Alterations in channel density and kinetic properties of the sodium current in retinal ganglion cells of the rat during in vivo differentiation

Expression and electrophysiological characteristics of VGSC during mouse myoblasts differentiation

Voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSC) are essential for triggering and relaying action potentials (AP), which perform critical functions in a variety of physiological processes, such as controlling muscle contractions and facilitating the release of neurotransmitters. In this study, we used a mouse C2C12 cell differentiation model to study the molecular expression and channel dynamics of VGSC and to investigate the exact role of VGSC in the development of muscle regeneration. Immunofluorescence, Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, Western blot, and whole-cell patch clamp were employed for this purpose in mouse myoblasts. The findings revealed an increase in intracellular sodium concentration, NaV1.4 gene expression, and protein expression with the progress of differentiation (days 0, 1, 3, 5 and 7). Furthermore, VGSC dynamics exhibit the following characteristics: ① The increase of sodium current (INa); ② The decrease in the activation threshold and the voltage trigger maximum of INa; ③ A positive shift in the steady-state inactivation curve; ④ The recovery of INa during repolarization is delayed, the activity-dependent decay rate of INa was accelerated, and the proportionate amount of the fraction of activated channels was reduced. Based on these results, it is postulated that the activation threshold of AP could be decreased, and the refractory period could be extended with the extension of differentiation duration, which may contribute to muscle contraction. Taken together, VGSC provides a theoretical and empirical basis for exploring potential targets for neuromuscular diseases and other therapeutic muscle regeneration dysfunctions.

Analysis of tetrodotoxin-sensitive sodium and low voltage-activated calcium channels in developing mouse retinal horizontal cells

Expression patterns of voltage-gated ion channels determine the spatio-temporal dynamics of ion currents that supply excitable neurons in developing tissue with proper electrophysiological properties. The purpose of the study was to identify fast cationic inward currents in mouse retinal horizontal cells (HCs) and describe their biophysical properties at different developmental stages. We also aimed to reveal their physiological role in shaping light responses (LRs) in adult HCs. HCs were recorded in horizontal slices of wild-type mouse retina at postnatal stages ranging from p8 through p60. Voltage-dependent inward currents were isolated with appropriate voltage protocols and blockers specific for sodium and T-type calcium channels. LRs were evoked with full-field flashes (130 μW/cm²). Transient and steady inward currents were identified at all developmental stages. Transient currents were mediated by T-type calcium and TTX-sensitive sodium channels, whereas steady currents were blocked by cadmium, indicating the presence of high voltage-activated calcium channels. Activation and steady-state inactivation kinetics of T-type calcium channels revealed a contribution to the resting membrane potential during postnatal development. Additionally, both sodium and T-type calcium channels had an impact on HC LRs at light offset in adult animals. Our results showed that the voltage-dependent inward currents of postnatally developing mouse HCs consist of T-type calcium, TTX-sensitive sodium, and high voltage-activated calcium channels, and that transient ionic currents contributed to light-evoked responses of adult HCs, suggesting a role in HC information processing.

Voltage- and calcium-gated ion channels of neurons in the vertebrate retina

In this review, we summarize studies investigating the types and distribution of voltage- and calcium-gated ion channels in the different classes of retinal neurons: rods, cones, horizontal cells, bipolar cells, amacrine cells, interplexiform cells, and ganglion cells. We discuss differences among cell subtypes within these major cell classes, as well as differences among species, and consider how different ion channels shape the responses of different neurons. For example, even though second-order bipolar and horizontal cells do not typically generate fast sodium-dependent action potentials, many of these cells nevertheless possess fast sodium currents that can enhance their kinetic response capabilities. Ca2+ channel activity can also shape response kinetics as well as regulating synaptic release. The L-type Ca2+ channel subtype, CaV1.4, expressed in photoreceptor cells exhibits specific properties matching the particular needs of these cells such as limited inactivation which allows sustained channel activity and maintained synaptic release in darkness. The particular properties of K+ and Cl- channels in different retinal neurons shape resting membrane potentials, response kinetics and spiking behavior. A remaining challenge is to characterize the specific distributions of ion channels in the more than 100 individual cell types that have been identified in the retina and to describe how these particular ion channels sculpt neuronal responses to assist in the processing of visual information by the retina.

Voltage-gated Sodium Channels in Sensory Information Processing

Objective & Background:

Voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs) and potassium channels are critical in the generation of action potentials in the nervous system. VGSCs and potassium channels play important roles in the five fundamental senses of vision, audition, olfaction, taste and touch. Dysfunctional VGSCs are associated with clinical sensory symptoms, such as hyperpselaphesia, parosphresia, and so on.

Conclusion:

This short review highlights the recent advances in the study of VGSCs in sensory information processing and discusses the potential role of VGSCs to serve as pharmacological targets for the treatment of sensory system diseases.

Astrocytes Regulate the Development and Maturation of Retinal Ganglion Cells Derived from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) form the connection between the eye and the brain, with this connectivity disrupted in numerous blinding disorders. Previous studies have demonstrated the ability to derive RGCs from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs); however, these cells exhibited some characteristics that indicated a limited state of maturation. Among the many factors known to influence RGC development in the retina, astrocytes are known to play a significant role in their functional maturation. Thus, efforts of the current study examined the functional maturation of hPSC-derived RGCs, including the ability of astrocytes to modulate this developmental timeline. Morphological and functional properties of RGCs were found to increase over time, with astrocytes significantly accelerating the functional maturation of hPSC-derived RGCs. The results of this study clearly demonstrate the functional and morphological maturation of RGCs in vitro, including the effects of astrocytes on the maturation of hPSC-derived RGCs.

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Improved maturation of hPSC-derived RGCs in a temporally appropriate manner

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Co-cultures of RGCs and astrocytes recapitulate cellular interactions in the retina

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Astrocytes enhance functional and morphological maturation of hPSC-derived RGCs

The expression of hyperpolarization activated cyclic nucleotide gated (HCN) channels in the rat ovary are dependent on the type of cell and the reproductive age of the animal: a laboratory investigation

BACKGROUND

Aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that levels of hyperpolarization activated cyclic nucleotide gated channels 1 to 4 (HCN1-4) are linked to the reproductive age of the ovary.

METHODS

Young, adult, and reproductively aged ovaries were collected from Sprague-Dawley rats. RT-PCR and western blot analysis of ovaries was performed to investigate the presence of mRNA and total protein for HCN1-4. Immunohistochemistry with semiquantitative H score analysis was performed using whole ovarian histologic sections.

RESULTS

RT-PCR analysis showed the presence of mRNA for HCN1-4. Western blot analysis revealed HCN1-3 proteins in all ages of ovarian tissues. Immunohistochemistry with H score analysis demonstrated distinct age-related changes in patterns of HCN1-3 in the oocytes, granulosa cells, theca cells, and corpora lutea. HCN4 was present only in the oocytes, with declining levels during the reproduction lifespan.

CONCLUSION

The evidence presented here demonstrates cell-type and developmental age patterns of HCN1-4 channel expression in rat ovaries. Based on this, we hypothesize that HCN channels have functional significance in rat ovaries and may have changing roles in reproductive aging.

Differentiating embryonic stem–derived neural stem cells show a maturation-dependent pattern of voltage-gated sodium current expression and graded action potentials

A population of mouse embryonic stem (ES)-derived neural stem cells (named NS cells) that exhibits traits reminiscent of radial glia-like cell population and that can be homogeneously expanded in monolayer while remaining stable and highly neurogenic over multiple passages has been recently discovered. This novel population has provided a unique in vitro system in which to investigate physiological events occurring as stem cells lose multipotency and terminally differentiate. Here we analysed the timing, quality and quantity of the appearance of the excitability properties of differentiating NS cells which have been long-term expanded in vitro. To this end, we studied the biophysical properties of voltage-dependent Na(+) currents as an electrophysiological readout for neuronal maturation stages of differentiating NS cells toward the generation of fully functional neurons, since the expression of neuronal voltage-gated Na(+) channels is an essential hallmark of neuronal differentiation and crucial for signal transmission in the nervous system. Using the whole cell and single-channel cell-attached variations of the patch-clamp technique we found that the Na(+) currents in NS cells showed substantial electrophysiological changes during in vitro neuronal differentiation, consisting mainly in an increase of Na(+) current density and in a shift of the steady-state activation and inactivation curves toward more negative and more positive potentials respectively. The changes in the Na(+) channel system were closely related with the ability of differentiating NS cells to generate action potentials, and could therefore be exploited as an appropriate electrophysiological marker of ES-derived NS cells undergoing functional neuronal maturation.

Voltage-gated sodium channels potentiate the invasive capacities of human non-small-cell lung cancer cell lines

Ionic channel activity is involved in fundamental cellular behaviour and participates in cancerous features such as proliferation, migration and invasion which in turn contribute to the metastatic process. In this study, we investigated the expression and role of voltage-gated sodium channels in non-small-cell lung cancer cell lines. Functional voltage-gated sodium channels expression was investigated in normal and non-small-cell lung cancer cell lines. The measurement, in patch-clamp conditions, of tetrodotoxin-inhibitable sodium currents indicated that the strongly metastatic cancerous cell lines H23, H460 and Calu-1 possess functional sodium channels while normal and weakly metastatic cell lines do not. While all the cell lines expressed mRNA for numerous sodium channel isoforms, only H23, H460 and Calu-1 cells had a 250 kDa protein corresponding to the functional channel. The other cell lines also had another protein of 230 kDa which is not addressed to the membrane and might act as a dominant negative isoform to prevent channel activation. At the membrane potential of these cells, channels are partially open. This leads to a continuous entry of sodium, disrupting sodium homeostasis and down-stream signaling pathways. Inhibition of the channels by tetrodotoxin was responsible for a 40-50% reduction of in vitro invasion. These experiments suggest that the functional expression of voltage-gated sodium channels might be an integral component of the metastatic process in non-small-cell lung cancer cells probably through its involvement in the regulation of intracellular sodium homeostasis. These channels could serve both as novel markers of the metastatic phenotype and as potential new therapeutic targets.

A model of the mammalian optic nerve fibre based on experimental data

Several experimental data about membrane dynamics and pharmacological sensitivities of optic nerve axons have been published. The present work summarizes these data and computer simulations have been used to develop a model of the mammalian optic nerve fibre. The ionic currents description were derived from existing membrane models and particularly from a model of the somatic retinal ganglion cell (RGC) impulse generation. However, original equations had to be modified to match experimental data, which suggests that in RGCs, axonal and somatic ion channel expression are different. The new model is consistent with recent experimental results about optic nerve axonal excitability.

Impaired firing and cell-specific compensation in neurons lacking nav1.6 sodium channels

The ability of neurons to fire precise patterns of action potentials is critical for encoding inputs and efficiently driving target neurons. At the axon initial segment and nodes of Ranvier, where nerve impulses are generated and propagated, a high density of Na(v)1.2 sodium channels is developmentally replaced by Na(v)1.6 channels. In retinal ganglion cells (GCs), this isoform switch coincides with the developmental transition from single spikes to repetitive firing. Also, Na(v)1.6 channels are required for repetitive spiking in cerebellar Purkinje neurons. These previous observations suggest that the developmental appearance of Na(v)1.6 underlies the transition to repetitive spiking in GCs. To test this possibility, we recorded from GCs of med (Na(v)1.6-null) and wild-type mice during postnatal development. By postnatal day 18, when the switch to Na(v)1.6 at GC initial segments is normally complete, the maximal sustained and instantaneous firing rates were lower in med than in wild-type GCs, demonstrating that Na(v)1.6 channels are necessary to attain physiologically relevant firing frequencies in GCs. However, the firing impairment was milder than that reported previously in med Purkinje neurons, which prompted us to look for differences in compensatory sodium channel expression. Both Na(v)1.2 and Na(v)1.1 channels accumulated at initial segments and nodes of med GCs, sites normally occupied by Na(v)1.6. In med Purkinje cells, only Na(v)1.1 channels were found at initial segments, whereas in other brain regions, only Na(v)1.2 was detected at med initial segments and nodes. Thus, compensatory mechanisms in channel isoform distribution are cell specific, which likely results in different firing properties.

Expression of sodium channels Nav1.2 and Nav1.6 during postnatal development of the retina

During the second and third postnatal weeks, there is a developmental switch from sodium channel isoform Na(v)1.2 to isoform Na(v)1.6 at initial segments and nodes of Ranvier in rat retinal ganglion cells. We used quantitative, real-time PCR to determine if the developmental appearance of Na(v)1.6 channels is accompanied by an increase in steady-state level of Na(v)1.6 mRNA in the retina. Between postnatal day 2 (P2) and P10, Na(v)1.6 levels did not change, but between P10 and P19, there was an approximately three-fold increase in Na(v)1.6 transcript levels. This coincides with the appearance of Na(v)1.6 channels in the retina and optic nerve. The steady-state level of Na(v)1.2 mRNA also increased during this same period, which suggests that the rise in Na(v)1.6 may be part of a general increase in sodium channel transcripts at about the time of eye opening at P14. The results are consistent with a developmental increase in steady-state transcripts giving rise to a corresponding increase in sodium channel protein expression.

Age-dependent changes in the regulation mechanisms for intracellular calcium ions in ganglion cells of the mouse retina

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of intracellular calcium buffering in retinal ganglion cells. We performed a quantitative analysis of calcium homeostasis in ganglion cells of early postnatal and adult mice by simultaneous patch-clamp recordings in sliced tissue and microfluorometric calcium measurements with Fura-2. Endogenous calcium homeostasis was quantified by using the 'added buffer' approach which uses amplitudes and decay time constants of calcium transients to give a standard for intracellular calcium buffering. The recovery phase of depolarization-induced calcium transients was well approximated by a mono-exponential function with a decay time constant that showed a linear dependence on dye concentration. Endogenous calcium binding ratios were found to be 575 (n = 18 cells) in early postnatal and 121 (n = 18 cells) in adult retinal ganglion cells. With respect to ganglion cell degeneration at early postnatal stages, our measurements suggest that neuroprotection of a majority of developing ganglion cells partially results from a specialized calcium homeostasis based on high buffering capacities. Furthermore, the dramatic decrease of the intracellular calcium buffering capacity during ganglion cell development may enhance their vulnerability to neurodegeneration.

Electrophysiological changes of retinal ganglion cells in Royal College of Surgeons rats during retinal degeneration

Retinitis pigmentosa is one of the main causes of blindness throughout the world and its pathogenesis remains unclear. In this study, patch-clamp recording was performed from ganglion cells in retinal dystrophic Royal College of Surgeons rats and normal rats during development. The three discharge patterns of action potential in ganglion cells of Royal College of Surgeons rats were single, transient, and sustained firing. The main discharge pattern was single firing in P1-2W, then transient and sustained firing. However, during later stages of retinal degeneration, action potential was reduced in amplitude and frequency, and was even lost in Royal College of Surgeons rats. These findings differed dramatically from those of rats without retinal degeneration, suggesting there are functional ganglion cells in Royal College of Surgeons rats early, but lose part function during retinal degeneration, even though morphological differences are not apparent. Understanding the changes of electrophysiological characteristics during retinal degeneration in detail may help explore the optimal time course for treating retinitis pigmentosa.

The rat retinal ganglion cell in culture: An accessible CNS neurone

Retinal ganglion cells are vital for vision, some have intrinsic light sensing properties and in retinal networks display complex computational abilities. Furthermore they are implicated in a very common form of blindness, glaucoma as well some the symptoms of AIDS. Retinal ganglion cells, unlike many neurones of the central nervous system, have a clearly defined physiological role and can be identified in primary cultures with ease. Here we detail the cell culture and electrophysiological methods required to obtain recordings on the voltage-gated and ligand-gated ion currents and channels expressed by these neurones. Information is given on the range of non-ionotropic receptors that are thought to be present on these cells and what role they may have as model systems in the pharmacological and pharmaceutical research environment.

Developmental, molecular, and genetic dissection of INa in vivo in embryonic zebrafish sensory neurons

The presence of multiple Nav1 isotypes within a neuron and the lack of specific blockers hamper identification of the in vivo roles of sodium current (INa) components, especially during embryonic stages. To identify the functional properties of INa components in vivo in developing neurons, we took a molecular genetic approach. Embryonic zebrafish Rohon-Beard (RB) mechanosensory neurons express two different sodium channel isotypes: Nav1.1 and Nav1.6. To examine the properties of Nav1.1- and Nav1.6-encoded currents in RB cells at different developmental stages, we eliminated the contribution of Nav1.6 and Nav1.1 channels, respectively, using an antisense morpholino (MO) approach. MOs were injected into one-cell stage embryos, and RB sodium currents were recorded using patch-clamp techniques in both conventional whole cell mode as well from nucleated patches. Only a subset of RB cells appeared to be affected by the Nav1.1MO. Overall, the effect of the Nav1.1MO was a small 25% average reduction in current amplitude. Further, Nav1.1MO effects were most pronounced in RB cells of younger embryos. In contrast, the effects of the Nav1.6 MO were observed in all cells and increased as development proceeded. These results indicated that developmental upregulation of RB INa entailed an increase in the number of functional Nav1.6 channels. In addition, analysis of voltage-dependent steady-state activation and inactivation parameters revealed that specific functional properties of channels were also developmentally regulated. Finally, analysis of macho mutants indicated that developmental upregulation of INa was absent in RB cells. These results indicate that MOs are a useful tool for the molecular dissection and analysis of ion channel function in vivo.

Changes in somatic sodium currents of ganglion cells during retinal regeneration in the adult newt

Adult newts can regenerate their entire retinas following a complete removal of the original tissues. During retinal regeneration, ganglion cells differentiate first from the progenitor cells, and develop their capability of spike firing. In the present study, to understand the process of functional differentiation of ganglion cells, we investigated alterations of their voltage-gated sodium currents during retinal regeneration by a whole-cell patch-clamp technique. To minimize space clamp errors, sodium currents were recorded from neurite-free somata of presumptive ganglion cells that were mechanically isolated from living slices of regenerating retinas at different morphological stages. During retinal regeneration, the somatic sodium current density was increased 2.6-fold (48 to 123 pF/pA) and the half-activating voltage was shifted slightly to more hyperpolarizing membrane potentials (-10 to -13 mV), while steady-state inactivation was not changed obviously. Curve fitting analysis of currents revealed that the sodium current consists of two components with different inactivation time constants. During retinal regeneration, the ratio of slow to fast inactivating current component was increased 2.6-fold (0.11 to 0.29). These results suggest that the somatic sodium currents of ganglion cells may undergo modifications of their voltage dependence and kinetic properties during retinal regeneration. A small number of the presumptive ganglion cells in regenerating retinas with a segregating inner plexiform layer exhibited sodium currents comparable to those in the normal retina. This might suggest that maturational regulation of sodium channel function starts during a period of synaptic layer formation within the retina.

Developmental plasticity of NMDA receptor function in the retina and the influence of light

Despite the early expression of NMDA receptors (NMDARs) in the retina, not much is known about their regulation and involvement in plasticity processes during retinal development and synapse formation. Here we report that NMDAR function in the inner retina is developmentally regulated and controlled by ambient light condition. A prominent down-regulation after eye opening of NMDAR function was observed in rat retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), which was prevented by dark rearing the animals for 1 month but was again induced by subsequent light exposure. As shown by molecular analysis of single RGCs, alterations in the subunit composition of NMDAR did not account for the light-dependent regulation of NMDAR function. Immunocytochemistry showed no differences in the NMDAR protein expression pattern between normal and dark-reared animals. In conclusion, our data clearly demonstrate that NMDAR function is modulated during periods of retinal plasticity independent of structural alterations in its subunit composition and thus different from mechanisms observed in higher visual centers.

A patch-clamp investigation of membrane currents in a novel mammalian retinal ganglion cell line

We characterised membrane currents in undifferentiated RGC-5 cells, a cell line used in in vitro models of apoptosis and glaucoma. The cells were inexcitable, with no voltage-dependent Na(+) currents or action potentials. Some novel currents were observed including basal Cl(-) currents, inwardly rectifiying K(+) currents and Gd(3+) insensitive stretch-activated currents. Our results highlight the differences between the electrophysiological properties of undifferentiated RGC-5 cells and retinal ganglion cells.

A decay of gap junctions associated with ganglion cell differentiation during retinal regeneration of the adult newt

Changes in the gap junctional coupling and maturation of voltage-activated Na(+) currents during regeneration of newt retinas were examined by whole-cell patch-clamping in slice preparations. Progenitor cells in regenerating retinas did not exhibit Na(+) currents but showed prominent electrical and tracer couplings. Cells identified by LY-fills were typically slender. Na(+) currents were detected in premature ganglion cells with round somata in the 'intermediate-II' regenerating retina. No electrical and tracer couplings were observed between these cells. Mature ganglion cells did not exhibit electrical coupling, but showed tracer coupling. On average, the maximum Na(+) current amplitude recorded from premature ganglion cells was roughly 2.5-fold smaller than that of mature ganglion cells. In addition, the activation threshold of the Na(+) current was nearly 11 mV more positive than that of mature cells. We provide morphological and physiological evidence showing that loss of gap junctions between progenitor cells is associated with ganglion cell differentiation during retinal regeneration and that new gap junctions are recreated between mature ganglion cells. Also we provide evidence suggesting that the loss of gap junctions correlates with the appearance of voltage-activated Na(+) currents in ganglion cells.

Enhancement of signal-to-noise ratio and phase locking for small inputs by a low-threshold outward current in auditory neurons

Neurons possess multiple voltage-dependent conductances specific for their function. To investigate how low-threshold outward currents improve the detection of small signals in a noisy background, we recorded from gerbil medial superior olivary (MSO) neurons in vitro. MSO neurons responded phasically, with a single spike to a step current injection. When bathed in dendrotoxin (DTX), most cells switched to tonic firing, suggesting that low-threshold potassium currents (I(KLT)) participated in shaping these phasic responses. Neurons were stimulated with a computer-generated steady barrage of random inputs, mimicking weak synaptic conductance transients (the "noise"), together with a larger but still subthreshold postsynaptic conductance, EPSG (the "signal"). DTX reduced the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), defined as the ratio of probability to fire in response to the EPSG and the probability to fire spontaneously in response to noise. The reduction was mainly attributable to the increase of spontaneous firing in DTX. The spike-triggered reverse correlation indicated that, for spike generation, the neuron with I(KLT) required faster inward current transients. This narrow temporal integration window contributed to superior phase locking of firing to periodic stimuli before application of DTX. A computer model including Hodgkin-Huxley type conductances for spike generation and for I(KLT) (Rathouz and Trussell, 1998) showed similar response statistics. The dynamic low-threshold outward current increased SNR and the temporal precision of integration of weak subthreshold signals in auditory neurons by suppressing false positives.

Enhanced metabolic activity coincides with survival and differentiation of cultured rat retinal ganglion cells exposed to glutamate

Neurotransmitters are prominent candidates for trans-cellular signals that influence the development of the CNS. The present study has examined the effect of glutamate on survival, differentiation and metabolic activity of cultured rat retinal ganglion cells at 3 days in vitro. Retinal cultures from neonatal Wistar rats were treated with glutamate for 48 h. The metabolic activity was markedly increased in the retinal ganglion cells exposed to 20 microM glutamate. This was accompanied by an enhanced survival of these neurons. The number of differentiated retinal ganglion cells as determined by microtubule-associated protein-2 labeling was significantly increased following exposure to low but not higher doses of glutamate. The effect of glutamate on the metabolic activity and differentiation was blocked by tetrodotoxin. The results of the present study shows that glutamate has a significant effect on survival, differentiation and metabolic activity. An increase in the metabolic activity indicates an enhancement in the electrical activity. Thus, our results are consistent with the hypothesis that glutamate is critically involved in the regulation of electrical activity in developing rat retinal ganglion cells.

Intrinsic physiological properties of cat retinal ganglion cells

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are the output neurons of the retina, sending their signals via the optic nerve to many different targets in the thalamus and brainstem. These cells are divisible into more than a dozen types, differing in receptive field properties and morphology. Light responses of individual RGCs are in large part determined by the exact nature of the retinal synaptic network in which they participate. Synaptic inputs, however, are greatly influenced by the intrinsic membrane properties of each cell. While it has been demonstrated clearly that RGCs vary in their intrinsic properties, it remains unclear whether this variation is systematically related to RGC type. To learn whether membrane properties contribute to the functional differentiation of RGC types, we made whole-cell current clamp recordings of RGC responses to injected current of identified cat RGCs. The data collected demonstrated that RGC types clearly differed from one another in their intrinsic properties. One of the most striking differences we observed was that individual cell types had membrane time constants that varied widely from approximately 4 ms (alpha cells) to more than 80 ms (zeta cells). Perhaps not surprisingly, we also observed that RGCs varied greatly in their maximum spike frequencies (kappa cells 48 Hz-alpha cells 262 Hz) and sustained spike frequencies (kappa cells 23 Hz-alpha cells 67 Hz). Interestingly, however, most RGC types exhibited similar amounts of spike frequency adaptation. Finally, RGC types also differed in their responses to injection of hyperpolarizing current. Most cell types exhibited anomalous rectification in response to sufficiently strong hyperpolarization, although alpha and beta RGCs showed only minimal, if any, rectification under similar conditions. The differences we observed in RGC intrinsic properties were striking and robust. Such differences are certain to affect how each type responds to synaptic input and may help tune each cell type appropriately for their individual roles in visual processing.

Development of retinal ganglion cell structure and function

In this review, we summarize the main stages of structural and functional development of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). We first consider the various mechanisms that are involved in restructuring of dendritic trees. To date, many mechanisms have been implicated including target-dependent factors, interactions from neighboring RGCs, and afferent signaling. We also review recent evidence showing how rapidly such dendritic remodeling might occur, along with the intracellular signaling pathways underlying these rearrangements. Concurrent with such structural changes, the functional responses of RGCs also alter during maturation, from sub-threshold firing to reliable spiking patterns. Here we consider the development of intrinsic membrane properties and how they might contribute to the spontaneous firing patterns observed before the onset of vision. We then review the mechanisms by which this spontaneous activity becomes correlated across neighboring RGCs to form waves of activity. Finally, the relative importance of spontaneous versus light-evoked activity is discussed in relation to the emergence of mature receptive field properties.

Cytochrome oxidase activity in rat retinal ganglion cells during postnatal development

In this study, the metabolic activity of rat retinal ganglion cells during postnatal development has been examined in vivo using cytochrome oxidase histochemistry. The intensity of staining was measured by optical densitometry. The activity of cytochrome oxidase in retinal ganglion cells progressively increased from postnatal day 0 (P0) and reached a peak during the second week of postnatal development (P10-P14) and declined thereafter. Our data show that the increased levels of cytochrome oxidase seen in developing retinal ganglion cells occur at the same time, when neuronal maturity and synaptogenesis reach their peaks.

Functional differentiation of ganglion cells from multipotent progenitor cells in sliced retina of adult goldfish

Multipotent progenitor cells at the retinal margin of adult goldfish give rise to all cell types in the rest of the retina. We took advantage of this spatial arrangement of progenitor and mature cells in slices of peripheral retina, to investigate the appearance and maturation of voltage-activated Na(+) current. We divided the peripheral retina into three broad regions (marginal, intermediate, and mature) on the basis of their morphological development. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings were performed in ruptured-patch mode, so that cells from which currents were recorded could be identified by Lucifer Yellow fills. No voltage-activated Na(+) current was detected in the slender, peripherally located marginal cells. Voltage-activated Na(+) currents were detected in rounded cells found alongside or near marginal cells, facing the vitreal side of the retina. Some of these "intermediate cells" had a long axon-like process which ran along the vitreal surface. Intermediate cells adjacent to the marginal region tended to have smaller Na(+) currents than intermediate cells closer to the mature region. On average, the maximum Na(+) current amplitude recorded from intermediate cells was roughly 6-fold smaller than that of mature ganglion cells. In addition, the activation threshold of the Na(+) current in intermediate cells was nearly 14 mV more positive than that of mature ganglion cells. The results indicate that voltage-activated Na(+) current, as a possible marker of retinal ganglion cells, begins to develop well before these cells migrate to their adult position within the retina.

Formation of hippocampal synapses on patterned substrates of a laminin-derived synthetic peptide

We created a new culture system which provides simple, stereotyped neuronal circuitries suitable for investigating synaptic events between mammalian central neurons. We used surface chemistry and laser-lithography to produce geometrical patterns of neuron-compatible substrate spaced by less neuron-compatible surfaces. The patterned substrates were composed of a laminin-derived synthetic peptide, PA22-2, and the spacing surfaces of either decyldimethylsilane (DDMS) or trimethylsilane (TMS). Dissociated rat hippocampal neurons survived on the patterned substrates for several days without the aid of glia and extended their neurites along the substrates. The TMS spacing surfaces appeared more favourable for the excitability development and axonal differentiation of the hippocampal neurons, but less favourable for the development of the resting conductance than the DDMS spacing surfaces. Furthermore, neurons grown on the patterned substrates frequently made synaptophysin-positive contacts with one another. Spontaneous post-synaptic currents recorded from such neurons suggest that these contacts were indeed functional synapses. When hippocampal neurons were plated at a very low density, they often formed circuitries consisting of only two neurons on the patterned substrate. Such a simple circuitry allowed us to analyse synaptic transmission in a single neuronal pair without the influence of the third neurons. With the clarity of analysis and the readiness of manipulation, our culture system would offer a powerful tool for studying development and functions of mammalian central synapses.

Developmental changes in voltage-activated potassium currents of rat retinal ganglion cells

Ca2(+)-independent voltage-activated potassium currents were investigated during the differentiation of rat retinal ganglion cells. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings of Ca2(+)-independent voltage-activated potassium currents and their individual current components, i.e. a sustained, tetraethylammonium-sensitive current, a transient, 4-aminopyridine-sensitive current, and a slowly decaying current that was blocked by Ba2+, revealed distinct ontogenetic modifications in current densities and in activation and inactivation parameters. All three current types were expressed simultaneously at embryonic day 17/18 and were present in all retinal ganglion cells thereafter without showing any significant changes until the end of the first postnatal week. Ca2(+)-independent voltage-activated potassium current densities then increased strongly from postnatal day 8 onwards. Tetraethylammonium-sensitive current density increased about eightfold from 74 pA/pF in embryonic stages to 586 pA/pF in adult cells, whereas the transient potassium currents blocked by 4-aminopyridine increased only about 2.5-fold from 174 pA/pF to 442 pA/pF. The Ba2(+)-sensitive current increased simultaneously from 35 pA/pF to 332 pA/pF. The much higher increase in the sustained current components during retinal ganglion cell differentiation accounted for the changes in decay kinetics of Ca2(+)-independent voltage-activated potassium current observed in later postnatal stages. Alterations in current densities were paralleled by pronounced changes in current kinetics. From postnatal day 8 onwards, activation of Ca2(+)-independent voltage-activated potassium current was right-shifted for about 10 mV owing to a shift in tetraethylammonium-sensitive current-activation, whereas activation of other K+ components remained unaltered. Tetraethylammonium-sensitive current steady-state inactivation was incomplete at all developmental stages. About 50% of the tetraethylammonium-sensitive current elicited by a depolarization to +36 mV did not inactivate after prepulse potentials positive to -10 mV. In contrast, transient potassium current blocked by 4-aminopyridine almost fully inactivated during embryonic stages, whereas in adult retinal ganglion cells about 40% of this current component did not inactivate after prepulse potentials positive to -20 mV. Parallel investigation of the resting membrane potential during retinal ganglion cells differentiation showed an exponential increase from -3 mV at embryonic day 15/16 when no voltage-activated ion currents were expressed to a final value of -58 mV at postnatal day 8. These results show that fundamental potassium current modifications occur relatively late in retinal ganglion cell development and only after the resting potential is at its final value.

Maturation of intrinsic membrane properties in rat retinal ganglion cells

In view of the prominent role of voltage-activated conductances in both neuronal differentiation and signal transmission, the present study describes developmental alterations of ion channel properties during the functional maturation of rat RGCs, i.e., between embryonic day 15 when RGCs start to differentiate (E15) and postnatal day 35 (P35) when the retina is fully developed and the animals had already visual input for about 2 weeks. While the sodium system seems to reach maturity already at the end of the second postnatal week, significant alterations in the potassium system were found only from postnatal day 10 on. The functional implications of these alterations are discussed.

Voltage-activated calcium currents in rat retinal ganglion cells in situ: changes during prenatal and postnatal development

Voltage-activated calcium currents (ICa) are one way by which calcium influx into neurons is mediated. To investigate changes in kinetic properties of ICa during neuronal development and to correlate possible kinetic changes with specific differentiation processes, the ICa of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) was recorded with the perforated patch-clamp technique in rat retinal slices and in whole mounts at different prenatal and postnatal stages. ICa density increased between embryonic day (E) 20 and the adult stage, paralleled by a shift in activation of the omega-conotoxin GVIA-sensitive ICa toward more negative membrane potentials. Furthermore, developmental alterations were observed in ICa inactivation rate during a 120 msec test pulse and in steady-state inactivation of ICa. The most striking feature in ICa kinetics was a transient slowing of calcium current deactivation, which peaked at postnatal day (P)3-5 and affected all ICa subtypes. Although the shift in activation and the decreased inactivation rate of ICa can be explained by differential regulation of distinct calcium channel subtypes, it is more likely that a more general alteration of the cells' functional state was the underlying factor in alterations in steady-state inactivation and current deactivation of ICa. Alterations in the omega-conotoxin GVIA-sensitive and the toxin-resistant currents temporarily coincide with dendritic differentiation, and it is tempting to speculate about their role in network formation in the inner retina. In contrast, alterations in steady-state inactivation and current deactivation may be involved in the regulation of RGC survival, because they occur during the period of programmed cell death in the ganglion cell layer. In conclusion, distinct time windows of alterations in calcium channel properties were found, and this study has provided a basis for performing functional assays to clarify in detail the developmental process to which these alterations are related.