Neuroprotective activity of N-acetylaspartylglutamate in cultured cortical cells

Metabolomics in patients with psychosis: A systematic review

The purpose of this article is to provide a comprehensive review of metabolomics studies for psychosis, as a means of biomarker discovery. Manuscripts were selected for review if they involved discovery of metabolites using high-throughput analysis in human subjects and were published in the last decade. The metabolites identified were searched in Human Metabolome Data Base (HMDB) for a link to psychosis. Metabolites associated with psychosis based on evidence in HMBD were then searched using PubMed to explore the availability of further evidence. Almost all of the studies which underwent full review involved patients with schizophrenia. Ten biomarkers were identified. Six of them were reported in two or more independent metabolomics studies: N-acetyl aspartate, lactate, tryptophan, kynurenine, glutamate, and creatine. Four additional metabolites were encountered in a single metabolomics study but had significant evidence (two supporting articles or more) for a link to psychosis based on PubMed: linoleic acid, D-serine, glutathione, and 3-hydroxybutyrate. The pathways affected are discussed as they may be relevant to the pathophysiology of psychosis, and specifically of schizophrenia, as well as, constitute new drug targets for treatment of related conditions. Based on the biomarkers identified, early diagnosis of schizophrenia and/or monitoring may be possible.

Mouse glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII) has a similar enzyme activity and inhibition profile but a different tissue distribution to human GCPII

Glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII), also known as prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) or folate hydrolase, is a metallopeptidase expressed predominantly in the human brain and prostate. GCPII expression is considerably increased in prostate carcinoma, and the enzyme also participates in glutamate excitotoxicity in the brain. Therefore, GCPII represents an important diagnostic marker of prostate cancer progression and a putative target for the treatment of both prostate cancer and neuronal disorders associated with glutamate excitotoxicity. For the development of novel therapeutics, mouse models are widely used. However, although mouse GCPII activity has been characterized, a detailed comparison of the enzymatic activity and tissue distribution of the mouse and human GCPII orthologs remains lacking. In this study, we prepared extracellular mouse GCPII and compared it with human GCPII. We found that mouse GCPII possesses lower catalytic efficiency but similar substrate specificity compared with the human protein. Using a panel of GCPII inhibitors, we discovered that inhibition constants are generally similar for mouse and human GCPII. Furthermore, we observed highest expression of GCPII protein in the mouse kidney, brain, and salivary glands. Importantly, we did not detect GCPII in the mouse prostate. Our data suggest that the differences in enzymatic activity and inhibition profile are rather small; therefore, mouse GCPII can approximate human GCPII in drug development and testing. On the other hand, significant differences in GCPII tissue expression must be taken into account when developing novel GCPII-based anticancer and therapeutic methods, including targeted anticancer drug delivery systems, and when using mice as a model organism.

Maternal inflammation leads to impaired glutamate homeostasis and up-regulation of glutamate carboxypeptidase II in activated microglia in the fetal/newborn rabbit brain

Astrocyte dysfunction and excessive activation of glutamatergic systems have been implicated in a number of neurologic disorders, including periventricular leukomalacia (PVL) and cerebral palsy (CP). However, the role of chorioamnionitis on glutamate homeostasis in the fetal and neonatal brains is not clearly understood. We have previously shown that intrauterine endotoxin administration results in intense microglial 'activation' and increased pro-inflammatory cytokines in the periventricular region (PVR) of the neonatal rabbit brain. In this study, we assessed the effect of maternal inflammation on key components of the glutamate pathway and its relationship to astrocyte and microglial activation in the fetal and neonatal New Zealand white rabbit brain. We found that intrauterine endotoxin exposure at gestational day 28 (G28) induced acute and prolonged glutamate elevation in the PVR of fetal (G29, 1day post-injury) and postnatal day 1 (PND1, 3days post-injury) brains along with prominent morphological changes in the astrocytes (soma hypertrophy and retracted processes) in the white matter tracts. There was a significant increase in glutaminase and N-Methyl-d-Aspartate receptor (NMDAR) NR2 subunit expression along with decreased glial L-glutamate transporter 1 (GLT-1) in the PVR at G29, that would promote acute dysregulation of glutamate homeostasis. This was accompanied with significantly decreased TGF-β1 at PND1 in CP kits indicating ongoing neuroinflammation. We also show for the first time that glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII) was significantly increased in the activated microglia at the periventricular white matter area in both G29 and PND1 CP kits. This was confirmed by in vitro studies demonstrating that LPS activated primary microglia markedly upregulate GCPII enzymatic activity. These results suggest that maternal intrauterine endotoxin exposure results in early onset and long-lasting dysregulation of glutamate homeostasis, which may be mediated by impaired astrocyte function and GCPII upregulation in activated microglia.

Vesicular uptake of N-acetylaspartylglutamate is catalysed by sialin (SLC17A5)

NAAG (N-acetylaspartylglutamate) is an abundant neuropeptide in the vertebrate nervous system. It is released from synaptic terminals in a calcium-dependent manner and has been shown to act as an agonist at the type II metabotropic glutamate receptor mGluR3. It has been proposed that NAAG may also be released from axons. So far, however, it has remained unclear how NAAG is transported into synaptic or other vesicles before it is secreted. In the present study, we demonstrate that uptake of NAAG and the related peptide NAAG2 (N-acetylaspartylglutamylglutamate) into vesicles depends on the sialic acid transporter sialin (SLC17A5). This was demonstrated using cell lines expressing a cell surface variant of sialin and by functional reconstitution of sialin in liposomes. NAAG uptake into sialin-containing proteoliposomes was detectable in the presence of an active H+-ATPase or valinomycin, indicating that transport is driven by membrane potential rather than H+ gradient. We also show that sialin is most probably the major and possibly only vesicular transporter for NAAG and NAAG2, because ATP-dependent transport of both peptides was not detectable in vesicles isolated from sialin-deficient mice.

N-acetylaspartylglutamate synthetase II synthesizes N-acetylaspartylglutamylglutamate

N-Acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) is found at high concentrations in the vertebrate nervous system. NAAG is an agonist at group II metabotropic glutamate receptors. In addition to its role as a neuropeptide, a number of functions have been proposed for NAAG, including a role as a non-excitotoxic transport form of glutamate and a molecular water pump. We recently identified a NAAG synthetase (now renamed NAAG synthetase I, NAAGS-I), encoded by the ribosomal modification protein rimK-like family member B (Rimklb) gene, as a member of the ATP-grasp protein family. We show here that a structurally related protein, encoded by the ribosomal modification protein rimK-like family member A (Rimkla) gene, is another NAAG synthetase (NAAGS-II), which in addition, synthesizes the N-acetylated tripeptide N-acetylaspartylglutamylglutamate (NAAG(2)). In contrast, NAAG(2) synthetase activity was undetectable in cells expressing NAAGS-I. Furthermore, we demonstrate by mass spectrometry the presence of NAAG(2) in murine brain tissue and sciatic nerves. The highest concentrations of both, NAAG(2) and NAAG, were found in sciatic nerves, spinal cord, and the brain stem, in accordance with the expression level of NAAGS-II. To our knowledge the presence of NAAG(2) in the vertebrate nervous system has not been described before. The physiological role of NAAG(2), e.g. whether it acts as a neurotransmitter, remains to be determined.

GCP II inhibition rescues neurons from gp120IIIB-induced neurotoxicity

Excessive glutamate neurotransmission has been implicated in neuronal injury in many disorders of the central nervous system (CNS), including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-associated dementia. Gp120IIIB is a strain of a HIV glycoprotein with specificity for the CXCR4 receptor that induces neuronal apoptosis in in vitro models of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)-induced neurodegeneration. Since the catabolism of the neuropeptide N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) by glutamate carboxypeptidase (GCP) II increases cellular glutamate, an event associated with excitotoxicity, we hypothesized that inhibition of GCP II may prevent gp120IIIB-induced cell death. Furthermore, through GCP II inhibition, increased NAAG may be neuroprotective via its agonist effects at the mGlu(3) receptor. To ascertain the therapeutic potential of GCP II inhibitors, embryonic day 17 hippocampal cultures were exposed to gp120IIIB in the presence of a potent and highly selective GCP II inhibitor, 2-(phosphonomethyl)-pentanedioic acid (2-PMPA). 2-PMPA was found to abrogate gp120IIIB-induced toxicity in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, 2-PMPA was neuroprotective when applied up to 2 h after the application of gp120IIIB. The abrogation of apoptosis by 2-PMPA was reversed with administration of mGlu(3) receptor antagonists and with antibodies to transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta. Further, consistent with the localization of GCP II, 2-PMPA failed to provide neuroprotection in the absence of glia. GCP II activity and its inhibition by 2-PMPA were confirmed in the hippocampal cultures using radiolabeled NAAG and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. Taken together, these data suggest that GCP II is involved in mediating gp120-induced apoptosis in hippocampal neurons and GCP II inhibitors may have potential in the treatment of neuronal injury related to AIDS.

Dual neurotoxic and neuroprotective role of metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 in conditions of trophic deprivation - possible role as a dependence receptor

Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors have been often implicated in various models of neuronal toxicity, however, the role played by the individual receptors and their putative mechanisms of action contributing to neurotoxicity or neuroprotection remain unclear. Here, using primary cultures of rat cerebellar granule cells and mouse cortical neurons, we show that conditions of trophic deprivation increased mGlu1 expression which correlated with the developing cell death. The inhibition of mGlu1 expression by specific siRNA attenuated toxicity, while adenovirus-mediated overexpression of mGlu1 resulted in increased cell death, indicating a causal relationship between the level of receptor expression and neuronal survival. In pharmacological experiments selective mGlu1 antagonists failed to protect from mGlu1-induced cell death, instead, neuronal survival was promoted by glutamate acting at mGlu1 receptors. Such properties are characteristics of a novel heterogeneous family of dependence receptors which control neuronal apoptosis. Our findings indicate that increased expression of mGlu1 in neurons creates a state of cellular dependence on the presence of its endogenous agonist glutamate. We propose a new role and a new mechanism for mGlu1 action. This receptor may play a crucial role in determining the fate of individual neurons during the development of the nervous system.

The group II metabotropic glutamate receptor 3 (mGluR3, mGlu3, GRM3): expression, function and involvement in schizophrenia

Group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) comprise mGluR2 (mGlu2; encoded by GRM2) and mGluR3 (mGlu3; encoded by GRM3) and modulate glutamate neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity. Here we review the expression and function of mGluR3 and its involvement in schizophrenia. mGluR3 is expressed by glia and neurons in many brain regions and has a predominantly presynaptic distribution, consistent with its role as an inhibitory autoreceptor and heteroceptor. mGluR3 splice variants exist in human brain but are of unknown function. Differentiation of mGluR3 from mGluR2 has been problematic because of the lack of selective ligands and antibodies; the available data suggest particular roles for mGluR3 in long-term depression, in glial function and in neuroprotection. Some but not all studies find genetic association of GRM3 polymorphisms with psychosis, with the risk alleles also being associated with schizophrenia-related endophenotypes such as impaired cognition, cortical activation and glutamate markers. The dimeric form of mGluR3 may be reduced in the brain in schizophrenia. Finally, preclinical findings have made mGluR3 a putative therapeutic target, and now direct evidence for antipsychotic efficacy of a group II mGluR agonist has emerged from a randomised clinical trial in schizophrenia. Together these data implicate mGluR3 in aetiological, pathophysiological and pharmacotherapeutic aspects of the disorder.

The use of knock-out mice unravels distinct roles for mGlu2 and mGlu3 metabotropic glutamate receptors in mechanisms of neurodegeneration/neuroprotection

Dual metabotropic glutamate 2/3 (mGlu2/3) receptor agonists have been examined with success in the clinic with positive proof of efficacy in several tests of anxiety and schizophrenia. Moreover, a large body of evidence has accumulated that these drugs have significant neuroprotective potential. An important discussion in the field deals with dissecting effects on mGlu2 versus effects on mGlu3 receptors, which is relevant for the potential use of subtype-selective agonists or allosteric activators. We addressed this issue using mGlu2 and mGlu3 receptor knock-out mice. We used mixed cultures of cortical cells in which astrocytes and neurons were plated at different times and could therefore originate from different mice. Cultures were challenged with NMDA for the induction of excitotoxic neuronal death. The mGlu2/3 receptor agonist, (-)-2-oxa-4-aminocyclo[3.1.0]hexane-4,6-dicarboxylic acid (LY379268), was equally neuroprotective in cultures containing neurons from wild-type, mGlu2-/-, or mGlu3-/- mice. Neuroprotection was instead abolished when astrocytes lacked mGlu3 receptors, unless neuronal mGlu2 receptors were also absent. The latter condition partially restored the protective activity of LY379268. Cultures in which neurons originated from mGlu2-/- mice were also intrinsically resistant to NMDA toxicity. In in vivo experiments, systemic administration of LY379268 protected striatal neurons against NMDA toxicity in wild-type and mGlu2-/- mice but not in mGlu3-/- mice. In addition, LY379268 was protective against nigrostriatal degeneration induced by low doses of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine only in mice lacking mGlu2 receptors. We conclude that neuroprotection by mGlu2/3 receptor agonists requires the activation of astrocytic mGlu3 receptors, whereas, unexpectedly, activation of mGlu2 receptors might be harmful to neurons exposed to toxic insults.

Structural Insight into the Pharmacophore Pocket of Human Glutamate Carboxypeptidase II

Inhibition of glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII) has been shown to be neuroprotective in multiple preclinical models in which dysregulated glutamatergic transmission is implicated. Herein, we report crystal structures of the human GCPII complexed with three glutamate mimetics/derivatives, 2-(phosphonomethyl)pentanedioic acid (2-PMPA), quisqualic acid (QA), and L-serine O-sulfate (L-SOS), at 1.72, 1.62, and 2.10 A resolution, respectively. Despite the structural differences between the distal parts of the inhibitors, all three compounds share similar binding modes in the pharmacophore (i.e., S1') pocket of GCPII, where they are stabilized by a combination of polar and van der Waals interactions. The structural diversity of the distal parts of the inhibitors leads to rearrangements of the S1' site that are necessary for efficient interactions between the enzyme and an inhibitor. The set of structures presented here, in conjunction with the available biochemical data, illustrates a flexibility of the GCPII pharmacophore pocket and highlights the structural features required for potent GCPII inhibition. These findings could facilitate the rational structure-based drug design of new GCPII inhibitors in the future.

Local administration of N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) peptidase inhibitors is analgesic in peripheral pain in rats

The peptide neurotransmitter N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) selectively activates group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). Systemic administration of inhibitors of the enzymes that inactivate NAAG results in decreased pain responses in rat models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain. These effects are blocked by a group II mGluR antagonist. This research tested the hypothesis that some analgesic effects of NAAG peptidase inhibition are mediated by NAAG acting on sensory neurite mGluRs at the site of inflammation. Group II mGluR agonists, SLx-3095-1, NAAG and APDC, or NAAG peptidase inhibitors, ZJ-43 and 2-PMPA, injected into the rat footpad reduced pain responses in carrageenan or formalin models. The analgesic effects of SLx-3095-1, APDC, ZJ-43, 2-PMPA and NAAG were blocked by co-injection of LY341495, a selective group II mGluR antagonist. Injection of group II mGluR agonists, NAAG or the peptidase inhibitors into the contralateral rat footpad had no effect on pain perception in the injected paw. At 10-100 microm ZJ-43 and 2-PMPA demonstrated no consistent agonist activity at mGluR2 or mGluR3. Consistent with the conclusion that peripherally administered NAAG peptidase inhibitors increase the activation of mGluR3 by NAAG that is released from peripheral sensory neurites, we found that the tissue average concentration of NAAG in the unstimulated rat hind paw was about 6 microm. These data extend our understanding of the role of this peptide in sensory neurons and reveal the potential for treatment of inflammatory pain via local application of NAAG peptidase inhibitors at doses that may have little or no central nervous system effects.

Effects of NAAG peptidase inhibitor 2-PMPA in model chronic pain - relation to brain concentration

N-acetylated-alpha-linked-acidic peptidase (NAAG peptidase) converts N-acetyl-aspartyl-glutamate (NAAG, mGluR3 agonist) into N-acetyl-aspartate and glutamate. The NAAG peptidase inhibitor 2-PMPA (2-(phosphonomethyl)pentanedioic acid) had neuroprotective activity in an animal model of stroke and anti-allodynic activity in CCI model despite its uncertain ability to penetrate the blood-brain barrier. The NAAG concentration in brain ECF under basal conditions and its alteration in relation to the brain ECF concentration of 2-PMPA is unclear. We therefore assessed those brain concentrations after i.p. administration of 2-PMPA, using in vivo microdialysis combined with LC/MS/MS analysis. Administration of 2-PMPA (50mg/kg) produced a mean peak concentration of 2-PMPA of 29.66+/-8.1microM. This concentration is about 100,000 fold more than is needed for inhibition of NAAG peptidase, and indicates very good penetration to the brain. Application of 2-PMPA was followed by a linear increase of NAAG-concentration reaching a maximum of 2.89+/-0.42microM at the end of microdialysis. However, during the time the anti-allodynic effects of 2-PMPA were observed, the NAAG concentration in the ECF did not reach levels which are likely to have an impact on any known target. It appears therefore that the observed behavioural effects of 2-PMPA may not be mediated by NAAG nor, in turn, by mGluR3 receptors.

The preventive and therapeutic effects of GCPII (NAALADase) inhibition on painful and sensory diabetic neuropathy

Excitotoxic glutamate release occurs in several neurological disorders. One source is derived from the hydrolysis of the neuropeptide N-acetyl aspartyl glutamate (NAAG) by glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII, also known as NAALADase). Drugs that attenuate glutamate transmission have been shown to relieve neuropathic pain, however side effects have limited their clinical use. It appears that GCPII is exclusively recruited to provide a glutamate source in hyperglutamatergic, excitotoxic conditions and therefore would be devoid of such side effects. Here we report on the therapeutic effects of an orally bio-available GCP II inhibitor on established painful and sensory neuropathy in the spontaneously diabetic BB/Wor rat. It significantly improved hyperalgesia, nerve conduction velocity and underlying myelinated fiber atrophy. The data suggest that GCP II inhibition may provide a meaningful and effective approach to the treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy.

NAAG peptidase inhibitor increases dialysate NAAG and reduces glutamate, aspartate and GABA levels in the dorsal hippocampus following fluid percussion injury in the rat

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) produces a rapid and excessive elevation in extracellular glutamate that induces excitotoxic brain cell death. The peptide neurotransmitter N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) is reported to suppress neurotransmitter release through selective activation of presynaptic group II metabotropic glutamate receptors. Therefore, strategies to elevate levels of NAAG following brain injury could reduce excessive glutamate release associated with TBI. We hypothesized that the NAAG peptidase inhibitor, ZJ-43 would elevate extracellular NAAG levels and reduce extracellular levels of amino acid neurotransmitters following TBI by a group II metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR)-mediated mechanism. Dialysate levels of NAAG, glutamate, aspartate and GABA from the dorsal hippocampus were elevated after TBI as measured by in vivo microdialysis. Dialysate levels of NAAG were higher and remained elevated in the ZJ-43 treated group (50 mg/kg, i.p.) compared with control. ZJ-43 treatment also reduced the rise of dialysate glutamate, aspartate, and GABA levels. Co-administration of the group II mGluR antagonist, LY341495 (1 mg/kg, i.p.) partially blocked the effects of ZJ-43 on dialysate glutamate and GABA, suggesting that NAAG effects are mediated through mGluR activation. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that inhibition of NAAG peptidase may reduce excitotoxic events associated with TBI.

Differential negative coupling of type 3 metabotropic glutamate receptor to cyclic GMP levels in neurons and astrocytes

Metabotropic receptors may couple to different G proteins in different cells or perhaps even in different regions of the same cell. To date, direct studies of group II and group III metabotropic glutamate receptors' (mGluRs) relationships to second messenger cascades have reported negative coupling of these receptors to cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels in neurons, astrocytes and transfected cells. In the present study, we found that the peptide neurotransmitter N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG), an mGluR3-selective agonist, decreased sodium nitroprusside (SNP)-stimulated cyclic GMP (cGMP) levels in cerebellar granule cells and cerebellar astrocytes. The mGluR3 and group II agonists FN6 and LY354740 had similar effects on cGMP levels. The mGluR3 and group II antagonists beta-NAAG and LY341495 blocked these actions. Treatment with pertussis toxin inhibited the effects of NAAG on SNP-stimulated cGMP levels in rat cerebellar astrocytes but not in cerebellar neurons. These data support the conclusion that mGluR3 is also coupled to cGMP levels and that this mGluR3-induced reduction of cGMP levels is mediated by different G proteins in cerebellar astrocytes and neurons. We previously reported that this receptor is coupled to a cAMP cascade via a pertussis toxin-sensitive G protein in cerebellar neurons, astrocytes and transfected cells. Taken together with the present data, we propose that mGluR3 is coupled to two different G proteins in granule cell neurons. These data greatly expand knowledge of the range of second messenger cascades induced by mGluR3, and have implications for clinical conditions affected by NAAG and other group II mGluR agonists.

NAAG peptidase inhibitors and their potential for diagnosis and therapy

Modulation of N-acetyl-L-aspartyl-L-glutamate peptidase activity with small-molecule inhibitors holds promise for a wide variety of diseases that involve glutamatergic transmission, and has implications for the diagnosis and therapy of cancer. This new class of compounds, of which at least one has entered clinical trials and proven to be well tolerated, has demonstrated efficacy in experimental models of pain, schizophrenia, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, traumatic brain injury and, when appropriately functionalized, can image prostate cancer. Further investigation of these promising drug candidates will be needed to bring them to the marketplace. The recent publication of the X-ray crystal structure for the enzymatic target of these compounds should facilitate the development of other new agents with enhanced activity that could improve both the diagnosis and treatment of neurological disorders.

Mice lacking glutamate carboxypeptidase II are protected from peripheral neuropathy and ischemic brain injury

Excessive glutamate release is associated with neuronal damage. A new strategy for the treatment of neuronal injury involves inhibition of the neuropeptidase glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCP II), also known as N-acetylated alpha-linked acidic dipeptidase. GCP II is believed to mediate the hydrolysis of N-acetyl-aspartyl-glutamate (NAAG) to glutamate and N-acetyl-aspartate, and inhibition of NAAG peptidase activity (by GCP II and other peptidases) is neuroprotective. Mice were generated in which the Folh1 gene encoding GCP II was disrupted (Folh1-/- mice). No overt behavioral differences were apparent between Folh1-/- mice and wild-type littermates, with respect to their overall performance in locomotion, coordination, pain threshold, cognition and psychiatric behavioral paradigms. Morphological analysis of peripheral nerves, however, showed significantly smaller axons (reduced myelin sheaths and axon diameters) in sciatic nerves from Folh1-/- mice. Following sciatic nerve crush, Folh1-/- mice suffered less injury and recovered faster than wild-type littermates. In a model of ischemic injury, the Folh1-/- mice exhibited a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in infarct volume compared with their wild-type littermates when subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion, a model of stroke. These findings support the hypothesis that GCP II inhibitors may represent a novel treatment for peripheral neuropathies as well as stroke.

NAAG peptidase inhibitor reduces acute neuronal degeneration and astrocyte damage following lateral fluid percussion TBI in rats

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) produces a rapid and excessive elevation in extracellular glutamate associated with excitotoxicity and secondary brain pathology. The peptide neurotransmitter Nacetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) suppresses glutamate transmission through selective activation of presynaptic Group II metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 3 (mGluR3). Thus, inhibition of NAAG peptidase activity and the prolong presence of synaptic NAAG were hypothesized to have significant potential for cellular protection following TBI. In the present study, a novel NAAG peptidase inhibitor, ZJ-43, was used in four different doses (0, 50, 100, or 150 mg/kg). Each dose was repeatedly administered i.p. (n=5/group) by multiple injections at three times (0 time, 8 h, 16 h) after moderate lateral fluid percussion TBI in the rat. An additional group was co-administered ZJ-43 (150 mg/kg) and the Group II mGluR antagonist, LY341495 (1 mg/kg), which was predicted to abolish any protective effects of ZJ-43. Rats were euthanized at 24 h after TBI, and brains were processed with a selective marker for degenerating neurons (Fluoro-Jade B) and a marker for astrocytes (GFAP). Ipsilateral neuronal degeneration and bilateral astrocyte loss in the CA2/3 regions of the hippocampus were quantified using stereological techniques. Compared with vehicle, ZJ-43 significantly reduced the number of the ipsilateral degenerating neurons (p<0.01) with the greatest neuroprotection at the 50 mg/kg dose. Moreover, LY341495 successfully abolished the protective effects of ZJ-43. 50 mg/kg of ZJ-43 also significantly reduced the ipsilateral astrocyte loss (p<0.05). We conclude that the NAAG peptidase inhibitor ZJ-43 is a potential novel strategy to reduce both neuronal and astrocyte damage associated with the glutamate excitotoxicity after TBI.

Inhibition of glutamate carboxypeptidase II (NAALADase) protects against dynorphin A-induced ischemic spinal cord injury in rats

Glutamate carboxypeptidase (GCP) II (EC 3.4.17.21), which is also known as N-acetylated-alpha-linked acidic dipeptidase (NAALADase), hydrolyses the endogenous acidic dipeptide N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG), yielding N-acetyl-aspartate and glutamate. Inhibition of this enzyme by 2-(phosphonomethyl) pentanedioic acid (2-PMPA) has been shown to protect against ischemic injury to the brain and hypoxic and metabolic injury to neuronal cells in culture, presumably by increasing and decreasing the extracellular concentrations of NAAG and glutamate, respectively. Since both NAAG and GCP II are found in especially high concentrations in the spinal cord, injuries to the spinal cord involving pathophysiological elevations in extracellular glutamate might be particularly responsive to GCP II inhibition. Lumbar subarachnoid injections of dynorphin A in rats cause ischemic spinal cord injury, elevated extracellular glutamate and a persistent hindlimb paralysis that is mediated through excitatory amino acid receptors. We therefore used this injury model to evaluate the protective effects of 2-PMPA. When coadministered with dynorphin A, 2-PMPA significantly attenuated the dynorphin A-induced elevations in cerebrospinal fluid glutamate levels and by 24 h postinjection caused significant dose-dependent improvements in motor scores that were associated with marked histopathological improvements. These results indicate that 2-PMPA provides effective protection against excitotoxic spinal cord injury.

NAAG peptidase inhibition reduces locomotor activity and some stereotypes in the PCP model of schizophrenia via group II mGluR

Phencyclidine (PCP) administration elicits positive and negative symptoms that resemble those of schizophrenia and is widely accepted as a model for the study of this human disorder. Group II metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) agonists have been reported to reduce the behavioral and neurochemical effects of PCP. The peptide neurotransmitter, N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG), is a selective group II agonist. We synthesized and characterized a urea-based NAAG analogue, ZJ43. This novel compound is a potent inhibitor of enzymes, glutamate carboxypeptidase II (K(i) = 0.8 nM) and III (K(i) = 23 nM) that deactivate NAAG following synaptic release. ZJ43 (100 microM) does not directly interact with NMDA receptors or metabotropic glutamate receptors. Administration of ZJ43 significantly reduced PCP-induced motor activation, falling while walking, stereotypic circling behavior, and head movements. To test the hypothesis that this effect of ZJ43 was mediated by increasing the activation of mGluR3 via increased levels of extracellular NAAG, the group II mGluR selective antagonist LY341495 was co-administered with ZJ43 prior to PCP treatment. This antagonist completely reversed the effects of ZJ43. Additionally, LY341495 alone increased PCP-induced motor activity and head movements suggesting that normal levels of NAAG act to moderate the effect of PCP on motor activation via a group II mGluR. These data support the view that NAAG peptidase inhibitors may represent a new therapeutic approach to some of the components of schizophrenia that are modeled by PCP.

Synthesis of Urea-Based Inhibitors as Active Site Probes of Glutamate Carboxypeptidase II: Efficacy as Analgesic Agents

The neuropeptidase glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII) hydrolyzes N-acetyl-L-aspartyl-L-glutamate (NAAG) to liberate N-acetylaspartate and glutamate. GCPII was originally cloned as PSMA, an M(r) 100,000 type II transmembrane glycoprotein highly expressed in prostate tissues. PSMA/GCPII is located on the short arm of chromosome 11 and functions as both a folate hydrolase and a neuropeptidase. Inhibition of brain GCPII may have therapeutic potential in the treatment of certain disease states arising from pathologically overactivated glutamate receptors. Recently, we reported that certain urea-based structures act as potent inhibitors of GCPII (J. Med. Chem. 2001, 44, 298). However, many of the potent GCPII inhibitors prepared to date are highly polar compounds and therefore do not readily penetrate the blood-brain barrier. Herein, we elaborate on the synthesis of a series of potent, urea-based GCPII inhibitors from the lead compound 3 and provide assay data for these ligands against human GCPII. Moreover, we provide data revealing the ability of one of these compounds, namely, 8d, to reduce the perception of inflammatory pain. Within the present series, the gamma-tetrazole bearing glutamate isostere 7d is the most potent inhibitor with a K(i) of 0.9 nM. The biological evaluation of these compounds revealed that the active site of GCPII likely comprises two regions, namely, the pharmacophore subpocket and the nonpharmacophore subpocket. The pharmacophore subpocket is very sensitive to structural changes, and thus, it appears important to keep one of the glutamic acid moieties intact to maintain the potency of the GCPII inhibitors. The site encompassing the nonpharmacophore subpocket that binds to glutamate's alpha-carboxyl group is sensitive to structural change, as shown by compounds 6b and 7b. However, the other region of the nonpharmacophore subpocket can accommodate both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups. Thus, an aromatic ring can be introduced to the inhibitor, as in 8b and 8d, thereby increasing its hydrophobicity and thus potentially its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. Intrathecally administered 8d significantly reduced pain perception in the formalin model of rat sensory nerve injury. A maximal dose of morphine (10 mg) applied in the same experimental paradigm provided no significant increase in analgesia in comparison to 8d during phase 1 of this pain study and modestly greater analgesia than 8d in phase 2. These urea-based inhibitors of GCPII thus offer a novel approach to pain management.

NAAG fails to antagonize synaptic and extrasynaptic NMDA receptors in cerebellar granule neurons

The peptide transmitter N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) selectively activates the group II metabotropic glutamate receptors. Several reports also suggest that this peptide acts as a partial agonist at N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors but its putative antagonist effects have not been directly tested. To do this, we used whole cell recordings from cerebellar granule cells (CGC) in culture that allow the highest possible resolution of NMDA channel activation. When CGC were activated with equimolar concentrations of NMDA and NAAG, the peptide failed to alter the peak current elicited by NMDA. Very high concentrations of NAAG (100-200 microM) did not significantly reduce the current elicited by 10 microM NMDA or 0.1 microM glutamate, while 400 microM NAAG produced only a very small (less than 15%) reduction in these whole cell currents. Similarly, NAAG (400 microM) failed to significantly alter the average decay time constant or the peak amplitude of NMDA receptor-mediated miniature excitatory post-synaptic currents (mEPSCs). We conclude that high concentrations of the peptide do not exert physiologically relevant antagonist actions on synaptic NMDA receptor activation following vesicular release of glutamate. As an agonist, purified NAAG was found to be at least 10,000-fold less potent than glutamate in increasing "background" current via NMDA receptors on CGC. Inasmuch as it is difficult to confirm that NAAG preparations are completely free from contamination with glutamate at the 0.01% level, the peptide itself appears unlikely to have a direct agonist activity at the NMDA receptor subtypes found in CGC. Recent reports indicate that enhancing the activity of endogenous NAAG may be an important therapeutic approach to excitotoxicity and chronic pain perception. These effects are likely mediated by group II mGluRs, not NMDA receptors.

N-acetylaspartylglutamate and β-NAAG protect against injury induced by NMDA and hypoxia in primary spinal cord cultures

The acidic dipeptide N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) is the most prevalent peptide in the central nervous system. NAAG is a low potency agonist at the NMDA receptor, and hydrolysis of NAAG yields the more potent excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter glutamate. beta-NAAG is a competitive inhibitor of the NAAG hydrolyzing enzyme N-acetylated alpha-linked acidic dipeptidase (NAAG peptidase activity) or glutamate carboxypeptidase II, and may also act as a NAAG-mimetic at some of the sites of NAAG pharmacological activity. Since NAAG has been shown to have neuroprotective characteristics in a number of experimental preparations, it is the purpose of the present study to specifically evaluate the possible efficacy of NAAG and beta-NAAG against NMDA- and hypoxia-induced injury to spinal cord mixed neuronal and glial cell cultures. NAAG (500-1000 microM) protected against NMDA- or hypoxia-induced injuries to spinal cord cultures, and the nonhydrolyzable analog beta-NAAG (250-1000 microM) completely eliminated the loss of viability caused by either insult. Both peptides also attenuated NMDA-induced increases in intraneuronal Ca(2+). Nonspecific mGluR antagonists, pertussis toxin, a stable cAMP analog, and manipulation of NAAG peptidase activity did not by themselves alter cell damage and did not influence the neuroprotective effects of NAAG. NAAG was not protective against kainate- or AMPA-induced cellular injury, while beta-NAAG was partially neuroprotective against both insults. At 2 mM, NAAG and beta-NAAG reduced neuronal survival and increased intraneuronal Ca(2+); these effects were only marginally attenuated by dizocilpine and APV. The results indicate that NAAG and beta-NAAG protect against excitotoxic and hypoxic injury to spinal cord neurons, and do so predominantly by interactions with NMDA and not mGluR receptors.

Effects of GCP-II inhibition on responses of dorsal horn neurones after inflammation and neuropathy: an electrophysiological study in the rat

N-Acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) is a peptide neurotransmitter present in the brain and spinal cord. It is hydrolysed by glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII); thus, the GCP-II inhibitor 2-[phosphono-methyl]-pentanedioic acid (2-PMPA) protects endogenous NAAG from degradation, allowing its effects to be studied in vivo. We recorded the effect of spinal 2-PMPA (50-1000 microg) on the electrical-evoked activity of dorsal horn neurones in normal and carrageenan-inflamed animals, and in the spinal nerve ligation (SNL) model of neuropathy and sham-operated animals. In normal animals, 1000 microg 2-PMPA selectively inhibited noxious-evoked activity (input, post-discharge and C- and Adelta-fibre-evoked responses), and not low threshold Abeta-fibre-evoked responses. After carrageenan inflammation, the lower dose of 100 microg 2-PMPA inhibited input, post-discharge, C- and Adelta-fibre-evoked responses by a significantly greater amount than the same dose in normal animals. 2-PMPA inhibited neuronal responses less consistently in sham-operated and SNL animals, and effects were not significantly different from those seen in normal animals. NAAG is an agonist at the inhibitory metabotropic glutamate receptor mGluR3, and 2-PMPA may inhibit nociceptive transmission in normal animals by elevating synaptic NAAG levels, allowing it to activate mGluR3 and thus reducing transmitter release from afferent nerve terminals. mGluR3 expression in the superficial dorsal horn is upregulated after peripheral inflammation, perhaps explaining the greater inhibition of neuronal responses we observed after carrageenan inflammation. These results support an important role of endogenous NAAG in the spinal processing of noxious information.

Reductions in N-acetylaspartylglutamate and the 67 kDa form of glutamic acid decarboxylase immunoreactivities in the visual system of albino and pigmented rats after optic nerve transections

This study compares the immunohistochemical distributions of N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) and the large isoform of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-synthesizing enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD(67)) in the visual system of albino and pigmented rats. Most retinal ganglion cells and their axons were strongly immunoreactive for NAAG, whereas GAD(67) immunoreactivity was very sparse in these cells and projections. In retinorecipient zones, NAAG and GAD(67) immunoreactivities occurred in distinct populations of neurons and in dense networks of strongly immunoreactive fibers and synapses. Dual-labeling immunohistochemistry indicated that principal neurons were stained for NAAG, whereas local interneurons were stained for GAD(67). In contrast to the distribution observed in retinorecipient zones, most or all neurons were doubly stained for NAAG and GAD(67) in the thalamic reticular nucleus. Ten days after unilateral optic nerve transection, NAAG-immunoreactive fibers and synapses were substantially reduced in all contralateral retinal terminal zones. The posttransection pattern of NAAG-immunoreactive synaptic loss demarcated the contralateral and ipsilateral divisions of the retinal projections. In addition, an apparent transynaptic reduction in GAD(67) immunoreactivity was observed in some deafferented areas, such as the lateral geniculate. These findings suggest a complicated picture in which NAAG and GABA are segregated in distinct neuronal populations in primary visual targets, yet they are colocalized in neurons of the thalamic reticular nucleus. This is consistent with NAAG acting as a neurotransmitter release modulator that is coreleased with a variety of classical transmitters in specific neural pathways.

Morphine tolerance and reward but not expression of morphine dependence are inhibited by the selective glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCP II, NAALADase) inhibitor, 2-PMPA

Inhibition of glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCP II; NAALADase) produces a variety of effects on glutamatergic neurotransmission. The aim of this study was to investigate effects of GCP II inhibition with the selective inhibitor, 2-PMPA, on: (a) development of tolerance to the antinociceptive effects, (b) withdrawal, and (c) conditioned reward produced by morphine in C57/Bl mice. The degree of tolerance was assessed using the tail-flick test before and after 6 days of twice daily (b.i.d.) administration of 2-PMPA and 10 mg/kg of morphine. Opioid withdrawal was measured 3 days after twice daily morphine (30 or 10 mg/kg) administration, followed by naloxone challenge. Conditioned morphine reward was investigated using conditioned place preference with a single morphine dose (10 mg/kg). High doses of 2-PMPA inhibited the development of morphine tolerance (resembling the effect of 7.5 mg/kg of the NMDA receptor antagonist, memantine) while not affecting the severity of withdrawal. A high dose of 2-PMPA (100 mg/kg) also significantly potentiated morphine withdrawal, but inhibited both acquisition and expression of morphine-induced conditioned place preference. Memantine inhibited the intensity of morphine withdrawal as well as acquisition and expression of morphine-induced conditioned place preference. In addition, 2-PMPA did not affect learning or memory retrieval in a simple two-trial test, nor did it produce withdrawal symptoms in morphine-dependent, placebo-challenged mice. Results suggest involvement of GCP II (NAALADase) in phenomena related to opioid addiction.

Neuroprotective effects of N-acetylaspartylglutamate in a neonatal rat model of hypoxia-ischemia

Neuroprotective effects of N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG), the precursor of glutamate and a selective agonist at the Group II metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor, against hypoxic-ischemic brain injury were examined in a neonatal rat model of cerebral hypoxia-ischemia. The neonatal hypoxia-ischemia procedure (unilateral carotid artery ligation followed by exposure to an 8% oxygen hypoxic condition for 1.5 h) was performed in 7-day-old rat pups. Following unilateral carotid artery ligation, NAAG (0.5 to 20 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered before or after the hypoxic exposure. Brain injury was examined 1-week later by weight reduction in the ipsilateral brain and by neuron density in the hippocampal CA1 area. In the saline-treated rat, neonatal hypoxia-ischemia resulted in severe brain injury as indicated by a 24% reduction in the ipsilateral brain weight. Low doses of NAAG (2-10 mg/kg, but not 0.5 mg/kg), administered before or even if 1 h after the hypoxic exposure, greatly reduced hypoxia-ischemia-induced brain injury (3.8-14.2% reduction in the ipsilateral brain weight). A high dose of NAAG (20 mg/kg) was ineffective. While L(+)-2-Amino-4-phosphonobutyric acid (L-AP4) and trans-[1S,3R]-1-Amino-cyclopentane-1, 3-dicarboxylic acid (t-ACPD) were unable to provide protection against hypoxic-ischemic brain injury, 2-(phosphonomethyl) pentanedioic acid (2-PMPA), an inhibitor of N-acetylated alpha-linked acidic dipeptidase (NAALADase), which hydrolyzes endogenous NAAG into N-acetyl-aspartate and glutamate, significantly reduced neonatal hypoxia-ischemia-induced brain injury. (alphaS)-alpha-Amino-alpha-[(1S, 2S)-2-carboxycyclopropyl]-9H-xanthine-9-propanoic acid (LY341495), a selective antagonist at the mGlu2/3 receptor, prevented the neuroprotective effect of NAAG. Neuron density data measured in the hippocampal CA1 area confirmed that ipsilateral brain weight reduction was a valid measure for hypoxic-ischemic brain injury. Neonatal hypoxia-ischemia stimulated an elevation of cyclic AMP (cAMP) concentration in the saline-treated rat brain. NAAG, L-AP4 and t-ACPD all significantly decreased hypoxia-ischemia-induced elevation of cAMP. LY341495 blocked the effect of NAAG, but not of L-AP4 or t-ACPD, on hypoxia-ischemia-stimulated cAMP elevation. The overall results suggest that the neuroprotective effect of NAAG is largely associated with activation of mGlu2/3 receptor.

Neuroprotection mediated by glutamate carboxypeptidase II (NAALADase) inhibition requires TGF-beta

Inhibition of glutamate carboxypeptidase (GCP) II (EC 3.4.17.21), also termed N-acetylated alpha-linked acidic dipeptidase (NAALADase), has been shown to protect against ischemic injury presumably via decreasing glutamate and increasing N-acetyl-aspartyl-glutamate (NAAG). NAAG is a potent and selective mGlu3 receptor agonist. Activation of glial mGlu3 receptors has been shown to protect against NMDA toxicity by releasing transforming growth factors, TGF-betas. We hypothesized that GCP II inhibition could be neuroprotective also via TGF-betas, due to increased NAAG. To verify this, Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISAs) were performed on media from both control and ischemic cultures treated with the GCP II inhibitor, 2-(phosphonomethyl)-pentanedioic acid (2-PMPA). We found that 2-PMPA attenuated ischemia-induced declines in TGF-beta. To further assess the role of TGF-betas in 2-PMPA-mediated neuroprotection, a neutralizing antibody to TGF-beta (TGF-beta Ab) was used. In both in vitro and in vivo models of cerebral ischemia, TGF-beta Ab reversed the neuroprotection by 2-PMPA. Antibodies to other growth factors had no effect. Data suggests that neuroprotection by GCP II inhibition may be partially mediated by promoting TGF-beta release.

Neuroprotection afforded by NAAG and NAALADase inhibition requires glial cells and metabotropic glutamate receptor activation

N-acetylated-alpha-linked-acidic-dipeptidase (NAALADase or glutamate carboxypeptidase II) cleaves the neuropeptide N-acetyl-aspartyl-glutamate (NAAG) to glutamate and N-acetyl-aspartate (NAA). Previously, NAAG and 2-(phosphonomethyl)-pentanedioic acid (2-PMPA), a potent and selective NAALADase inhibitor, were found to be neuroprotective in neuronal/glial co-cultures and in animals following transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. In this report, we examined the involvement of glial cells and metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors in neuroprotection mediated by NAAG and 2-PMPA in an in vitro model of metabolic inhibition. Neuroprotection of neuronal/glial co-cultures by both NAAG and 2-PMPA, against metabolic inhibition, was significantly higher than neuroprotection in the absence of glia. Similarly, (2S,2'R,3'R)-2-(2',3'-dicarboxycyclopropyl)glycine (DCG IV), a selective group II mGlu receptor agonist, was less neuroprotective in the absence of glia. Selective group II mGlu receptor antagonists and (S)-alpha-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine (MCPG), a non-selective mGlu receptor antagonist, reduced the protection afforded by both NAAG and 2-PMPA when using neuronal/glial co-cultures. In contrast, groups I and III mGlu receptor antagonists did not affect NAAG or 2-PMPA neuroprotection. These results underscore the critical involvement of glia and group II mGlu receptors in NAAG and 2-PMPA-mediated neuroprotection.

Neuroprotection mediated by glial group-II metabotropic glutamate receptors requires the activation of the MAP kinase and the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase pathways

The mGlu2/3 receptor agonists 4-carboxy-3-hydroxyphenylglycine (4C3HPG) and LY379268 attenuated NMDA toxicity in primary cultures containing both neurons and astrocytes. Neuroprotection was abrogated by PD98059 and LY294002, which inhibit the mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) and the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI-3-K) pathways, respectively. Cultured astrocytes lost the ability to produce transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) in response to mGlu2/3 receptor agonists when co-incubated with PD98059 or LY294002. As a result, the glial medium was no longer protective against NMDA toxicity. Activation of the MAPK and PI-3-K pathways in cultured astrocytes treated with 4C3HPG or LY379268 was directly demonstrated by an increase in the phosphorylated forms of ERK-1/2 and Akt. Similarly to that observed in the culture, intracerebral or systemic injections of mGlu2/3 receptor agonists enhanced TGF-beta1 formation in the rat or mouse caudate nucleus, and this effect was reduced by PD98059. PD98059 also reduced the ability of LY379268 to protect striatal neurons against NMDA toxicity. These results suggest that activation of glial mGlu2/3 receptors induces neuroprotection through the activation of the MAPK and PI-3-K pathways leading to the induction of TGF-beta.

Group II mGlu receptor agonists fail to protect against various neurotoxic insults induced in murine cortical, striatal and cerebellar granular pure neuronal cultures

Since group II metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors are a potential target for the amelioration of neuronal injury, we evaluated the ability of group II mGlu receptor agonists to attenuate toxicity induced by various insults in cortical, striatal and cerebellar granular (CGCs) pure neuronal cultures. The three cultures, when maintained under serum-free, anti-oxidant rich conditions for up to 13 days in vitro (div) were shown by immunocytochemistry to contain a maximum of 2-7% glia. At 6, 9 and 13 div a graded pattern of injury to cortical and striatal cultures was achieved with either hydrogen peroxide (60-110 microM), staurosporine (1 microM), N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA, 70 microM), alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-methylisoxazole-4-propionate (AMPA, 100 microM) or kainate (100 microM) over either 4, 24 or 48 h. CGCs were similarly exposed to low K(+) (5.4 mM KCl). Cell viability was examined via phase-contrast microscopy and assessed by a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazole-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay. Treatment with group II mGlu receptor agonists (1-300 microM), 2R,4R-4-aminopyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylate ((2R,4R)-APDC), (2S,1'S,2'S)-2-(carboxycyclopropyl)glycine (L-CCG-I), (2S,2'R,3'R)-2-(2',3'-dicarboxycyclopropyl)glycine (DCG-IV) and N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) failed to attenuate the toxicity. Pretreatment of cultures with the agonists and treatment following acute insult also failed to attenuate toxicity. Further investigations demonstrated the presence of second messenger activation whereby (2R,4R)-APDC reduced forskolin-stimulated production of cAMP in each culture. Thus, despite receptor coupling to intracellular signaling cascades, and regardless of culture development, agonist concentration, extent and mode of injury, group II mGlu receptor agonists were unable to protect against injury induced in cortical, striatal and cerebellar granular pure neuronal cultures. This result is in contrast to mixed cultures of neurones and glia and implies an important role for glia in the neuroprotective effects of group II mGlu receptor agonists.

Expression of bone morphogenetic protein-6 and transforming growth factor-beta1 in the rat brain after a mild and reversible ischemic damage

We have examined the distribution of transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) and bone morphogenetic protein-6 (BMP-6) in the brain of rats subjected to a mild and reversible ischemic damage produced by a 20-min occlusion of both carotid arteries without occlusion of the vertebral arteries. We have selected this model to study how the expression of trophic factor of the TGF-beta superfamily changes in neurons that recover from a transient insult. Immunocytochemical analysis showed a loss of TGF-beta1 in neurons of all hippocampal subfields immediately after the ischemic period, followed by a recovery of immunoreactivity in CA1 and CA3 neurons after reperfusion. BMP-6 immunoreactivity was also lost in most hippocampal neurons, but immunostaining became particularly intense in the interstitial space after both ischemia and reperfusion. An interstitial localization of BMP-6 was also observed in the cerebral cortex, particularly after reperfusion. Mild ischemia also induced substantial changes in the expression of TGF-beta1 and BMP-6 within the cerebellar cortex. In control animals, these factors appeared to be localized in granule cells (TGF-beta1) and Purkinje cells (both), whereas the molecular layer was not immunopositive. Both TGF-beta1 and BMP-6 were highly expressed in the interstitial spaces of the cerebellar cortex either 20 min after ischemia or 20 min after reperfusion. Taken collectively, these results suggest that a mild and reversible ischemia stimulates the release of BMP-6 from neurons into the interstitial space. We speculate that BMP-6, besides functioning during brain development, may also regulate neuronal resistance to insults of the adult brain.

Up-regulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor 3 mRNA expression in the cerebral cortex of monoarthritic rats

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR) have been shown to play a role in the modulation of acute and inflammatory pain. Additionally, we have recently detected time-dependent changes in the mRNA expression of several mGluR subtypes in thalamic nuclei of monoarthritic (MA) rats. In the present study, mGluR1, -3, -4, and -7 subtype mRNA expression was analyzed by in situ hybridization with radioactively labelled oligonucleotide probes in cerebral cortical regions of normal and MA rats at 2, 4, and 14 days of the disease. The mGluR1, -4, and -7 mRNAs were at background level in normal rats and did not change in MA animals. In contrast, mGluR3 mRNA expression was abundant in normal rats and was significantly increased in cortical areas of MA rats at all time points. Higher changes were detected bilaterally at 4 days, predominantly in layers IV/V, in the motor, primary, and secondary somatosensory cortices (average increases of 50-75%), but maximum rises occurred in the contralateral cingulate cortex (+138%). No changes were detected in the auditory cortex. The present data show an up-regulation of mGluR3 mRNA expression in the motor, somatosensory, and limbic cortices of MA rats. This possibly reflects the occurrence of central mechanisms counteracting the increased transmission of nociceptive input arising from the inflamed paw and the impaired motor behavior of these rats. Changes in the cingulate cortex may be related to the motivational-affective component of nociception.

Amino acids are still as exciting as ever

Glutamate is probably the most important excitatory transmitter in the vertebrate central nervous system. Its multiple functional roles in the brain and spinal cord make therapeutic manipulation of these systems fraught with difficulties. There has, however, been recent progress in pharmacological manipulations of NMDA receptor subtypes and non-NMDA receptors, and understanding of the roles of NAAG, that promise rapid advances in pain control.

Regional distribution and pharmacological characteristics of [3H]N-acetyl-aspartyl-glutamate (NAAG) binding sites in rat brain

Autoradiographical studies revealed that 10 nM [3H]N-acetyl-aspartyl-glutamate (NAAG) labelled grey matter structures, particularly in the hippocamus, cerebral neocortex, striatum, septal nuclei and the cerebellar cortex. The binding was inhibited by (2S,2'R,3'R)-2-(2',3'-dicarboxycyclopropyl)-glycine (DCG IV), an agonist at group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR II). (RS)-alpha-Methyl-4-tetrazolylphenylglycine (MTPG), (RS)-alpha-cyclopropyl-4-phosphonoglycine (CPPG) and (RS)-alpha-methylserine-O-phosphate monophenyl ester (MSOPPE), all antagonists at mGluR II and mGluR III, also inhibited [3H]NAAG binding. Other inhibitors were (1S,3R)-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylate (ACPD), a broad-spectrum mGluR agonist with preference for groups I and II and the mGluR I agonists/mGluR II antagonists (S)-3-carboxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycine (3,4-CHPG) and (S)-4-carboxy-3-hydroxyphenylglycine (4,3-CHPG). Neither the mGluR I specific agonist (S)-dihydroxyphenylglycine nor any of the ionotropic glutamate receptor ligands such as kainate, AMPA and MK-801 had strong effects (except for the competitive NMDA antagonist CGS 19755, which produced 20-40% inhibition at 100 microM) suggesting that, at low nM concentrations, [3H]NAAG binds predominantly to metabotropic glutamate receptors, particularly those of the mGluR II type. Several studies have indicated that NAAG can interact with mGluR II and the present study supports this notion by demonstrating that sites capable of binding NAAG at low concentrations and displaying pharmacological characteristics of mGluR II exist in the central nervous tissue. Furthermore, the results show that autoradiography of [3H]NAAG binding can be used to quantify the distribution of such sites in distinct brain regions and study their pharmacology at the same time.

N-acetylaspartylglutamate protects against transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats

The inhibition of N-acetylated alpha-linked acidic dipeptidase (NAALADase: glutamate carboxypeptidase II) has been previously shown to protect against ischemic injury presumably through mechanisms of decreasing glutamate and increasing N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG). Preventing excessive glutamate release is known to be neuroprotective. However, the role of increased NAAG is not clear. We used a middle cerebral artery occlusion model in rats to investigate the neuroprotective effect of NAAG via its action as a metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor agonist. Rats received intracerebral injections of NAAG (1, 2, or 4 micromol), or a co-injection of NAAG (2 micromol) and the non-selective mGlu receptor antagonist, (R,S)-alpha-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine, (MCPG, 2 micromol). Immediately after the treatment, the animals received 2 h of middle cerebral artery occlusion followed by 22 h of reperfusion. Treatment with 1 or 2 micromol of NAAG significantly reduced total infarct volume. Treatment with MCPG partially attenuated the neuroprotective effect of NAAG, indicating that the protective effect of NAAG against ischemic injury may be in part mediated via activation of mGlu receptors.

N-Acetylaspartylglutamate: the most abundant peptide neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system

In the progress of science, as in life, timing is important. The acidic dipeptide, N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG), was discovered in the mammalian nervous system in 1965, but initially was not considered to be a neurotransmitter candidate. In the mid-1980s, a few laboratories revisited the question of NAAG's role in the nervous system and pursued hypotheses regarding its function that ranged from a precursor for the transmitter pool of glutamate to a direct role as a peptide transmitter. Since that time, NAAG has been tested against nearly all of the established criteria for identification of a neurotransmitter. It successfully meets each of these tests, including a concentrated presence in neurons and synaptic vesicles, release from axon endings in a calcium-dependent manner following initiation of action potentials, and extracellular hydrolysis by membrane-bound peptidase activity. NAAG is the most prevalent and widely distributed neuropeptide in the mammalian nervous system. NAAG activates NMDA receptors with a low potency that may vary among receptor subtypes, and it is a highly selective agonist at the type 3 metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR3). Acting through this receptor, NAAG reduces cyclic AMP levels, decreases voltage-dependent calcium conductance, suppresses excitotoxicity, influences long-term potentiation and depression, regulates GABA(A) receptor subunit expression, and inhibits synaptic release of GABA from cortical neurons. Cloning of peptidase activities against NAAG provides opportunities to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which synaptic NAAG peptidase activity is controlled. Given the codistribution of this peptide with a spectrum of traditional transmitters and its ability to activate mGluR3, we speculate that one role for NAAG following synaptic release is the activation of metabotropic autoreceptors that inhibit subsequent transmitter release. A second role is the production of extracellular glutamate following NAAG hydrolysis.

Glutamate as a neurotransmitter in the brain: review of physiology and pathology

Glutamate is the principal excitatory neurotransmitter in brain. Our knowledge of the glutamatergic synapse has advanced enormously in the last 10 years, primarily through application of molecular biological techniques to the study of glutamate receptors and transporters. There are three families of ionotropic receptors with intrinsic cation permeable channels [N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) and kainate]. There are three groups of metabotropic, G protein-coupled glutamate receptors (mGluR) that modify neuronal and glial excitability through G protein subunits acting on membrane ion channels and second messengers such as diacylglycerol and cAMP. There are also two glial glutamate transporters and three neuronal transporters in the brain. Glutamate is the most abundant amino acid in the diet. There is no evidence for brain damage in humans resulting from dietary glutamate. A kainate analog, domoate, is sometimes ingested accidentally in blue mussels; this potent toxin causes limbic seizures, which can lead to hippocampal and related pathology and amnesia. Endogenous glutamate, by activating NMDA, AMPA or mGluR1 receptors, may contribute to the brain damage occurring acutely after status epilepticus, cerebral ischemia or traumatic brain injury. It may also contribute to chronic neurodegeneration in such disorders as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Huntington's chorea. In animal models of cerebral ischemia and traumatic brain injury, NMDA and AMPA receptor antagonists protect against acute brain damage and delayed behavioral deficits. Such compounds are undergoing testing in humans, but therapeutic efficacy has yet to be established. Other clinical conditions that may respond to drugs acting on glutamatergic transmission include epilepsy, amnesia, anxiety, hyperalgesia and psychosis.

1-amino-APDC, a partial agonist of group II metabotropic glutamate receptors with neuroprotective properties

The synthesis of the 1-amino derivative of (2R,4R)-4-aminopyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (1-amino-APDC), a selective metabotropic glutamate ligand, is disclosed. This compound acts as a partial agonist of the group II mGluRs and shows pronounced neuroprotective properties in the NMDA model of cell toxicity.

Isolation and expression of novel human glutamate carboxypeptidases with N-acetylated alpha-linked acidic dipeptidase and dipeptidyl peptidase IV activity

Hydrolysis of the neuropeptide N-acetyl-L-aspartyl-L-glutamate (NAAG) by N-acetylated alpha-linked acidic dipeptidase (NAALADase) to release glutamate may be important in a number of neurodegenerative disorders in which excitotoxic mechanisms are implicated. The gene coding for human prostate-specific membrane antigen, a marker of prostatic carcinomas, and its rat homologue glutamate carboxypeptidase II have recently been shown to possess such NAALADase activity. In contrast, a closely related member of this gene family, rat ileal 100-kDa protein, possesses a dipeptidyl peptidase IV activity. Here, we describe the cloning of human ileal 100-kDa protein, which we have called a NAALADase- "like" (NAALADase L) peptidase based on its sequence similarity to other members of this gene family, and its inability to hydrolyze NAAG in transient transfection experiments. Furthermore, we describe the cloning of a third novel member of this gene family, NAALADase II, which codes for a type II integral membrane protein and which we have localized to chromosome 11 by fluorescent in situ hybridization analysis. Transient transfection of NAALADase II cDNA confers both NAALADase and dipeptidyl peptidase IV activity to COS cells. Expression studies using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and Northern blot hybridization show that NAALADase II is highly expressed in ovary and testis as well as within discrete brain areas.

Neuroprotection by glial metabotropic glutamate receptors is mediated by transforming growth factor-beta

The medium collected from cultured astrocytes transiently exposed to the group-II metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor agonists (2S,1'R, 2'R,3'R)-2-(2,3-dicarboxycyclopropyl)glycine (DCG-IV) or (S)-4-carboxy-3-hydroxyphenylglycine (4C3HPG) is neuroprotective when transferred to mixed cortical cultures challenged with NMDA (). The following data indicate that this particular form of neuroprotection is mediated by transforming growth factor-beta (TGFbeta). (1) TGFbeta1 and -beta2 were highly neuroprotective against NMDA toxicity, and their action was less than additive with that produced by the medium collected from astrocytes treated with DCG-IV or 4C3HPG (GM/DCG-IV or GM/4C3HPG); (2) antibodies that specifically neutralized the actions of TGFbeta1 or -beta2 prevented the neuroprotective activity of DCG-IV or 4C3HPG, as well as the activity of GM/DCG-IV or GM/4C3HPG; and (3) a transient exposure of cultured astrocytes to either DCG-IV or 4C3HPG led to a delayed increase in both intracellular and extracellular levels of TGFbeta. We therefore conclude that a transient activation of group-II mGlu receptors (presumably mGlu3 receptors) in astrocytes leads to an increased formation and release of TGFbeta, which in turn protects neighbor neurons against excitotoxic death. These results offer a new strategy for increasing the local production of neuroprotective factors in the CNS.

Selective activation of group-II metabotropic glutamate receptors is protective against excitotoxic neuronal death

Aminopyrrolidine-2R,4R-dicarboxylated (2R,4R-APDC) has recently been introduced as a potent and highly selective agonist of metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor subtypes mGlu2 and -3. In murine cortical cultures containing both neurons and astrocytes, 2R,4R-APDC attenuated the delayed neuronal degeneration induced by a 10-min pulse of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA). 2R,4R-APDC was maximally neuroprotective in a range of concentrations (0.1-1 microM) comparable to that reported for the activation of mGlu2 or -3 receptors in heterologous expression systems. The action of 2R,4R-APDC was sensitive to the mGlu2/3 receptor antagonists, (2S)-alpha-ethylglutamate and (2S,1S',2S',3R')-2-(2'-carboxy-3'-phenylcyclopropyl)glycine. These results indicate that activation of mGlu2 and/or -3 receptors is sufficient per se to protect neurons against excitotoxic degeneration, and encourage the search for potent, selective and systemically active mGlu2/3 receptor agonists as neuroprotective drugs.