CF. Tonic immobility (freezing) during sexual and physical assaults produces stronger memory effects than other characteristics of the assaults. Memory 2023; 31:678-688. [PMID: 36933228 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2023.2188642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/19/2023]
Abstract
Tonic immobility (TI) is a phylogenetically conserved, passive, obligatory defense mechanism commonly engaged during sexual and physical assaults. During TI, people become immobile while remaining conscious and later reexperience intrusive memories of both their assault and of its accompanying immobility. Here we show that this well-studied biological process has powerful effects on memory and other processes. Participants had experienced either a serious sexual (n = 234) or physical (n = 137) assault. For both the assault and its accompanying immobility, the standard measure of the peritraumatic severity of TI correlated between .40 and .65 with post-assault effects on memory, including memory of the assault and memory of the immobility, the two memory-based self-concept measures of self-blame and event centrality, and post-assault anxiety and depression. The correlations with TI were much higher than other peritraumatic characteristics commonly used to predict and describe posttraumatic effects in assaults and other traumas. The results suggest that TI should be considered for a broader, more biologically based and ecologically valid understanding of the effects of trauma on memory and memory-based reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Rubin
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Center on Autobiographical Memory Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Carolyn F Bell
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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14
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Integrated cardio-behavioral responses to threat define defensive states. Nat Neurosci 2023; 26:447-457. [PMID: 36759559 PMCID: PMC9991919 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-022-01252-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
Fear and anxiety are brain states that evolved to mediate defensive responses to threats. The defense reaction includes multiple interacting behavioral, autonomic and endocrine adjustments, but their integrative nature is poorly understood. In particular, although threat has been associated with various cardiac changes, there is no clear consensus regarding the relevance of these changes for the integrated defense reaction. Here we identify rapid microstates that are associated with specific behaviors and heart rate dynamics, which are affected by long-lasting macrostates and reflect context-dependent threat levels. In addition, we demonstrate that one of the most commonly used defensive behavioral responses-freezing as measured by immobility-is part of an integrated cardio-behavioral microstate mediated by Chx10+ neurons in the periaqueductal gray. Our framework for systematic integration of cardiac and behavioral readouts presents the basis for a better understanding of complex neural defensive states and their associated systemic functions.
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15
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Wright KM, Cieslewski S, Chu A, McDannald MA. Optogenetic inhibition of the caudal substantia nigra inflates behavioral responding to uncertain threat and safety. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.02.18.529041. [PMID: 36824795 PMCID: PMC9949108 DOI: 10.1101/2023.02.18.529041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2023]
Abstract
Defensive responding is adaptive when it approximates current threat, but maladaptive when it exceeds current threat. Here we asked if the substantia nigra, a region consistently implicated in reward, is necessary to show appropriate levels of defensive responding in Pavlovian fear discrimination. Rats received bilateral transduction of the caudal substantia nigra with halorhodopsin or a control fluorophore, and bilateral ferrule implants. Rats then behaviorally discriminated cues predicting unique foot shock probabilities (danger, p =1; uncertainty, p =0.25; and safety, p =0). Green-light illumination (532 nm) during cue presentation inflated defensive responding of halorhodopsin rats - measured by suppression of reward seeking - to uncertainty and safety beyond control levels. Green-light illumination outside of cue presentation had no impact on halorhodopsin or control rat responding. The results reveal caudal substantia nigra cue activity is necessary to inhibit defensive responding to non-threatening and uncertain threat cues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Amanda Chu
- Boston College, Department of Psychology & Neuroscience
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16
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Szeska C, Mohrmann H, Hamm AO. Facilitated extinction but impaired extinction recall by eye movement manipulation in humans - Indications for action mechanisms and the applicability of eye movement desensitization. Int J Psychophysiol 2023; 184:64-75. [PMID: 36586670 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2022.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy utilizes the manipulation of eye movements to reduce affective distress during fear-exposure. Animal research recently suggested a potential neural mechanism underlying these effects, by which increased activity of the superior colliculus (SC), mediating visual attention, increases the inhibition of the basolateral amygdala (BLA), mediating defensive plasticity. We tested such mechanism in forty healthy humans using a multiple-day single-cue fear conditioning and extinction paradigm. The activity of the SC during extinction was experimentally manipulated by eye movements, as half of the participants executed saccadic eye movements (n = 20; major SC involvement), while the other half executed smooth eye pursuits (n = 20; minor SC involvement). Amygdala-mediated fear-potentiated startle responses and fear bradycardia, as well as threat expectancy was analyzed. Saccadic eye movements facilitated the extinction of fear bradycardia and fear-potentiated startle responses. Higher saccadic accuracy and range correlated with reduced fear-potentiated startle. However, during extinction recall, fear-potentiated startle and fear bradycardia resurged and partly reached levels obtained after fear acquisition. Threat expectancy was not affected by different eye movements and was not elevated during extinction recall. Within limitations, results support an inhibitory SC-BLA pathway in humans by which eye movements may reduce low-level defensive responding, but not threat expectancy. Yet, manipulating eye movements during extinction learning seems to impair extinction recall for behavioral and physiological defensive response indices. Thus, increasing SC activity might enhance initial efficacy of exposure treatment, but additional strategies seem necessary for sustained fear attenuation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Szeska
- University of Greifswald, Department of Physiological and Clinical Psychology / Psychotherapy, Franz-Mehring-Strasse 47, 17487 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Heino Mohrmann
- University of Greifswald, Department of Physiological and Clinical Psychology / Psychotherapy, Franz-Mehring-Strasse 47, 17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Alfons O Hamm
- University of Greifswald, Department of Physiological and Clinical Psychology / Psychotherapy, Franz-Mehring-Strasse 47, 17487 Greifswald, Germany
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17
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Kecala NM, Goodman BF, Griffin MG. Dissociation as a Distinct Peritraumatic Coping Response: A Preliminary Analysis. J Trauma Dissociation 2023; 24:79-94. [PMID: 36062727 DOI: 10.1080/15299732.2022.2117262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Research examining physiological responses to trauma cues in PTSD has identified a subset of "nonresponders" showing suppressed physiological reactivity. The defense cascade model posits that individuals respond to stressors by progressing through a series of defensive reactions, with nonresponders having advanced to a shutdown response. It remains unclear whether dissociation is at the end of a continuum of passive behavior, indicating full shutdown, or if it comprises a distinct response. The present study aimed to address this uncertainty, using EFA to compare a two-factor (active, passive) and three-factor (active, passive, dissociative) model of defensive responding. Eighty-nine female physical and sexual assault survivors reported their peritraumatic reactions within 1 month of their assault, which were entered into the EFA. The three-factor model was superior, suggesting dissociation is a distinct category of peritraumatic coping. Peritraumatic use of both passive and dissociative coping strategies were each significantly associated with ongoing use of passive coping and increased PTSD symptoms 1-month posttrauma; surprisingly, the use of passive peritraumatic coping strategies was a better indicator than peritraumatic dissociation. The inclusion of depression as a covariate removed the association of passive (but not dissociative) coping with PTSD symptom severity. Active coping use was not significantly associated with any outcome, suggesting that the presence of shutdown responses is more informative than the presence or absence of any active coping. These findings highlight the importance of differentiating peritraumatic coping responses and the need for increased attention to the comparatively neglected topic of passive coping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia M Kecala
- Center for Trauma Recovery, University of Missouri - St. Louis (UMSL), Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Brittany F Goodman
- Center for Trauma Recovery, University of Missouri - St. Louis (UMSL), Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Michael G Griffin
- Center for Trauma Recovery, University of Missouri - St. Louis (UMSL), Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
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18
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Stimulation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex blocks the return of subcortically mediated fear responses. Transl Psychiatry 2022; 12:394. [PMID: 36127327 PMCID: PMC9489865 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-022-02174-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) mediates the inhibition of defensive responses upon encounters of cues, that had lost their attribute as a threat signal via previous extinction learning. Here, we investigated whether such fear extinction recall can be facilitated by anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Extinction recall was tested twenty-four hours after previously acquired fear was extinguished. Either anodal tDCS or sham stimulation targeting the vmPFC was applied during this test. After stimulation ceased, we examined return of fear after subjects had been re-exposed to aversive events. Fear was assessed by reports of threat expectancy and modulations of autonomic (skin conductance, heart rate) and protective reflex (startle potentiation) measures, the latter of which are mediated by subcortical defense circuits. While tDCS did not affect initial extinction recall, it abolished the return of startle potentiation and autonomic components of the fear response. Results suggest hierarchical multi-level vmPFC functions in human fear inhibition and indicate, that its stimulation might immunize against relapses into pathological subcortically mediated defensive activation.
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19
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Freezing revisited: coordinated autonomic and central optimization of threat coping. Nat Rev Neurosci 2022; 23:568-580. [PMID: 35760906 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-022-00608-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Animals have sophisticated mechanisms for coping with danger. Freezing is a unique state that, upon threat detection, allows evidence to be gathered, response possibilities to be previsioned and preparations to be made for worst-case fight or flight. We propose that - rather than reflecting a passive fear state - the particular somatic and cognitive characteristics of freezing help to conceal overt responses, while optimizing sensory processing and action preparation. Critical for these functions are the neurotransmitters noradrenaline and acetylcholine, which modulate neural information processing and also control the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system. However, the interactions between autonomic systems and the brain during freezing, and the way in which they jointly coordinate responses, remain incompletely explored. We review the joint actions of these systems and offer a novel computational framework to describe their temporally harmonized integration. This reconceptualization of freezing has implications for its role in decision-making under threat and for psychopathology.
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20
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La-Vu MQ, Sethi E, Maesta-Pereira S, Schuette PJ, Tobias BC, Reis FMCV, Wang W, Torossian A, Bishop A, Leonard SJ, Lin L, Cahill CM, Adhikari A. Sparse genetically defined neurons refine the canonical role of periaqueductal gray columnar organization. eLife 2022; 11:77115. [PMID: 35674316 PMCID: PMC9224993 DOI: 10.7554/elife.77115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
During threat exposure, survival depends on defensive reactions. Prior works linked large glutamatergic populations in the midbrain periaqueductal gray (PAG) to defensive freezing and flight, and established that the overarching functional organization axis of the PAG is along anatomically-defined columns. Accordingly, broad activation of the dorsolateral column induces flight, while activation of the lateral or ventrolateral (l and vl) columns induces freezing. However, the PAG contains diverse cell types that vary in neurochemistry. How these cell types contribute to defense remains unknown, indicating that targeting sparse, genetically-defined populations may reveal how the PAG generates diverse behaviors. Though prior works showed that broad excitation of the lPAG or vlPAG causes freezing, we found in mice that activation of lateral and ventrolateral PAG (l/vlPAG) cholecystokinin-expressing (CCK) cells selectively caused flight to safer regions within an environment. Furthermore, inhibition of l/vlPAG-CCK cells reduced predator avoidance without altering other defensive behaviors like freezing. Lastly, l/vlPAG-CCK activity decreased when approaching threat and increased during movement to safer locations. These results suggest CCK cells drive threat avoidance states, which are epochs during which mice increase distance from threat and perform evasive escape. Conversely, l/vlPAG pan-neuronal activation promoted freezing, and these cells were activated near threat. Thus, CCK l/vlPAG cells have opposing function and neural activation motifs compared to the broader local ensemble defined solely by columnar boundaries. In addition to the anatomical columnar architecture of the PAG, the molecular identity of PAG cells may confer an additional axis of functional organization, revealing unexplored functional heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mimi Q La-Vu
- Neuroscience Interdepartmental Program, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States.,Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Ekayana Sethi
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Sandra Maesta-Pereira
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Peter J Schuette
- Neuroscience Interdepartmental Program, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States.,Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Brooke C Tobias
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Fernando M C V Reis
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Weisheng Wang
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Anita Torossian
- Neuroscience Interdepartmental Program, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States.,Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Amy Bishop
- Hatos Center for Neuropharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Saskia J Leonard
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Lilly Lin
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Catherine M Cahill
- Hatos Center for Neuropharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States.,Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Los Angeles, United States.,Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Avishek Adhikari
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
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21
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Merscher AS, Tovote P, Pauli P, Gamer M. Centralized gaze as an adaptive component of defensive states in humans. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20220405. [PMID: 35582796 PMCID: PMC9114933 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.0405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Adequate defensive responding is crucial for mental health but scientifically not well understood. Specifically, it seems difficult to dissociate defense and approach states based on autonomic response patterns. We thus explored the robustness and threat-specificity of recently described oculomotor dynamics upon threat in anticipation of either threatening or rewarding stimuli in humans. While visually exploring naturalistic images, participants (50 per experiment) expected an inevitable, no, or avoidable shock (Experiment 1) or a guaranteed, no, or achievable reward (Experiment 2) that could be averted or gained by a quick behavioural response. We observed reduced heart rate (bradycardia), increased skin conductance, pupil dilation and globally centralized gaze when shocks were inevitable but, more pronouncedly, when they were avoidable. Reward trials were not associated with globally narrowed visual exploration, but autonomic responses resembled characteristics of the threat condition. While bradycardia and concomitant sympathetic activation reflect not only threat-related but also action-preparatory states independent of valence, global centralization of gaze seems a robust phenomenon during the anticipation of avoidable threat. Thus, instead of relying on single readouts, translational research in animals and humans should consider the multi-dimensionality of states in aversive and rewarding contexts, especially when investigating ambivalent, conflicting situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alma-Sophia Merscher
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Marcusstr. 9-11, 97070 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Philip Tovote
- Systems Neurobiology, Institute of Clinical Neurobiology, University Hospital Würzburg, Versbacher Str. 5, 97078 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Paul Pauli
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Marcusstr. 9-11, 97070 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Matthias Gamer
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Marcusstr. 9-11, 97070 Würzburg, Germany
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22
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Coccaro EF, Keedy S, Malina M, Lee R, Phan KL. Neuronal responses in social-emotional information processing in impulsive aggressive individuals. Neuropsychopharmacology 2022; 47:1249-1255. [PMID: 35277651 PMCID: PMC9018744 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-022-01296-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
How we perceive and interpret signals from others' behavior, known as social-emotional information processing (SEIP), is key when responding to social threat. Impulsively aggressive individuals, behaviorally, demonstrate impaired SEIP for encoding relevant social stimuli, attribution of intent of the other person in the interaction, and responding negatively to potentially threatening social situations. In this study, we sought to explore how neural processing differs between healthy controls (HC) and individuals with impulsive aggressive behavior (individuals with Intermittent Explosive Disorder, I-IED), during a validated SEIP paradigm. Forty-five adults (19 I-IED, 26 HC) participants underwent a validated SEIP tasks during an fMRI scan. The task utilized video clips depicting a socially ambiguous, but possibly aggressive (AGG), act by one person to another and control video clips in which where possibly aggressive act does not occur (CON). Behavioral anomalies in SEIP are also manifest in altered neural activation in distributed networks/brain regions in each phase of SEIP examined. Overall, neural responses during the SEIP paradigm were characterized as reduced discrimination of the AGG vs. CON videos for I-IEDs compared to HCs. These data suggest the presence of compromised neural circuits underlying impaired social cognition in individuals with IED and highlights potential neural targets of intervention for impaired social cognition in I-IED and other behavioral disorders as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emil F Coccaro
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
| | - Sarah Keedy
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Michael Malina
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Royce Lee
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - K Luan Phan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
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23
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de Mello Rosa GH, Ullah F, de Paiva YB, da Silva JA, Branco LGS, Corrado AP, Medeiros P, Coimbra NC, Franceschi Biagioni A. Ventrolateral periaqueductal gray matter integrative system of defense and antinociception. Pflugers Arch 2022; 474:469-480. [PMID: 35201425 PMCID: PMC8924147 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-022-02672-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Defensive responses are neurophysiological processes crucial for survival during threatening situations. Defensive immobility is a common adaptive response, in rodents, elaborated by ventrolateral periaqueductal gray matter (vlPAG) when threat is unavoidable. It is associated with somatosensory and autonomic reactions such as alteration in the sensation of pain and rate of respiration. In this study, defensive immobility was assessed by chemical stimulation of vlPAG with different doses of NMDA (0.1, 0.3, and 0.6 nmol). After elicitation of defensive immobility, antinociceptive and respiratory response tests were also performed. Results revealed that defensive immobility was followed by a decrease in the nociceptive perception. Furthermore, the lowest dose of NMDA induced antinociceptive response without eliciting defensive immobility. During defensive immobility, respiratory responses were also disturbed. Interestingly, respiratory rate was increased and interspersed with prolonged expiratory phase of breathing. These findings suggest that vlPAG integrates three different defensive behavioral responses, contributing to the most effective defensive strategies during threatening situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Henrique de Mello Rosa
- Laboratory of Neuroanatomy & Neuropsychobiology, Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo (FMRP-USP), Av. Bandeirantes, 3900, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, 14049-900, Brazil
| | - Farhad Ullah
- Department of Zoology, Islamia College Peshawar, Grand trunk Rd, Rahat Abad, Peshawar, 25120, Pakistan
| | - Yara Bezerra de Paiva
- Laboratory of Neuroanatomy & Neuropsychobiology, Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo (FMRP-USP), Av. Bandeirantes, 3900, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, 14049-900, Brazil
| | - Juliana Almeida da Silva
- Laboratory of Neuroanatomy & Neuropsychobiology, Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo (FMRP-USP), Av. Bandeirantes, 3900, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, 14049-900, Brazil
| | - Luiz Guilherme S Branco
- Department of Basic and Oral Biology, Ribeirão Preto School of Dentistry of the University of São Paulo, Av. Bandeirantes, 3900, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, 14040-904, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Pinto Corrado
- Laboratory of Neuroanatomy & Neuropsychobiology, Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo (FMRP-USP), Av. Bandeirantes, 3900, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, 14049-900, Brazil
| | - Priscila Medeiros
- Laboratory of Neuroanatomy & Neuropsychobiology, Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo (FMRP-USP), Av. Bandeirantes, 3900, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, 14049-900, Brazil
- Laboratory of Neurosciences of Pain & Emotions and Multi-User Centre of Neuroelectrophysiology, Department of Surgery and Anatomy, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo, Av. Bandeirantes, 3900, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, 14049-900, Brazil
| | - Norberto Cysne Coimbra
- Laboratory of Neuroanatomy & Neuropsychobiology, Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo (FMRP-USP), Av. Bandeirantes, 3900, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, 14049-900, Brazil.
- Behavioural Neuroscience Institute (INeC), Av. do Café, 2450, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, 14050-220, Brazil.
| | - Audrey Franceschi Biagioni
- Laboratory of Neuroanatomy & Neuropsychobiology, Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo (FMRP-USP), Av. Bandeirantes, 3900, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, 14049-900, Brazil.
- Neuron Physiology and Technology Laboratory, International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), Department of Neuroscience, Via Bonomea 265, 34136, Trieste, Italy.
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24
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Lawrenson C, Paci E, Pickford J, Drake RAR, Lumb BM, Apps R. Cerebellar modulation of memory encoding in the periaqueductal grey and fear behaviour. eLife 2022; 11:76278. [PMID: 35287795 PMCID: PMC8923669 DOI: 10.7554/elife.76278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The pivotal role of the periaqueductal grey (PAG) in fear learning is reinforced by the identification of neurons in male rat ventrolateral PAG (vlPAG) that encode fear memory through signalling the onset and offset of an auditory-conditioned stimulus during presentation of the unreinforced conditioned tone (CS+) during retrieval. Some units only display CS+ onset or offset responses, and the two signals differ in extinction sensitivity, suggesting that they are independent of each other. In addition, understanding cerebellar contributions to survival circuits is advanced by the discovery that (i) reversible inactivation of the medial cerebellar nucleus (MCN) during fear consolidation leads in subsequent retrieval to (a) disruption of the temporal precision of vlPAG offset, but not onset responses to CS+, and (b) an increase in duration of freezing behaviour. And (ii) chemogenetic manipulation of the MCN-vlPAG projection during fear acquisition (a) reduces the occurrence of fear-related ultrasonic vocalisations, and (b) during subsequent retrieval, slows the extinction rate of fear-related freezing. These findings show that the cerebellum is part of the survival network that regulates fear memory processes at multiple timescales and in multiple ways, raising the possibility that dysfunctional interactions in the cerebellar-survival network may underlie fear-related disorders and comorbidities. Anxiety disorders are a cluster of mental health conditions characterised by persistent and excessive amounts of fear and worry. They affect millions of people worldwide, but treatments can sometimes be ineffective and have unwanted side effects. Understanding which brain regions are involved in fear and anxiety-related behaviours, and how those areas are connected, is the first step towards designing more effective treatments. A region known as the periaqueductal grey (or PAG) sits at the centre of the brain’s fear and anxiety network, regulating pain, encoding fear memories and responding to threats and stressors. It also controls survival behaviours such as the ‘freeze’ response, when an animal is frightened. A more recent addition to the fear and anxiety network is the cerebellum, which sits at the base of the brain. Two-way connections between this region and the PAG have been well described, but how the cerebellum might influence fear and anxiety-related behaviours remains unclear. To explore this role, Lawrenson, Paci et al. investigated whether the cerebellum modulates brain activity within the PAG and if so, how this relates to fear behaviours. Rats had electrodes implanted in their brains to record the activity of nerve cells within the PAG. A common fear-conditioning task was then used to elicit ‘freeze’ responses: a sound was paired with mild foot shocks until the animals learned to fear the auditory signal. In the rats, a subset of neurons within the PAG responded to the tone, consistent with those cells encoding a fear memory. But when a drug blocked the cerebellum’s output during fear conditioning, the timing of the PAG response was less precise and the rats’ freeze response lasted longer. Lawrenson, Paci et al. concluded that the cerebellum, through its interactions with the brain’s fear and anxiety network, might be responsible for coordinating the most appropriate behavioural response to fear, and how long ‘freezing’ lasts. In summary, these findings show that the cerebellum is a part of the brain’s survival network which regulates fear-memory processes. It raises the possibility that disruption of the cerebellum might underlie anxiety and other fear-related disorders, thereby providing a new target for future therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Lawrenson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Elena Paci
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Jasmine Pickford
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Robert A R Drake
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Bridget M Lumb
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Apps
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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25
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Distinct networks of periaqueductal gray columns in pain and threat processing. Neuroimage 2022; 250:118936. [PMID: 35093518 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.118936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Noxious events that can cause physical damage to the body are perceived as threats. In the brainstem, the periaqueductal gray (PAG) ensures survival by generating an appropriate response to these threats. Hence, the experience of pain is coupled with threat signaling and interfaces in the dl/l and vlPAG columns. In this study, we triangulate the functional circuits of the dl/l and vlPAG by using static and time-varying functional connectivity (FC) in multiple fMRI scans in healthy participants (n=37, 21 female). The dl/l and vlPAG were activated during cue, heat, and rating periods when the cue signaled a high threat of experiencing heat pain and the incoming intensity of heat pain was low; responses were significantly lower after low threat cues. The two regions responded similarly to the cued conditions but showed prominent distinctions in the extent of FC with other brain regions. Thus, both static and time-varying FC showed significant differences in the functional circuits of dl/l and vlPAG in rest and task scans. The dl/lPAG consistently synchronized with the salience network, suggesting a role in threat detection, while the vlPAG exhibited more widespread synchronization and frequently connected with memory/language and sensory regions. Hence, these two PAG regions process heat pain when stronger pain is expected or when it is uncertain, and preferentially synchronize with distinct brain circuits in a reproducible manner. The dl/lPAG seems more directly involved in salience detection, while the vlPAG seems engaged in contextualizing threats.
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26
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van Ast VA, Klumpers F, Grasman RPPP, Krypotos AM, Roelofs K. Postural freezing relates to startle potentiation in a human fear-conditioning paradigm. Psychophysiology 2021; 59:e13983. [PMID: 34954858 PMCID: PMC9285358 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Freezing to impending threat is a core defensive response. It has been studied primarily using fear conditioning in non-human animals, thwarting advances in translational human anxiety research that has used other indices, such as skin conductance responses. Here we examine postural freezing as a human conditioning index for translational anxiety research. We employed a mixed cued/contextual fear-conditioning paradigm where one context signals the occurrence of the US upon the presentation of the CS, and another context signals that the CS is not followed by the US. Critically, during the following generalization phase, the CS is presented in a third and novel context. We show that human freezing is highly sensitive to fear conditioning, generalizes to ambiguous contexts, and amplifies with threat imminence. Intriguingly, stronger parasympathetically driven freezing under threat, but not sympathetically mediated skin conductance, predicts subsequent startle magnitude. These results demonstrate that humans show fear-conditioned animal-like freezing responses, known to aid in active preparation for unexpected attack, and that freezing captures real-life anxiety expression. Conditioned freezing offers a promising new, non-invasive, and continuous, readout for human fear conditioning, paving the way for future translational studies into human fear and anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa A van Ast
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Floris Klumpers
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Raoul P P P Grasman
- Department of Psychological Methods, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Angelos-Miltiadis Krypotos
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Research Group of Health Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Karin Roelofs
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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27
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Hami J, von Bohlen Und Halbach V, Tetzner A, Walther T, von Bohlen Und Halbach O. Localization and expression of the Mas-related G-protein coupled receptor member D (MrgD) in the mouse brain. Heliyon 2021; 7:e08440. [PMID: 34901497 PMCID: PMC8637488 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies in the last decades have provided evidence for the existence of a local renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in the central nervous system (CNS). Widespread distribution of the different RAS components in the brain demonstrates the pleiotropic role of this system in the structure and function of CNS. With the advent of new molecular techniques, a novel receptor has been identified within the beneficial arm of the RAS, the Mas-related G-protein coupled receptor D (MrgD), which can be stimulated by two heptapeptides, Ala1-(Ang-(1-7), also named alamandine, and Ang-(1-7). However, the biological and physiological relevance of this interaction remains obscure. Since several recent studies hinted at a role of MrgD in the CNS, we determined the distribution pattern of MrgD receptors in the adult mouse brain by using a genetic mouse model with tracers of MrgD expression. MrgD-positive cells could be identified in some forebrain areas, including cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, habenular nuclei, striatum and pallidum, as well as in some mid-brain nuclei in a region-specific manner. The specific localization of MrgD in the reward- and limbic-related areas can hint at a role of MrgD in processes such as pain perception/modulation, synaptic plasticity, learning, memory and cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javad Hami
- Institut für Anatomie und Zellbiologie, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | | | - Anja Tetzner
- Department Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine and School of Pharmacy, University College Cork (UCC), Cork, Ireland
| | - Thomas Walther
- Department Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine and School of Pharmacy, University College Cork (UCC), Cork, Ireland.,Institute of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
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28
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van Boxtel A, Zaalberg R, de Wied M. Subnormal short-latency facial mimicry responses to dynamic emotional facial expressions in male adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders and callous-unemotional traits. Psychophysiology 2021; 59:e13945. [PMID: 34553782 PMCID: PMC9286451 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Using still pictures of emotional facial expressions as experimental stimuli, reduced amygdala responses or impaired recognition of basic emotions were repeatedly found in people with psychopathic traits. The amygdala also plays an important role in short‐latency facial mimicry responses. Since dynamic emotional facial expressions may have higher ecological validity than still pictures, we compared short‐latency facial mimicry responses to dynamic and static emotional expressions between adolescents with psychopathic traits and normal controls. Facial EMG responses to videos or still pictures of emotional expressions (happiness, anger, sadness, fear) were measured. Responses to 500‐ms dynamic expressions in videos, as well as the subsequent 1500‐ms phase of maximal (i.e., static) expression, were compared between male adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders and high (n = 14) or low (n = 17) callous‐unemotional (CU) traits, and normal control subjects (n = 32). Responses to still pictures were also compared between groups. EMG responses to dynamic expressions were generally significantly smaller in the high‐CU group than in the other two groups, which generally did not differ. These group differences gradually emerged during the 500‐ms stimulus presentation period but in general they were already seen a few hundred milliseconds after stimulus onset. Group differences were absent during the 1500‐ms phase of maximal expression and during exposure to still pictures. Subnormal short‐latency mimicry responses to dynamic emotional facial expressions in the high‐CU group might have negative consequences for understanding emotional facial expressions of others during daily life when human facial interactions are primarily dynamic. During human interactions, short‐latency facial mimicry responses occur to dynamic emotional facial expressions of others. These are preconscious, automatic responses which cannot be voluntarily controlled. They may be important for emotional understanding of others and appear to be subnormal in male adolescents with psychopathic traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton van Boxtel
- Department of Cognitive Neuropsychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
| | - Ruud Zaalberg
- Wageningen University & Research, Biometris, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Minet de Wied
- Department of Youth and Family, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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29
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Noordewier MK, Scheepers DT, Stins JF, Hagenaars MA. On the physiology of interruption after unexpectedness. Biol Psychol 2021; 165:108174. [PMID: 34453984 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2021.108174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
We tested whether surprise elicits similar physiological changes as those associated with orienting and freezing after threat, as surprise also involves a state of interruption and attention for effective action. Moreover, because surprise is primarily driven by the unexpectedness of an event, initial physiological responses were predicted to be similar for positive, neutral, and negative surprises. Results of repetition-change studies (4 + 1 in Supplemental Materials) showed that surprise lowers heart rate (Experiments 1-4) and increases blood pressure (Experiment 4). No effects on body movement (Experiment 2) or finger temperature (Experiment 4) were found. When unexpected stimuli were presented more often (making them less surprising) heart rate returned to baseline, while blood pressure remained high (Experiment 4). These effects were not influenced by stimulus valence. However, second-to-second analyses within the first (surprising) block showed a tendency for a stronger increase in systolic blood pressure after negative vs. positive surprise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marret K Noordewier
- Social, Economic and Organisational Psychology, Social and Behavioural Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands.
| | - Daan T Scheepers
- Social, Economic and Organisational Psychology, Social and Behavioural Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands; Social, Health and Organizational Psychology, Social and Behavioural Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - John F Stins
- Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Muriel A Hagenaars
- Clinical Psychology, Social and Behavioural Sciences, Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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30
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Trevizan-Baú P, Furuya WI, Mazzone SB, Stanić D, Dhingra RR, Dutschmann M. Reciprocal connectivity of the periaqueductal gray with the ponto-medullary respiratory network in rat. Brain Res 2021; 1757:147255. [PMID: 33515533 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.147255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Synaptic activities of the periaqueductal gray (PAG) can modulate or appropriate the respiratory motor activities in the context of behavior and emotion via descending projections to nucleus retroambiguus. However, alternative anatomical pathways for the mediation of PAG-evoked respiratory modulation via core nuclei of the brainstem respiratory network remains only partially described. We injected the retrograde tracer Cholera toxin subunit B (CT-B) in the pontine Kölliker-Fuse nucleus (KFn, n = 5), medullary Bötzinger (BötC, n = 3) and pre-Bötzinger complexes (pre-BötC; n = 3), and the caudal raphé nuclei (n = 3), and quantified the descending connectivity of the PAG targeting these brainstem respiratory regions. CT-B injections in the KFn, pre-BötC, and caudal raphé, but not in the BötC, resulted in CT-B-labeled neurons that were predominantly located in the lateral and ventrolateral PAG columns. In turn, CT-B injections in the lateral and ventrolateral PAG columns (n = 4) produced the highest numbers of CT-B-labeled neurons in the KFn and far fewer numbers of labeled neurons in the pre-BötC, BötC, and caudal raphé. Analysis of the relative projection strength revealed that the KFn shares the densest reciprocal connectivity with the PAG (ventrolateral and lateral columns, in particular). Overall, our data imply that the PAG may engage a distributed respiratory rhythm and pattern generating network beyond the nucleus retroambiguus to mediate downstream modulation of breathing. However, the reciprocal connectivity of the KFn and PAG suggests specific roles for synaptic interaction between these two nuclei that are most likely related to the regulation of upper airway patency during vocalization or other volitional orofacial behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Trevizan-Baú
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Discovery Neuroscience Theme, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Werner I Furuya
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Discovery Neuroscience Theme, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Stuart B Mazzone
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Davor Stanić
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Discovery Neuroscience Theme, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Rishi R Dhingra
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Discovery Neuroscience Theme, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Mathias Dutschmann
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Discovery Neuroscience Theme, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
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31
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Coccaro EF, Keedy S, Lee R, Phan KL. Neuronal responses to adverse social threat in healthy human subjects. J Psychiatr Res 2021; 136:47-53. [PMID: 33556904 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Social-emotional information processing (SEIP) is critical for appropriate human interaction. It is composed of processes that underlie how we behave towards others, especially in response to adverse social threat. We conducted a study in 26 healthy participants who completed a validated Video-SEIP (V-SEIP) task in the fMRI scanning environment. The V-SEIP phases studied included encoding (ENC) of socially relevant information, hostile attribution (HA) of motive, and the negative emotional response (NER) the participant would have in the context of the video vignettes. The ENC phase was associated with activation of amygdala, left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, right middle temporal gyrus, and visual cortex, the HA phase associated with activation of several brain regions including frontal and temporal cortex as well as basal ganglia and cerebellum, while the NER phase was associated with activation in the midbrain with regions involving the periaqueductal gray, basal ganglia, and the cerebellum. We suggest that this V-SEIP task represents a novel neuro-biomarker for the study of SEIP and that it can be extended for use in a number of psychiatric conditions in which anger, irritability, and impulsive aggressive are prominent features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emil F Coccaro
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA.
| | - Sarah Keedy
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Royce Lee
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - K Luan Phan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
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32
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Livermore JJA, Klaassen FH, Bramson B, Hulsman AM, Meijer SW, Held L, Klumpers F, de Voogd LD, Roelofs K. Approach-Avoidance Decisions Under Threat: The Role of Autonomic Psychophysiological States. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:621517. [PMID: 33867915 PMCID: PMC8044748 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.621517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Acutely challenging or threatening situations frequently require approach-avoidance decisions. Acute threat triggers fast autonomic changes that prepare the body to freeze, fight or flee. However, such autonomic changes may also influence subsequent instrumental approach-avoidance decisions. Since defensive bodily states are often not considered in value-based decision-making models, it remains unclear how they influence the decision-making process. Here, we aim to bridge this gap by discussing the existing literature on the potential role of threat-induced bodily states on decision making and provide a new neurocomputational framework explaining how these effects can facilitate or bias approach-avoid decisions under threat. Theoretical accounts have stated that threat-induced parasympathetic activity is involved in information gathering and decision making. Parasympathetic dominance over sympathetic activity is particularly seen during threat-anticipatory freezing, an evolutionarily conserved response to threat demonstrated across species and characterized by immobility and bradycardia. Although this state of freezing has been linked to altered information processing and action preparation, a full theoretical treatment of the interactions with value-based decision making has not yet been achieved. Our neural framework, which we term the Threat State/Value Integration (TSI) Model, will illustrate how threat-induced bodily states may impact valuation of competing incentives at three stages of the decision-making process, namely at threat evaluation, integration of rewards and threats, and action initiation. Additionally, because altered parasympathetic activity and decision biases have been shown in anxious populations, we will end with discussing how biases in this system can lead to characteristic patterns of avoidance seen in anxiety-related disorders, motivating future pre-clinical and clinical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- James J. A. Livermore
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Felix H. Klaassen
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Bob Bramson
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Anneloes M. Hulsman
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Sjoerd W. Meijer
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Leslie Held
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Floris Klumpers
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Lycia D. de Voogd
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Karin Roelofs
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
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33
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Szeska C, Richter J, Wendt J, Weymar M, Hamm AO. Attentive immobility in the face of inevitable distal threat-Startle potentiation and fear bradycardia as an index of emotion and attention. Psychophysiology 2021; 58:e13812. [PMID: 33759212 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
During fear conditioning, a cue (CS) signals an inevitable distal threat (US) and evokes a conditioned response that can be described as attentive immobility (freezing). The organism remains motionless and monitors the source of danger while startle responses are potentiated, indicating a state of defensive hypervigilance. Although in animals vagally mediated fear bradycardia is also reliably observed under such circumstances, results are mixed in human fear conditioning. Using a single-cue fear conditioning and extinction protocol, we tested cardiac reactivity and startle potentiation indexing low-level defensive strategies in a fear-conditioned (n = 40; paired presentations of CS and US) compared with a non-conditioned control group (n = 40; unpaired presentations of CS and US). Additionally, we assessed shock expectancy ratings on a trial-by-trial basis indexing declarative knowledge of the previous contingencies. Half of each group underwent extinction under sham or active transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation (tVNS), serving as additional proof of concept. We found stronger cardiac deceleration during CS presentation in the fear learning relative to the control group. This learned fear bradycardia was positively correlated with conditioned startle potentiation but not with declarative knowledge of CS-US contingencies. TVNS abolished differences in heart rate changes between both groups and removed the significant correlation between late cardiac deceleration and startle potentiation in the fear learning group. Results suggest, fear-conditioned cues evoke attentive immobility in humans, characterized by cardiac deceleration and startle potentiation. Such defensive response pattern is elicited by cues predicting inevitable distal threat and resembles conditioned fear responses observed in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Szeska
- Department of Physiological and Clinical Psychology/Psychotherapy, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Jan Richter
- Department of Physiological and Clinical Psychology/Psychotherapy, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Julia Wendt
- Department of Biological Psychology and Affective Science, Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Mathias Weymar
- Department of Biological Psychology and Affective Science, Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany.,Faculty of Health Sciences Brandenburg, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Alfons O Hamm
- Department of Physiological and Clinical Psychology/Psychotherapy, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
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34
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Botta A, Lagravinese G, Bove M, Avenanti A, Avanzino L. Modulation of Response Times During Processing of Emotional Body Language. Front Psychol 2021; 12:616995. [PMID: 33716882 PMCID: PMC7947862 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.616995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The investigation of how humans perceive and respond to emotional signals conveyed by the human body has been for a long time secondary compared with the investigation of facial expressions and emotional scenes recognition. The aims of this behavioral study were to assess the ability to process emotional body postures and to test whether motor response is mainly driven by the emotional content of the picture or if it is influenced by motor resonance. Emotional body postures and scenes (IAPS) divided into three clusters (fear, happiness, and neutral) were shown to 25 healthy subjects (13 males, mean age ± SD: 22.3 ± 1.8 years) in a three-alternative forced choice task. Subjects were asked to recognize the emotional content of the pictures by pressing one of three keys as fast as possible in order to estimate response times (RTs). The rating of valence and arousal was also performed. We found shorter RTs for fearful body postures as compared with happy and neutral postures. In contrast, no differences across emotional categories were found for the IAPS stimuli. Analysis on valence and arousal and the subsequent item analysis showed an excellent reliability of the two sets of images used in the experiment. Our results show that fearful body postures are rapidly recognized and processed, probably thanks to the automatic activation of a series of central nervous system structures orchestrating the defensive threat reactions, strengthening and supporting previous neurophysiological and behavioral findings in body language processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Botta
- Department of Experimental Medicine (DIMES), Section of Human Physiology, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics and Maternal Child Health (DINOGMI), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Giovanna Lagravinese
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics and Maternal Child Health (DINOGMI), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- IRCCS Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Marco Bove
- Department of Experimental Medicine (DIMES), Section of Human Physiology, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- IRCCS Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Alessio Avenanti
- Centro di Neuroscienze Cognitive and Dipartimento di Psicologia, Campus Cesena, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, Cesena, Italy
- Centro de Investigación en Neuropsicología y Neurociencias Cognitivas, Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca, Chile
| | - Laura Avanzino
- Department of Experimental Medicine (DIMES), Section of Human Physiology, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- IRCCS Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
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35
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Anxiety and threat magnification in subjective and physiological responses of fear of heights induced by virtual reality. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2019.109720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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36
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Radmanesh M, Jalili M, Kozlowska K. Activation of Functional Brain Networks in Children With Psychogenic Non-epileptic Seizures. Front Hum Neurosci 2020; 14:339. [PMID: 33192376 PMCID: PMC7477327 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES) have been hypothesized to emerge in the context of neural networks instability. To explore this hypothesis in children, we applied a graph theory approach to examine connectivity in neural networks in the resting-state EEG in 35 children with PNES, 31 children with other functional neurological symptoms (but no PNES), and 75 healthy controls. Methods The networks were extracted from Laplacian-transformed time series by a coherence connectivity estimation method. Results Children with PNES (vs. controls) showed widespread changes in network metrics: increased global efficiency (gamma and beta bands), increased local efficiency (gamma band), and increased modularity (gamma and alpha bands). Compared to controls, they also had higher levels of autonomic arousal (e.g., lower heart variability); more anxiety, depression, and stress on the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales; and more adverse childhood experiences on the Early Life Stress Questionnaire. Increases in network metrics correlated with arousal. Children with other functional neurological symptoms (but no PNES) showed scattered and less pronounced changes in network metrics. Conclusion The results indicate that children with PNES present with increased activation of neural networks coupled with increased physiological arousal. While this shift in functional organization may confer a short-term adaptive advantage-one that facilitates neural communication and the child's capacity to respond self-protectively in the face of stressful life events-it may also have a significant biological cost. It may predispose the child's neural networks to periods of instability-presenting clinically as PNES-when the neural networks are faced with perturbations in energy flow or with additional demands.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mahdi Jalili
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Kasia Kozlowska
- Department of Psychological Medicine, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,The University of Sydney School of Medicine, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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37
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Haaker J, Maren S, Andreatta M, Merz CJ, Richter J, Richter SH, Meir Drexler S, Lange MD, Jüngling K, Nees F, Seidenbecher T, Fullana MA, Wotjak CT, Lonsdorf TB. Making translation work: Harmonizing cross-species methodology in the behavioural neuroscience of Pavlovian fear conditioning. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 107:329-345. [PMID: 31521698 PMCID: PMC7822629 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Translational neuroscience bridges insights from specific mechanisms in rodents to complex functions in humans and is key to advance our general understanding of central nervous function. A prime example of translational research is the study of cross-species mechanisms that underlie responding to learned threats, by employing Pavlovian fear conditioning protocols in rodents and humans. Hitherto, evidence for (and critique of) these cross-species comparisons in fear conditioning research was based on theoretical viewpoints. Here, we provide a perspective to substantiate these theoretical concepts with empirical considerations of cross-species methodology. This meta-research perspective is expected to foster cross-species comparability and reproducibility to ultimately facilitate successful transfer of results from basic science into clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Haaker
- Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Stephen Maren
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences and Institute for Neuroscience, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Marta Andreatta
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany; Department of Psychology, Education & Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Christian J Merz
- Ruhr University Bochum, Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Psychology, Germany
| | - Jan Richter
- Department of Biological and Clinical Psychology/Psychotherapy, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - S Helene Richter
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Shira Meir Drexler
- Ruhr University Bochum, Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Psychology, Germany
| | - Maren D Lange
- Institute of Physiology I, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Kay Jüngling
- Institute of Physiology I, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Frauke Nees
- Department of Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | | | - Miquel A Fullana
- Institute of Neurosciences, Hospital Clinic, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carsten T Wotjak
- Neuronal Plasticity Research Group, Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804, Munich, Germany
| | - Tina B Lonsdorf
- Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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38
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Control of Non-REM Sleep by Midbrain Neurotensinergic Neurons. Neuron 2019; 104:795-809.e6. [PMID: 31582313 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2019.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The periaqueductal gray (PAG) in the midbrain is known to coordinate behavioral and autonomic responses to threat and injury through its descending projections to the brainstem. Here, we show that neurotensin (NTS)-expressing glutamatergic neurons in the ventrolateral PAG (vlPAG) powerfully promote non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep partly through their projection to the caudal medulla. Optogenetic and chemogenetic activation of vlPAG NTS neurons strongly enhanced NREM sleep, whereas their inactivation increased wakefulness. Calcium imaging and optrode recording showed that they are preferentially active during NREM sleep. The NREM-promoting effect of vlPAG NTS neurons is partly mediated by their projection to the caudal ventromedial medulla, where they excite GABAergic neurons. Bidirectional optogenetic and chemogenetic manipulations showed that the medullary GABAergic neurons also promote NREM sleep, and they innervate multiple monoaminergic populations. Together, these findings reveal a novel pathway for NREM sleep generation, in which glutamatergic neurons drive broad GABAergic inhibition of wake-promoting neuronal populations.
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39
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Terpou BA, Harricharan S, McKinnon MC, Frewen P, Jetly R, Lanius RA. The effects of trauma on brain and body: A unifying role for the midbrain periaqueductal gray. J Neurosci Res 2019; 97:1110-1140. [PMID: 31254294 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Revised: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a diagnosis that may follow the experience of trauma, has multiple symptomatic phenotypes. Generally, individuals with PTSD display symptoms of hyperarousal and of hyperemotionality in the presence of fearful stimuli. A subset of individuals with PTSD; however, elicit dissociative symptomatology (i.e., depersonalization, derealization) in the wake of a perceived threat. This pattern of response characterizes the dissociative subtype of the disorder, which is often associated with emotional numbing and hypoarousal. Both symptomatic phenotypes exhibit attentional threat biases, where threat stimuli are processed preferentially leading to a hypervigilant state that is thought to promote defensive behaviors during threat processing. Accordingly, PTSD and its dissociative subtype are thought to differ in their proclivity to elicit active (i.e., fight, flight) versus passive (i.e., tonic immobility, emotional shutdown) defensive responses, which are characterized by the increased and the decreased expression of the sympathetic nervous system, respectively. Moreover, active and passive defenses are accompanied by primarily endocannabinoid- and opioid-mediated analgesics, respectively. Through critical review of the literature, we apply the defense cascade model to better understand the pathological presentation of defensive responses in PTSD with a focus on the functioning of lower-level midbrain and extended brainstem systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Braeden A Terpou
- Department of Neuroscience, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Margaret C McKinnon
- Mood Disorders Program, St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.,Homewood Research Institute, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Paul Frewen
- Department of Psychology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rakesh Jetly
- Canadian Forces, Health Services, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Ruth A Lanius
- Department of Neuroscience, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
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40
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Cacciola A, Bertino S, Basile GA, Di Mauro D, Calamuneri A, Chillemi G, Duca A, Bruschetta D, Flace P, Favaloro A, Calabrò RS, Anastasi G, Milardi D. Mapping the structural connectivity between the periaqueductal gray and the cerebellum in humans. Brain Struct Funct 2019; 224:2153-2165. [PMID: 31165919 PMCID: PMC6591182 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-019-01893-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The periaqueductal gray is a mesencephalic structure involved in modulation of responses to stressful stimuli. Structural connections between the periaqueductal gray and the cerebellum have been described in animals and in a few diffusion tensor imaging studies. Nevertheless, these periaqueductal gray–cerebellum connectivity patterns have yet to be fully investigated in humans. The objective of this study was to qualitatively and quantitatively characterize such pathways using high-resolution, multi-shell data of 100 healthy subjects from the open-access Human Connectome Project repository combined with constrained spherical deconvolution probabilistic tractography. Our analysis revealed robust connectivity density profiles between the periaqueductal gray and cerebellar nuclei, especially with the fastigial nucleus, followed by the interposed and dentate nuclei. High-connectivity densities have been observed between vermal (Vermis IX, Vermis VIIIa, Vermis VIIIb, Vermis VI, Vermis X) and hemispheric cerebellar regions (Lobule IX). Our in vivo study provides for the first time insights on the organization of periaqueductal gray–cerebellar pathways thus opening new perspectives on cognitive, visceral and motor responses to threatening stimuli in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Cacciola
- Department of Biomedical, Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Images, University of Messina, Messina, Italy.
| | - Salvatore Bertino
- Department of Biomedical, Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Images, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Gianpaolo Antonio Basile
- Department of Biomedical, Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Images, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Debora Di Mauro
- Department of Biomedical, Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Images, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | | | | | - Antonio Duca
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino Pulejo", Messina, Italy
| | - Daniele Bruschetta
- Department of Biomedical, Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Images, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Paolo Flace
- School of Medicine, University of Bari 'Aldo Moro', Bari, Italy
| | - Angelo Favaloro
- Department of Biomedical, Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Images, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
- School of Medicine, University of Bari 'Aldo Moro', Bari, Italy
| | | | - Giuseppe Anastasi
- Department of Biomedical, Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Images, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Demetrio Milardi
- Department of Biomedical, Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Images, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino Pulejo", Messina, Italy
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41
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The rostrodorsal periaqueductal gray influences both innate fear responses and acquisition of fear memory in animals exposed to a live predator. Brain Struct Funct 2019; 224:1537-1551. [DOI: 10.1007/s00429-019-01852-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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42
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Periaqueductal gray and emotions: the complexity of the problem and the light at the end of the tunnel, the magnetic resonance imaging. Endocr Regul 2018; 52:222-238. [DOI: 10.2478/enr-2018-0027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The periaqueductal gray (PAG) is less referred in relationship with emotions than other parts of the brain (e.g. cortex, thalamus, amygdala), most probably because of the difficulty to reach and manipulate this small and deeply lying structure. After defining how to evaluate emotions, we have reviewed the literature and summarized data of the PAG contribution to the feeling of emotions focusing on the behavioral and neurochemical considerations. In humans, emotions can be characterized by three main domains: the physiological changes, the communicative expressions, and the subjective experiences. In animals, the physiological changes can mainly be studied. Indeed, early studies have considered the PAG as an important center of the emotions-related autonomic and motoric processes. However, in vivo imaging have changed our view by highlighting the PAG as a significant player in emotions-related cognitive processes. The PAG lies on the crossroad of networks important in the regulation of emotions and therefore it should not be neglected. In vivo imaging represents a good tool for studying this structure in living organism and may reveal new information about its role beyond its importance in the neurovegetative regulation.
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43
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Lowery-Gionta EG, DiBerto J, Mazzone CM, Kash TL. GABA neurons of the ventral periaqueductal gray area modulate behaviors associated with anxiety and conditioned fear. Brain Struct Funct 2018; 223:3787-3799. [DOI: 10.1007/s00429-018-1724-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Lojowska M, Ling S, Roelofs K, Hermans EJ. Visuocortical changes during a freezing-like state in humans. Neuroimage 2018; 179:313-325. [PMID: 29883732 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
An adaptive response to threat requires optimized detection of critical sensory cues. This optimization is thought to be aided by freezing - an evolutionarily preserved defensive state of immobility characterized by parasympathetically mediated fear bradycardia and regulated by the amygdala-periaqueductal grey (PAG) circuit. Behavioral observations in humans and animals have suggested that freezing is also a state of enhanced visual sensitivity, particularly for coarse visual information, but the underlying neural mechanisms remain unclear. We induced a freezing-like state in healthy volunteers using threat of electrical shock and measured threat-related changes in both stimulus-independent (baseline) and stimulus-evoked visuocortical activity to low-vs. high-spatial frequency gratings, using functional MRI. As measuring immobility is not feasible in MRI environments, we used fear bradycardia and amygdala-PAG coupling in inferring a freezing-like state. An independent functional localizer and retinotopic mapping were used to assess the retinotopic specificity of visuocortical modulations. We found a threat-induced increase in baseline (stimulus-independent) visuocortical activity that was retinotopically nonspecific, which was accompanied by increased connectivity with the amygdala. A positive correlation between visuocortical activity and fear bradycardia (while controlling for sympathetic activation), and a concomitant increase in amygdala-PAG connectivity, confirmed the specificity of these findings for the parasympathetically dominated freezing-like state. Visuocortical responses to gratings were retinotopically specific, but did not differ between threat and safe conditions across participants. However, individuals who exhibited better discrimination of low-spatial frequency stimuli showed reduced stimulus-evoked V1 responses under threat. Our findings suggest that a defensive state of freezing involves an integration of preparatory defensive and perceptual changes which may be regulated by a common mechanism involving the amygdala.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Lojowska
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Sam Ling
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, USA
| | - Karin Roelofs
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Erno J Hermans
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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45
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Dynamics of Defensive Response Mobilization to Approaching External Versus Interoceptive Threat. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY: COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2018; 3:525-538. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2017.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Revised: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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46
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de Andrade JS, Céspedes IC, Abrão RO, da Silva JM, Ceneviva R, Ribeiro DA, Bittencourt JC, Viana MB. Effects of acute restraint and unpredictable chronic mild stress on brain corticotrophin releasing factor mRNA in the elevated T-maze. Behav Brain Res 2018; 337:139-150. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Stoffels M, Nijs M, Spinhoven P, Mesbah R, Hagenaars MA. Emotion avoidance and fear bradycardia in patients with borderline personality disorder and healthy controls. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2017; 57:6-13. [PMID: 28235636 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2017.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Revised: 01/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Exaggerated emotional reactivity is supposed to be essential in the etiology of borderline personality disorder (BPD). More specifically, models of defensive behavior would predict reduced freezing behavior -indicated by fear bradycardia-in response to threat. This study examined automatic fear bradycardia responses in BPD versus healthy controls and the role of emotion dysregulation, more specifically tendencies to avoid emotions. METHODS Patients with BPD (n = 23) and healthy controls (n = 18) completed questionnaires and then watched neutral, pleasant and unpleasant pictures while heart rate was assessed. RESULTS Emotion avoidance interacted with group: it was associated with distinct autonomic responses in healthy controls but not in BPD patients. Controls with lower emotion avoidance tendencies showed bradycardia in response to unpleasant pictures, while controls with higher emotion avoidance tendencies did not. BPD patients showed no bradycardia, irrespective of their emotion avoidance tendencies. LIMITATIONS This study is limited by a small sample size. Comorbidity or medication intake were not controlled for. CONCLUSIONS The results may suggest impaired automatic defense responses in BPD. Further understanding of the regulation of distress and defense responses might improve BPD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malou Stoffels
- Amstel Academy, VU Medical Centre, de Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maurits Nijs
- Netherlands Psychiatric Association, Mercatorlaan 1200, 3528 BL Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Philip Spinhoven
- Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2333 AK, Leiden, The Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Rahele Mesbah
- Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2333 AK, Leiden, The Netherlands; PsyQ, Lijnbaan 4, 2512 VA Den Haag, The Netherlands
| | - Muriel A Hagenaars
- Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2333 AK, Leiden, The Netherlands; Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 1, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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48
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Roelofs K. Freeze for action: neurobiological mechanisms in animal and human freezing. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 372:rstb.2016.0206. [PMID: 28242739 PMCID: PMC5332864 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Upon increasing levels of threat, animals activate qualitatively different defensive modes, including freezing and active fight-or-flight reactions. Whereas freezing is a form of behavioural inhibition accompanied by parasympathetically dominated heart rate deceleration, fight-or-flight reactions are associated with sympathetically driven heart rate acceleration. Despite the potential relevance of freezing for human stress-coping, its phenomenology and neurobiological underpinnings remain largely unexplored in humans. Studies in rodents have shown that freezing depends on amygdala projections to the brainstem (periaqueductal grey). Recent neuroimaging studies in humans have indicated that similar brain regions may be involved in human freezing. In addition, flexibly shifting between freezing and active defensive modes is critical for adequate stress-coping and relies on fronto-amygdala connections. This review paper presents a model detailing these neural mechanisms involved in freezing and the shift to fight-or-flight action. Freezing is not a passive state but rather a parasympathetic brake on the motor system, relevant to perception and action preparation. Study of these defensive responses in humans may advance insights into human stress-related psychopathologies characterized by rigidity in behavioural stress reactions. The paper therefore concludes with a research agenda to stimulate translational animal–human research in this emerging field of human defensive stress responses. This article is part of the themed issue ‘Movement suppression: brain mechanisms for stopping and stillness’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Roelofs
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour and Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, Kapittelweg 29, 6525 EN, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Boulanger-Bertolus J, Rincón-Cortés M, Sullivan RM, Mouly AM. Understanding pup affective state through ethologically significant ultrasonic vocalization frequency. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13483. [PMID: 29044126 PMCID: PMC5647438 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13518-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Throughout life, rats emit ultrasonic vocalizations (USV) when confronted with an aversive situation. However, the conditions classically used to elicit USV vary greatly with the animal's age (isolation from the dam in infancy, versus nociceptive stimulation in adults). The present study is the first to characterize USV responses to the same aversive event throughout development. Specifically, infant, juvenile and adult rats were presented with mild foot-shocks and their USV frequency, duration, and relationship with respiration and behavior were compared. In juvenile and adult rats, a single class of USV is observed with an age-dependent main frequency and duration (30 kHz/400 ms in juveniles, 22 kHz/900 ms in adults). In contrast, infant rat USV were split into two classes with specific relationships with respiration and behavior: 40 kHz/300 ms and 66 kHz/21 ms. Next, we questioned if these infant USV were also emitted in a more naturalistic context by exposing pups to interactions with the mother treating them roughly. This treatment enhanced 40-kHz USV while leaving 66-kHz USV unchanged suggesting that the use of USV goes far beyond a signal studied in terms of amount of emission, and can inform us about some aspects of the infant's affective state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Boulanger-Bertolus
- Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, INSERM U1028; CNRS UMR5292; University Lyon1, Lyon, France.
- University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA.
| | - Millie Rincón-Cortés
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Regina M Sullivan
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Anne-Marie Mouly
- Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, INSERM U1028; CNRS UMR5292; University Lyon1, Lyon, France
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A Basal Forebrain Site Coordinates the Modulation of Endocrine and Behavioral Stress Responses via Divergent Neural Pathways. J Neurosci 2017; 36:8687-99. [PMID: 27535914 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1185-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The bed nuclei of the stria terminalis (BST) are critically important for integrating stress-related signals between the limbic forebrain and hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) effector neurons in the paraventricular hypothalamus (PVH). Nevertheless, the circuitry underlying BST control over the stress axis and its role in depression-related behaviors has remained obscure. Utilizing optogenetic approaches in rats, we have identified a novel role for the anteroventral subdivision of BST in the coordinated inhibition of both HPA output and passive coping behaviors during acute inescapable (tail suspension, TS) stress. Follow-up experiments probed axonal pathways emanating from the anteroventral BST which accounted for separable endocrine and behavioral functions subserved by this cell group. The PVH and ventrolateral periaqueductal gray were recipients of GABAergic outputs from the anteroventral BST that were necessary to restrain stress-induced HPA activation and passive coping behavior, respectively, during TS and forced swim tests. In contrast to other BST subdivisions implicated in anxiety-like responses, these results direct attention to the anteroventral BST as a nodal point in a stress-modulatory network for coordinating neuroendocrine and behavioral coping responses, wherein impairment could account for core features of stress-related mood disorders. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Dysregulation of the neural pathways modulating stress-adaptive behaviors is implicated in stress-related psychiatric illness. While aversive situations activate a network of limbic forebrain regions thought to mediate such changes, little is known about how this information is integrated to orchestrate complex stress responses. Here we identify novel roles for the anteroventral bed nuclei of the stria terminalis in inhibiting both stress hormone output and passive coping behavior via divergent projections to regions of the hypothalamus and midbrain. Inhibition of these projections produced features observed with rodent models of depression, namely stress hormone hypersecretion and increased passive coping behavior, suggesting that dysfunction in these networks may contribute to expression of pathological changes in stress-related disorders.
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