DExD/H-box proteins and their partners: helping RNA helicases unwind

Post-transcriptional regulation of DEAD-box RNA helicases in hematopoietic malignancies

Hematopoiesis represents a meticulously regulated and dynamic biological process. Genetic aberrations affecting blood cells, induced by various factors, frequently give rise to hematological tumors. These instances are often accompanied by a multitude of abnormal post-transcriptional regulatory events, including RNA alternative splicing, RNA localization, RNA degradation, and storage. Notably, post-transcriptional regulation plays a pivotal role in preserving hematopoietic homeostasis. The DEAD-Box RNA helicase genes emerge as crucial post-transcriptional regulatory factors, intricately involved in sustaining normal hematopoiesis through diverse mechanisms such as RNA alternative splicing, RNA modification, and ribosome assembly. This review consolidates the existing knowledge on the role of DEAD-box RNA helicases in regulating normal hematopoiesis and underscores the pathogenicity of mutant DEAD-Box RNA helicases in malignant hematopoiesis. Emphasis is placed on elucidating both the positive and negative contributions of DEAD-box RNA helicases within the hematopoietic system.

DDX RNA helicases: key players in cellular homeostasis and innate antiviral immunity

RNA helicases are integral in RNA metabolism, performing important roles in cellular homeostasis and stress responses. In particular, the DExD/H-box (DDX) helicase family possesses a conserved catalytic core that binds structural features rather than specific sequences in RNA targets. DDXs have critical roles in all aspects of RNA metabolism including ribosome biogenesis, translation, RNA export, and RNA stability. Importantly, functional specialization within this family arises from divergent N and C termini and is driven at least in part by gene duplications with 18 of the 42 human helicases having paralogs. In addition to their key roles in the homeostatic control of cellular RNA, these factors have critical roles in RNA virus infection. The canonical RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) play pivotal roles in cytoplasmic sensing of viral RNA structures, inducing antiviral gene expression. Additional RNA helicases function as viral sensors or regulators, further diversifying the innate immune defense arsenal. Moreover, some of these helicases have been coopted by viruses to facilitate their replication. Altogether, DDX helicases exhibit functional specificity, playing intricate roles in RNA metabolism and host defense. This review will discuss the mechanisms by which these RNA helicases recognize diverse RNA structures in cellular and viral RNAs, and how this impacts RNA processing and innate immune responses.

DEAD Box RNA Helicases: Biochemical Properties, Role in RNA Processing and Ribosome Biogenesis

DEAD box RNA helicases are a versatile group of ATP dependent enzymes that play an essential role in cellular processes like transcription, RNA processing, ribosome biogenesis and translation. These enzymes perform structural rearrangement of complex RNA molecules and enhance the productive folding of RNA and organization of macromolecular complexes. In this review article besides providing the outline about structural organization of helicases, an in-depth discussion will be done on the biochemical properties of RNA helicases like their substrate binding, binding and hydrolysis of ATP and related conformational changes that are important for functioning of the RNA helicase enzymes. I will extensively discuss the physiological role of RNA helicases in RNA processing and ribosome biogenesis.

Identification of Dhx15 as a Major Regulator of Liver Development, Regeneration, and Tumor Growth in Zebrafish and Mice

RNA helicase DHX15 plays a significant role in vasculature development and lung metastasis in vertebrates. In addition, several studies have demonstrated the overexpression of DHX15 in the context of hepatocellular carcinoma. Therefore, we hypothesized that this helicase may play a significant role in liver regeneration, physiology, and pathology. Dhx15 gene deficiency was generated by CRISPR/Cas9 in zebrafish and by TALEN-RNA in mice. AUM Antisense-Oligonucleotides were used to silence Dhx15 in wild-type mice. The hepatocellular carcinoma tumor induction model was generated by subcutaneous injection of Hepa 1-6 cells. Homozygous Dhx15 gene deficiency was lethal in zebrafish and mouse embryos. Dhx15 gene deficiency impaired liver organogenesis in zebrafish embryos and liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy in mice. Also, heterozygous mice presented decreased number and size of liver metastasis after Hepa 1-6 cells injection compared to wild-type mice. Dhx15 gene silencing with AUM Antisense-Oligonucleotides in wild-type mice resulted in 80% reduced expression in the liver and a significant reduction in other major organs. In addition, Dhx15 gene silencing significantly hindered primary tumor growth in the hepatocellular carcinoma experimental model. Regarding the potential use of DHX15 as a diagnostic marker for liver disease, patients with hepatocellular carcinoma showed increased levels of DHX15 in blood samples compared with subjects without hepatic affectation. In conclusion, Dhx15 is a key regulator of liver physiology and organogenesis, is increased in the blood of cirrhotic and hepatocellular carcinoma patients, and plays a key role in controlling hepatocellular carcinoma tumor growth and expansion in experimental models.

A helicase-independent role of DHX15 promotes MYC stability and acute leukemia cell survival

DHX15 has been implicated in RNA splicing and ribosome biogenesis, primarily functioning as an RNA helicase. To systematically assess the cellular role of DHX15, we conducted proteomic analysis to investigate the landscape of DHX15 interactome, and identified MYC as a binding partner. DHX15 co-localizes with MYC in cells and directly interacts with MYC in vitro. Importantly, DHX15 contributes to MYC protein stability at the post-translational level and independent of its RNA binding capacity. Mechanistic investigation reveals that DHX15 interferes the interaction between MYC and FBXW7, thereby preventing MYC polyubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation. Consequently, the abrogation of DHX15 drastically inhibits MYC-mediated transcriptional output. While DHX15 depletion blocks T cell development and leukemia cell survival as we recently reported, overexpression of MYC significantly rescues the phenotypic defects. These findings shed light on the essential role of DHX15 in mammalian cells and suggest that maintaining sufficient MYC expression is a significant contributor to DHX15-mediated cellular functions.

Role of DEAD-box RNA helicases in low-temperature adapted growth of Antarctic Pseudomonas syringae Lz4W

IMPORTANCE

RNA metabolism is important as RNA acts as a link between genomic information and functional biomolecules, thereby playing a critical role in cellular response to environment. We investigated the role of DEAD-box RNA helicases in low-temperature adapted growth of P. syringae, as this group of enzymes play an essential role in modulation of RNA secondary structures. This is the first report on the assessment of all major DEAD-box RNA helicases in any Antarctic bacterium. Of the five RNA helicases, three (srmB, csdA, and dbpA) are important for the growth of the Antarctic P. syringae at low temperature. However, the requisite role of dbpA and the indispensable requirement of csdA for low-temperature adapted growth are a novel finding of this study. Growth analysis of combinatorial deletion strains was performed to understand the functional interaction among helicase genes. Similarly, genetic complementation of RNA helicase mutants was conducted for identification of gene redundancy in P. syringae.

Identification of potential inhibitors targeting yellow fever virus helicase through ligand and structure-based computational studies

Yellow fever is a flavivirus having plus-sensed RNA which encodes a single polyprotein. Host proteases cut this polyprotein into seven nonstructural proteins including a vital NS3 protein. The present study aims to identify the most effective inhibitor against the helicase (NS3) using different advanced ligand and structure-based computational studies. A set of 300 ligands was selected against helicase by chemical structural similarity model, which are similar to S-adenosyl-l-cysteine using infiniSee. This tool screens billions of compounds through a similarity search from in-built chemical spaces (CHEMriya, Galaxi, KnowledgeSpace and REALSpace). The pharmacophore was designed from ligands in the library that showed same features. According to the sequence of ligands, six compounds (29, 87, 99, 116, 148, and 208) were taken for pharmacophore designing against helicase protein. Subsequently, compounds from the library which showed the best pharmacophore shared-features were docked using FlexX functionality of SeeSAR and their optibrium properties were analyzed. Afterward, their ADME was improved by replacing the unfavorable fragments, which resulted in the generation of new compounds. The selected best compounds (301, 302, 303 and 304) were docked using SeeSAR and their pharmacokinetics and toxicological properties were evaluated using SwissADME. The optimal inhibitor for yellow fever helicase was 2-amino-N-(4-(dimethylamino)thiazol-2-yl)-4-methyloxazole-5-carboxamide (302), which exhibits promising potential for drug development.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Structural basis of RNA-induced autoregulation of the DExH-type RNA helicase maleless

RNA unwinding by DExH-type helicases underlies most RNA metabolism and function. It remains unresolved if and how the basic unwinding reaction of helicases is regulated by auxiliary domains. We explored the interplay between the RecA and auxiliary domains of the RNA helicase maleless (MLE) from Drosophila using structural and functional studies. We discovered that MLE exists in a dsRNA-bound open conformation and that the auxiliary dsRBD2 domain aligns the substrate RNA with the accessible helicase tunnel. In an ATP-dependent manner, dsRBD2 associates with the helicase module, leading to tunnel closure around ssRNA. Furthermore, our structures provide a rationale for blunt-ended dsRNA unwinding and 3'-5' translocation by MLE. Structure-based MLE mutations confirm the functional relevance of our model for RNA unwinding. Our findings contribute to our understanding of the fundamental mechanics of auxiliary domains in DExH helicase MLE, which serves as a model for its human ortholog and potential therapeutic target, DHX9/RHA.

The RNA helicase DDX39A binds a conserved structure in chikungunya virus RNA to control infection

Alphaviruses are a large group of re-emerging arthropod-borne RNA viruses. The compact viral RNA genomes harbor diverse structures that facilitate replication. These structures can be recognized by antiviral cellular RNA-binding proteins, including DExD-box (DDX) helicases, that bind viral RNAs to control infection. The full spectrum of antiviral DDXs and the structures that are recognized remain unclear. Genetic screening identified DDX39A as antiviral against the alphavirus chikungunya virus (CHIKV) and other medically relevant alphaviruses. Upon infection, the predominantly nuclear DDX39A accumulates in the cytoplasm inhibiting alphavirus replication, independent of the canonical interferon pathway. Biochemically, DDX39A binds to CHIKV genomic RNA, interacting with the 5' conserved sequence element (5'CSE), which is essential for the antiviral activity of DDX39A. Altogether, DDX39A relocalization and binding to a conserved structural element in the alphavirus genomic RNA attenuates infection, revealing a previously unknown layer to the cellular control of infection.

Transcriptional co-activators: emerging roles in signaling pathways and potential therapeutic targets for diseases

Specific cell states in metazoans are established by the symphony of gene expression programs that necessitate intricate synergic interactions between transcription factors and the co-activators. Deregulation of these regulatory molecules is associated with cell state transitions, which in turn is accountable for diverse maladies, including developmental disorders, metabolic disorders, and most significantly, cancer. A decade back most transcription factors, the key enablers of disease development, were historically viewed as 'undruggable'; however, in the intervening years, a wealth of literature validated that they can be targeted indirectly through transcriptional co-activators, their confederates in various physiological and molecular processes. These co-activators, along with transcription factors, have the ability to initiate and modulate transcription of diverse genes necessary for normal physiological functions, whereby, deregulation of such interactions may foster tissue-specific disease phenotype. Hence, it is essential to analyze how these co-activators modulate specific multilateral processes in coordination with other factors. The proposed review attempts to elaborate an in-depth account of the transcription co-activators, their involvement in transcription regulation, and context-specific contributions to pathophysiological conditions. This review also addresses an issue that has not been dealt with in a comprehensive manner and hopes to direct attention towards future research that will encompass patient-friendly therapeutic strategies, where drugs targeting co-activators will have enhanced benefits and reduced side effects. Additional insights into currently available therapeutic interventions and the associated constraints will eventually reveal multitudes of advanced therapeutic targets aiming for disease amelioration and good patient prognosis.

The nuclear-localized RNA helicase 13 is essential for chloroplast development in Arabidopsis thaliana

The chloroplast is a semi-autonomous organelle with a double membrane structure, and its structural stability is a prerequisite for its correct function. Chloroplast development is regulated by known nuclear-encoded chloroplast proteins or proteins encoded within the chloroplast itself. However, the mechanism of chloroplast development regulated by other organelles remains largely unknown. Here, we report that the nuclear-localized DEAD-box RNA helicase 13 (RH13) is essential for chloroplast development in Arabidopsis thaliana. RH13 is widely expressed in tissues and localized to the nucleolus. A homozygous rh13 mutant shows abnormal chloroplast structure and leaf morphogenesis. Proteomic analysis showed that the expression levels of photosynthesis-related proteins in chloroplasts were reduced due to loss of RH13. Furthermore, RNA-sequencing and proteomics data revealed decreases in the expression levels of these chloroplast-related genes, which undergo alternative splicing events in the rh13 mutant. Taken together, we propose that nucleolus-localized RH13 is critical for chloroplast development in Arabidopsis.

Molecular simulations of DEAH-box helicases reveal control of domain flexibility by ligands: RNA, ATP, ADP, and G-patch proteins

DEAH-box helicases use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to translocate along RNA strands. They are composed of tandem RecA-like domains and a C-terminal domain connected by flexible linkers, and the activity of several DEAH-box helicases is regulated by cofactors called G-patch proteins. We used all-atom molecular dynamics simulations of the helicases Prp43, Prp22, and DHX15 in various liganded states to investigate how RNA, ADP, ATP, or G-patch proteins influence their conformational dynamics. The simulations suggest that apo helicases are highly flexible, whereas binding of RNA renders the helicases more rigid. ATP and ADP control the stability of the RecA1-RecA2 interface, but they have only a smaller effect on domain flexibility in absence of a RecA1-RecA2 interface. Binding of a G-patch protein to DHX15 imposes a more structured conformational ensemble, characterized by more defined relative domain arrangements and by an increased conformational stability of the RNA tunnel. However, the effect of the G-patch protein on domain dynamics is far more subtle as compared to the effects of RNA or ATP/ADP. The simulations characterize DEAH-box helicase as dynamic machines whose conformational ensembles are strongly defined by the presence of RNA, ATP, or ADP and only fine-tuned by the presence of G-patch proteins.

The DEAD-box RNA helicase, DDX60, Suppresses immunotherapy and promotes malignant progression of pancreatic cancer

Excessive proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and immune resistance in pancreatic cancer (PC) makes it one of the most lethal malignant tumors. Recently, DDX60 was found to be involved in the development of various tumors and in immunotherapy. Therefore, we aimed to investigate whether DDX60 is a new factor involved in PC immunotherapy. The DDX60 mRNA was screened using transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq). The Cox and survival analysis of DDX60 was performed using the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) databases. In addition, clinical and immune infiltration data in the databases were analyzed and plotted using the R language. Clinical samples and in vitro experiments were used to determine the molecular evolution of DDX60 during PC progression. We found that DDX60 was upregulated in PC tissues (P value = 0.0083) and was associated with poor prognosis and short survival time of patients with PC. Results of Gene Ontology, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes, and gene set variation analyses showed that viral defense, tumor, and immune-related pathways were significantly enriched in samples with high DDX60 expression. The Pearson correlation test demonstrated that DDX60 expression correlated strongly with immune checkpoint and immune system-related metagene clusters. Our results indicated that DDX60 promoted cell proliferation, migration, and invasion and was related to poor prognosis and immune resistance. Therefore, DDX60 may be a promising novel target for PC immunotherapy.

Cytoplasmic ribonucleoprotein complexes, RNA helicases and coronavirus infection

RNA metabolism in the eukaryotic cell includes the formation of ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNPs) that, depending on their protein components, have a different function. Cytoplasmic RNPs, such as stress granules (SGs) or P-bodies (PBs) are quite relevant during infections modulating viral and cellular RNA expression and as key players in the host cell antiviral response. RNA helicases are abundant components of RNPs and could have a significant effect on viral infection. This review focuses in the role that RNPs and RNA helicases have during coronavirus (CoVs) infection. CoVs are emerging highly pathogenic viruses with a large single-stranded RNA genome. During CoV infection, a complex network of RNA-protein interactions in different RNP structures is established. In general, RNA helicases and RNPs have an antiviral function, but there is limited knowledge on whether the viral protein interactions with cell components are mediators of this antiviral effect or are part of the CoV antiviral counteraction mechanism. Additional data is needed to elucidate the role of these RNA-protein interactions during CoV infection and their potential contribution to viral replication or pathogenesis.

eIF4A3 Promotes RNA Viruses’ Replication by Inhibiting Innate Immune Responses

Production of type I IFN is pivotal for the cellular antiviral immunity. Virus infection leads to the activation of transcription factor IRF3 and subsequent production of type I IFN to eliminate viral infection.

The SSU Processome Component Utp25p is a Pseudohelicase

RNA helicases are involved in nearly all aspects of RNA metabolism and factor prominently in ribosome assembly. The SSU processome includes 10 helicases and many helicase-cofactors. Together, they mediate the structural rearrangements that occur as part of ribosomal SSU assembly. During the identification of the SSU processome component Utp25/Def, it was noticed that the protein displays some sequence similarity to DEAD-box RNA helicases and is essential for growth. Interestingly, mutational ablation showed that Utp25's DEAD-box motifs are dispensable. Here, we show that the Utp25 AlphaFold prediction displays considerable structural similarity to DEAD-box helicases and is the first fully validated pseudohelicase.

Molecular docking, synthesis, and biological evaluation of 7-azaindole-derivative (7AID) as novel anti-cancer agent and potent DDX3 inhibitor:-an in silico and in vitro approach

The DEAD-box helicase family member DDX3 is involved in many diseases, such as viral infection, inflammation, and cancer. Many studies in the last decade have revealed the role of DDX3 in tumorigenesis and metastasis. DDX3 has both tumour suppressor and oncogenic effect, in the present study we have evaluated the expression levels of DDX3 in cervical squamous cell carcinoma at mRNA level via real-time PCR and protein level via Immunohistochemistry. DDX3 has become a molecule of interest in cancer biology that promotes drug resistance by adaptive response inevitably leading to treatment failure. One approach to avoid the development of resistant to disease is to create novel drugs that target the overexpressed proteins, we designed and synthesized a novel 7-azaindole derivative (7-AID) compound, {5-[1H-pyrrolo (2, 3-b) pyridin-5-yl] pyridin-2-ol]} that could lodge within the adenosine-binding pocket of the DDX3 (PDB ID: 2I4I). The binding efficacy of 7-AID compound with DDX3 was analysed by molecular docking studies. 7-AID was found to interact with the key residues Tyr200 and Arg202 from the Q-motif rendered by π-interactions and hydrogen bonds within the binding pocket with good docking score - 7.99 kcal/mol. The cytotoxicity effect of 7-AID compound was evaluated using MTT assay on human cervical carcinoma cells (HeLa) and breast cancer cells (MCF-7 and MDA MB-231) and the compound shown effective inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) on Hela cells 16.96 µM/ml and 14.12 and 12.69 µM/ml on MCF-7 and MDA MB-231, respectively. Further, the in-vitro, in-vivo anti-cancer and anti-angiogenic assessment of 7-AID compound was evaluated on Hela cells using scratch wound-healing assay, DAPI staining, cell cycle analysis, immunoblotting, and chorioallontoic membrane assay. Furthermore, the inhibitory effect of derivative compound on DDX3 was investigated in HeLa, MCF-7, and MDA MB-231 cells at the mRNA and protein levels. The results showed that the 7-AID compound effectively inhibited DDX3 in a dose-dependent manner, and the findings suggest that the compound could be used as a potential DDX3 inhibitor.

The DDX39B/FUT3/TGFβR-I axis promotes tumor metastasis and EMT in colorectal cancer

DDX39B is a member of the DEAD box (DDX) RNA helicase family required for nearly all cellular RNA metabolic processes. The exact role and potential molecular mechanism of DDX39B in the progression of human colorectal cancer (CRC) remain to be investigated. In the present study, we demonstrate that DDX39B expression is higher in CRC tissues than in adjacent normal tissues. Gain- and loss-of-function assays revealed that DDX39B facilitates CRC metastasis in vivo and in vitro. Mechanistically, RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) and RNA-binding protein immunoprecipitation-sequencing (RIP-seq) showed that DDX39B binds directly to the FUT3 pre-mRNA and upregulates FUT3 expression. Splicing experiments in vitro using a Minigene assay confirmed that DDX39B promotes FUT3 pre-mRNA splicing. A nuclear and cytoplasmic RNA separation assay indicates that DDX39B enhances the mRNA export of FUT3. Upregulation of FUT3 accelerates the fucosylation of TGFβR-I, which activates the TGFβ signaling pathway and eventually drives the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) program and contributes to CRC progression. These findings not only provide new insight into the role of DDX39B in mRNA splicing and export as well as in tumorigenesis, but also shed light on the effects of aberrant fucosylation on CRC progression.

Known Inhibitors of RNA Helicases and Their Therapeutic Potential

RNA helicases are proteins found in all kingdoms of life, and they are associated with all processes involving RNA from transcription to decay. They use NTP binding and hydrolysis to unwind duplexes, to remodel RNA structures and protein-RNA complexes, and to facilitate the unidirectional metabolism of biological processes. Viral, bacterial, and eukaryotic parasites have an intimate need for RNA helicases in their reproduction. Moreover, various disorders, like cancers, are often associated with a perturbation of the host's helicase activity. Thus, RNA helicases provide a rich source of targets for the development of therapeutic or prophylactic drugs. In this review, we provide an overview of the different targeting strategies against helicases, the different types of compounds explored, the proposed inhibitory mechanisms of the compounds on the proteins, and the therapeutic potential of these compounds in the treatment of various disorders.

Structural basis for DEAH-helicase activation by G-patch proteins

RNA helicases exert mechanical force that changes RNA configurations in many essential cellular pathways, e.g., during mRNA maturation or assembly of ribosomes. DEAH helicases work by translocating along RNA and thereby unwind RNA duplexes or dissociate bound proteins. Because DEAH proteins are poor enzymes without intrinsic selectivity for target RNAs, they require adapter proteins that recruit them to functional sites and enhance their catalytic activity. One essential class of DEAH activators is formed by G-patch proteins, which bind helicases via their eponymous glycine-rich motif. We solved the structure of a G-patch bound to helicase DHX15. Our analysis suggests that G-patches tether mobile sections of DEAH helicases together and activate them by stabilizing a functional conformation with high RNA affinity.

RNA helicases of the DEAH/RHA family are involved in many essential cellular processes, such as splicing or ribosome biogenesis, where they remodel large RNA–protein complexes to facilitate transitions to the next intermediate. DEAH helicases couple adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis to conformational changes of their catalytic core. This movement results in translocation along RNA, which is held in place by auxiliary C-terminal domains. The activity of DEAH proteins is strongly enhanced by the large and diverse class of G-patch activators. Despite their central roles in RNA metabolism, insight into the molecular basis of G-patch–mediated helicase activation is missing. Here, we have solved the structure of human helicase DHX15/Prp43, which has a dual role in splicing and ribosome assembly, in complex with the G-patch motif of the ribosome biogenesis factor NKRF. The G-patch motif binds in an extended conformation across the helicase surface. It tethers the catalytic core to the flexibly attached C-terminal domains, thereby fixing a conformation that is compatible with RNA binding. Structures in the presence or absence of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) suggest that motions of the catalytic core, which are required for ATP binding, are still permitted. Concomitantly, RNA affinity, helicase, and ATPase activity of DHX15 are increased when G-patch is bound. Mutations that detach one end of the tether but maintain overall binding severely impair this enhancement. Collectively, our data suggest that the G-patch motif acts like a flexible brace between dynamic portions of DHX15 that restricts excessive domain motions but maintains sufficient flexibility for catalysis.

Comparative Genomics and Evolutionary Analysis of RNA-Binding Proteins of Burkholderia cenocepacia J2315 and Other Members of the B. cepacia Complex

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) are important regulators of cellular functions, playing critical roles on the survival of bacteria and in the case of pathogens, on their interaction with the host. RBPs are involved in transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and translational processes. However, except for model organisms like Escherichia coli, there is little information about the identification or characterization of RBPs in other bacteria, namely in members of the Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc). Bcc is a group of bacterial species associated with a poor clinical prognosis in cystic fibrosis patients. These species have some of the largest bacterial genomes, and except for the presence of two-distinct Hfq-like proteins, their RBP repertoire has not been analyzed so far. Using in silico approaches, we identified 186 conventional putative RBPs in Burkholderia cenocepacia J2315, an epidemic and multidrug resistant pathogen of cystic fibrosis patients. Here we describe the comparative genomics and phylogenetic analysis of RBPs present in multiple copies and predicted to play a role in transcription, protein synthesis, and RNA decay in Bcc bacteria. In addition to the two different Hfq chaperones, five cold shock proteins phylogenetically close to E. coli CspD protein and three distinct RhlE-like helicases could be found in the B. cenocepacia J2315 genome. No RhlB, SrmB, or DeaD helicases could be found in the genomes of these bacteria. These results, together with the multiple copies of other proteins generally involved in RNA degradation, suggest the existence, in B. cenocepacia and in other Bcc bacteria, of some extra and unexplored functions for the mentioned RBPs, as well as of alternative mechanisms involved in RNA regulation and metabolism in these bacteria.

Mitochondria Associated Germinal Structures in Spermatogenesis: piRNA Pathway Regulation and Beyond

Multiple specific granular structures are present in the cytoplasm of germ cells, termed nuage, which are electron-dense, non-membranous, close to mitochondria and/or nuclei, variant size yielding to different compartments harboring different components, including intermitochondrial cement (IMC), piP-body, and chromatoid body (CB). Since mitochondria exhibit different morphology and topographical arrangements to accommodate specific needs during spermatogenesis, the distribution of mitochondria-associated nuage is also dynamic. The most relevant nuage structure with mitochondria is IMC, also called pi-body, present in prospermatogonia, spermatogonia, and spermatocytes. IMC is primarily enriched with various Piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) proteins and mainly functions as piRNA biogenesis, transposon silencing, mRNA translation, and mitochondria fusion. Importantly, our previous work reported that mitochondria-associated ER membranes (MAMs) are abundant in spermatogenic cells and contain many crucial proteins associated with the piRNA pathway. Provocatively, IMC functionally communicates with other nuage structures, such as piP-body, to perform its complex functions in spermatogenesis. Although little is known about the formation of both IMC and MAMs, its distinctive characters have attracted considerable attention. Here, we review the insights gained from studying the structural components of mitochondria-associated germinal structures, including IMC, CB, and MAMs, which are pivotal structures to ensure genome integrity and male fertility. We discuss the roles of the structural components in spermatogenesis and piRNA biogenesis, which provide new insights into mitochondria-associated germinal structures in germ cell development and male reproduction.

Biochemical characterization of Plasmodium falciparum parasite specific helicase 1 (PfPSH1)

Malaria, a disease caused by infection with parasites of the genus Plasmodium, causes millions of deaths worldwide annually. Of the five Plasmodium species that can infect humans, Plasmodium falciparum causes the most serious parasitic infection. The emergence of drug resistance and the ineffectiveness of old therapeutic regimes against malaria mean there is an urgent need to better understand the basic biology of the malaria parasite. Previously, we have reported the presence of parasite‐specific helicases identified through genome‐wide analysis of the P. falciparum (3D7) strain. Helicases are involved in various biological pathways in addition to nucleic acid metabolism, making them an important target of study. Here, we report the detailed biochemical characterization of P. falciparum parasite‐specific helicase 1 (PfPSH1) and the effect of phosphorylation on its biochemical activities. The C‐terminal of PfPSH1 (PfPSH1C) containing all conserved domains was used for biochemical characterization. PfPSH1C exhibits DNA‐ or ribonucleic acid (RNA)‐stimulated ATPase activity, and it can unwind DNA and RNA duplex substrates. It shows bipolar directionality because it can translocate in both (3′–5′ and 5′–3′) directions. PfPSH1 is mainly localized to the cytoplasm during early stages (including ring and trophozoite stages of intraerythrocytic development), but at late stages, it is partially located in the cytoplasm. The biochemical activities of PfPSH1 are upregulated after phosphorylation with PKC. The detailed biochemical characterization of PfPSH1 will help us understand its functional role in the parasite and pave the way for future studies.

DDX56 inhibits type I interferon by disrupting assembly of IRF3-IPO5 to inhibit IRF3 nucleus import

Transcription factor IRF3-mediated type I interferon induction plays a role in antiviral innate immunity. However, mechanisms for the control and regulation of IRF3 nuclear import remain largely unknown. We have identified DEAD box polypeptide 56 (DDX56) as a negative regulator of virus-triggered IFN-β induction. Overexpression of DDX56 suppressed nuclear translocation of IRF3 via disrupting the IRF3–IOP5 interaction, whereas knockdown or knockout of DDX56 had the opposite effect. In addition, the interaction between DDX56 and IRF3 increased during viral infection. We further found that the D166 site of DDX56 was essential for inhibiting IRF3 import into the nucleus. Our findings suggest that DDX56 regulates antiviral innate immunity by inhibiting the nuclear translocation of IRF3, revealing a novel mechanism of the DDX56-mediated innate antiviral response.

This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Summary: DDX56 is a negative regulator of virus-triggered IFN-β induction that acts by disruputing the IRF3–IOP5 interaction to inhibit the import of IRF3 into the nucleus.

Plasmodium falciparum specific helicase 2 is a dual, bipolar helicase and is crucial for parasite growth

Human malaria infection is a major challenge across the globe and is responsible for millions of deaths annually. Rapidly emerging drug resistant strains against the new class of anti-malarial drugs are major threat to control the disease burden worldwide. Helicases are present in every organism and have important role in various nucleic acid metabolic processes. Previously we have reported the presence of three parasite specific helicases (PSH) in Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 strain. Here we present the detailed biochemical characterization of PfPSH2. PfPSH2 is DNA and RNA stimulated ATPase and is able to unwind partially duplex DNA and RNA substrates. It can translocate in both 3' to 5' and 5' to 3' directions. PfPSH2 is expressed in all the stages of intraerythrocytic development and it is localized in cytoplasm in P. falciparum 3D7 strain. The dsRNA mediated inhibition study suggests that PfPSH2 is important for the growth and survival of the parasite. This study presents the detailed characterization of PfPSH2 and lays the foundation for future development of PfPSH2 as drug target.

O-GlcNAcylation promotes colorectal cancer progression by regulating protein stability and potential catcinogenic function of DDX5

The RNA helicase p68 (DDX5), a key player in RNA metabolism, belongs to the DEAD box family and is involved in the development of colorectal cancer. Here, we found both DDX5 and O‐GlcNAcylation are up‐regulated in colorectal cancer. In addition, DDX5 protein level is significantly positively correlated with the expression of O‐GlcNAcylation. Although it was known DDX5 protein could be regulated by post‐translational modification (PTM), how O‐GlcNAcylation modification regulated of DDX5 remains unclear. Here we show that DDX5 interacts directly with OGT in the SW480 cell line, which is the only known enzyme that catalyses O‐GlcNAcylation in humans. Meanwhile, O‐GlcNAcylation could promote DDX5 protein stability. The OGT‐DDX5 axis affects colorectal cancer progression mainly by regulating activation of the AKT/mTOR signalling pathway. Taken together, these results indicated that OGT‐mediated O‐GlcNAcylation stabilizes DDX5, promoting activation of the AKT/mTOR signalling pathway, thus accelerating colorectal cancer progression. This study not only reveals the novel functional of O‐GlcNAcylation in regulating DDX5, but also reveals the carcinogenic effect of the OGT‐DDX5 axis in colorectal cancer.

Insights into the Structure of Dimeric RNA Helicase CsdA and Indispensable Role of Its C-Terminal Regions

CsdA has been proposed to be essential for the biogenesis of ribosome and gene regulation after cold shock. However, the structure of CsdA and the function of its long C-terminal regions are still unclear. Here, we solved all of the domain structures of CsdA and found two previously uncharacterized auxiliary domains: a dimerization domain (DD) and an RNA-binding domain (RBD). Small-angle X-ray scattering experiments helped to track the conformational flexibilities of the helicase core domains and C-terminal regions. Biochemical assays revealed that DD is indispensable for stabilizing the CsdA dimeric structure. We also demonstrate for the first time that CsdA functions as a stable dimer at low temperature. The C-terminal regions are critical for RNA binding and efficient enzymatic activities. CsdA_RBD could specifically bind to the regions with a preference for single-stranded G-rich RNA, which may help to bring the helicase core to unwind the adjacent duplex.

Chlorosis caused by two recessively interacting genes reveals a role of RNA helicase in hybrid breakdown in Arabidopsis thaliana

Hybrids often differ in fitness from their parents. They may be superior, translating into hybrid vigour or heterosis, but they may also be markedly inferior, because of hybrid weakness or incompatibility. The underlying genetic causes for the latter can often be traced back to genes that evolve rapidly because of sexual or host-pathogen conflicts. Hybrid weakness may manifest itself only in later generations, in a phenomenon called hybrid breakdown. We have characterized a case of hybrid breakdown among two Arabidopsis thaliana accessions, Shahdara (Sha, Tajikistan) and Lövvik-5 (Lov-5, Northern Sweden). In addition to chlorosis, a fraction of the F₂ plants have defects in leaf and embryo development, and reduced photosynthetic efficiency. Hybrid chlorosis is due to two major-effect loci, of which one, originating from Lov-5, appears to encode an RNA helicase (AtRH18). To examine the role of the chlorosis allele in the Lövvik area, in addition to eight accessions collected in 2009, we collected another 240 accessions from 15 collections sites, including Lövvik, from Northern Sweden in 2015. Genotyping revealed that Lövvik collection site is separated from the rest. Crosses between 109 accessions from this area and Sha revealed 85 cases of hybrid chlorosis, indicating that the chlorosis-causing allele is common in this area. These results suggest that hybrid breakdown alleles not only occur at rapidly evolving loci, but also at genes that code for conserved processes.

DDX59 promotes DNA replication in lung adenocarcinoma

DEAD box proteins are multifunctional proteins involved in every aspect in RNA metabolism and have essential roles in many cellular activities. Despite their importance, many DEAD box proteins remain uncharacterized. In this report, we found DDX59 overexpressed in lung adenocarcinoma. DDX59 knockdown reduced cell proliferation, anchorage-independent cell growth, and caused reduction of tumor formation in immunocompromised mice. In multiple lung cancer cells, we found that DDX59 knockdown inhibits DNA synthesis; wild-type DDX59 but not helicase-defective mutant of DDX59 enhances DNA synthesis. DDX59 knockdown caused reduction of MCM protein levels, decreased the loading of MCM ring protein onto chromatin, and therefore inhibited DNA replication. Our study reveals for the first time that DDX59 has an important role in lung cancer development through promoting DNA replication.

Chloroplast- or Mitochondria-Targeted DEAD-Box RNA Helicases Play Essential Roles in Organellar RNA Metabolism and Abiotic Stress Responses

The yields and productivity of crops are greatly diminished by various abiotic stresses, including drought, cold, heat, and high salinity. Chloroplasts and mitochondria are cellular organelles that can sense diverse environmental stimuli and alter gene expression to cope with adverse environmental stresses. Organellar gene expression is mainly regulated at posttranscriptional levels, including RNA processing, intron splicing, RNA editing, RNA turnover, and translational control, during which a variety of nucleus-encoded RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) are targeted to chloroplasts or mitochondria where they play essential roles in organellar RNA metabolism. DEAD-box RNA helicases (RHs) are enzymes that can alter RNA structures and affect RNA metabolism in all living organisms. Although a number of DEAD-box RHs have been found to play important roles in RNA metabolism in the nucleus and cytoplasm, our understanding on the roles of DEAD-box RHs in the regulation of RNA metabolism in chloroplasts and mitochondria is only at the beginning. Considering that organellar RNA metabolism and gene expression are tightly regulated by anterograde signaling from the nucleus, it is imperative to determine the functions of nucleus-encoded organellar RBPs. In this review, we summarize the emerging roles of nucleus-encoded chloroplast- or mitochondria-targeted DEAD-box RHs in organellar RNA metabolism and plant response to diverse abiotic stresses.

A temperature-sensitive allele of a putative mRNA splicing helicase down-regulates many cell wall genes and causes radial swelling in Arabidopsis thaliana

The putative RNA helicase encoded by the Arabidopsis gene At1g32490 is a homolog of the yeast splicing RNA helicases Prp2 and Prp22. We isolated a temperature-sensitive allele (rsw12) of the gene in a screen for root radial swelling mutants. Plants containing this allele grown at the restrictive temperature showed weak radial swelling, were stunted with reduced root elongation, and contained reduced levels of cellulose. The role of the protein was further explored by microarray analysis. By using both fold change cutoffs and a weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA) to investigate coexpression of genes, we found that the radial swelling phenotype was not linked to genes usually associated with primary cell wall biosynthesis. Instead, the mutation has strong effects on expression of secondary cell wall related genes. Many genes potentially associated with secondary walls were present in the most significant WGCNA module, as were genes coding for arabinogalactans and proteins with GPI anchors. The proportion of up-regulated genes that possess introns in rsw12 was above that expected if splicing was unrelated to the activity of the RNA helicase, suggesting that the helicase does indeed play a role in splicing in Arabidopsis. The phenotype may be due to a change in the expression of one or more genes coding for cell wall proteins.

BRR2a Affects Flowering Time via FLC Splicing

Several pathways control time to flowering in Arabidopsis thaliana through transcriptional and posttranscriptional gene regulation. In recent years, mRNA processing has gained interest as a critical regulator of flowering time control in plants. However, the molecular mechanisms linking RNA splicing to flowering time are not well understood. In a screen for Arabidopsis early flowering mutants we identified an allele of BRR2a. BRR2 proteins are components of the spliceosome and highly conserved in eukaryotes. Arabidopsis BRR2a is ubiquitously expressed in all analyzed tissues and involved in the processing of flowering time gene transcripts, most notably FLC. A missense mutation of threonine 895 in BRR2a caused defects in FLC splicing and greatly reduced FLC transcript levels. Reduced FLC expression increased transcription of FT and SOC1 leading to early flowering in both short and long days. Genome-wide experiments established that only a small set of introns was not correctly spliced in the brr2a mutant. Compared to control introns, retained introns were often shorter and GC-poor, had low H3K4me1 and CG methylation levels, and were often derived from genes with a high-H3K27me3-low-H3K36me3 signature. We propose that BRR2a is specifically needed for efficient splicing of a subset of introns characterized by a combination of factors including intron size, sequence and chromatin, and that FLC is most sensitive to splicing defects.

Timing of flowering has a great effect on reproductive success and fitness. It is controlled by many external signals and internal states involving a large set of genes. Here we report that the Arabidopsis thaliana BRR2a gene is needed for normal flowering. BRR2 proteins are components of the spliceosome and highly conserved in eukaryotes. BRR2a is needed for splicing of a subset of introns, most noticeably in the transcript of the flowering repressor FLC. Reduced FLC expression increased transcription of key floral activators, leading to early flowering in both short and long days. Genome-wide experiments established that full BRR2a activity was required only for a small group of introns. We propose that uncompromised BRR2a activity is most important for efficient splicing of a subset of introns of particular size, sequence and chromatin composition, and that FLC is most sensitive to splicing defects.

The ATP-dependent RNA helicase HrpB plays an important role in motility and biofilm formation in Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri

BACKGROUND

RNA helicases are enzymes that catalyze the separation of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) using the free energy of ATP binding and hydrolysis. DEAD/DEAH families participate in many different aspects of RNA metabolism, including RNA synthesis, RNA folding, RNA-RNA interactions, RNA localization and RNA degradation. Several important bacterial DEAD/DEAH-box RNA helicases have been extensively studied. In this study, we characterize the ATP-dependent RNA helicase encoded by the hrpB (XAC0293) gene using deletion and genetic complementation assays. We provide insights into the function of the hrpB gene in Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri by investigating the roles of hrpB in biofilm formation on abiotic surfaces and host leaves, cell motility, host virulence of the citrus canker bacterium and growth in planta.

RESULTS

The hrpB gene is highly conserved in the sequenced strains of Xanthomonas. Mutation of the hrpB gene (∆hrpB) resulted in a significant reduction in biofilms on abiotic surfaces and host leaves. ∆hrpB also exhibited increased cell dispersion on solid medium plates. ∆hrpB showed reduced adhesion on biotic and abiotic surfaces and delayed development in disease symptoms when sprayed on susceptible citrus leaves. Quantitative reverse transcription-PCR assays indicated that deletion of hrpB reduced the expression of four type IV pili genes. The transcriptional start site of fimA (XAC3241) was determined using rapid amplification of 5'-cDNA Ends (5'RACE). Based on the results of fimA mRNA structure predictions, the fimA 5' UTR may contain three different loops. HrpB may be involved in alterations to the structure of fimA mRNA that promote the stability of fimA RNA.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data show that hrpB is involved in adherence of Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri to different surfaces. In addition, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that a DEAH RNA helicase has been implicated in the regulation of type IV pili in Xanthomonas.

Identification of DDX39A as a Potential Biomarker for Unfavorable Neuroblastoma Using a Proteomic Approach

BACKGROUND

Malignant potential in unfavorable neuroblastoma (NB) is dependent on an undifferentiated status. The aim of this study was to identify a novel biomarker associated with the undifferentiated status of NB in vitro and to evaluate its prognostic implication.

PROCEDURE

Shotgun proteomic analysis was performed in undifferentiated and all trans-retinoic acid induced differentiated NB cells in vitro. An identified protein was verified by multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) and evaluated by Western blot analysis. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was used to examine the expression of the identified protein in 33 primary NB tissues.

RESULTS

Twelve proteins, including ATP-dependent RNA helicase (DDX39A), were only detected in undifferentiated NB cells. A peptide of DDX39A was detected at a significantly higher level in undifferentiated IMR-32 (P = 0.002) and LA-N-1 (P < 0.001) cells by MRM. Western blot analysis revealed that DDX39A expression was significantly higher in undifferentiated IMR-32 (P = 0.02) and LA-N-1 (P = 0.025) cells. IHC demonstrated that DDX39A was highly expressed in the primary tumor tissues of patients with poor prognosis, and univariate and multivariate survival analyses showed that DDX39A expression could be an independent unfavorable prognostic factor (P = 0.027).

CONCLUSIONS

DDX39A is a potential biomarker for unfavorable NB using a proteomic approach. Evaluation of DDX39A protein expression in NB tumor tissues may provide complementary prognostic information for further subclassification of these tumors.

Characterization of RNA Helicase CshA and Its Role in Protecting mRNAs and Small RNAs of Staphylococcus aureus Strain Newman

The toxin MazFsa in Staphylococcus aureus is a sequence-specific endoribonuclease that cleaves the majority of the mRNAs in vivo but spares many essential mRNAs (e.g., secY mRNA) and, surprisingly, an mRNA encoding a regulatory protein (i.e., sarA mRNA). We hypothesize that some mRNAs may be protected by RNA-binding protein(s) from degradation by MazFsa. Using heparin-Sepharose-enriched fractions that hybridized to sarA mRNA on Northwestern blots, we identified among multiple proteins the DEAD box RNA helicase CshA (NWMN_1985 or SA1885) by mass spectroscopy. Purified CshA exhibits typical RNA helicase activities, as exemplified by RNA-dependent ATPase activity and unwinding of the DNA-RNA duplex. A severe growth defect was observed in the cshA mutant compared with the parent when grown at 25°C but not at 37°C. Activation of MazFsa in the cshA mutant resulted in lower CFU per milliliter accompanied by a precipitous drop in viability (∼40%) compared to those of the parent and complemented strains. NanoString analysis reveals diminished expression of a small number of mRNAs and 22 small RNAs (sRNAs) in the cshA mutant versus the parent upon MazFsa induction, thus implying protection of these RNAs by CshA. In the case of the sRNA teg049 within the sarA locus, we showed that the protective effect was likely due to transcript stability as revealed by reduced half-life in the cshA mutant versus the parent. Accordingly, CshA likely stabilizes selective mRNAs and sRNAs in vivo and as a result enhances S. aureus survival upon MazFsa induction during stress.

Utp14 Recruits and Activates the RNA Helicase Dhr1 To Undock U3 snoRNA from the Preribosome

In eukaryotic ribosome biogenesis, U3 snoRNA base pairs with the pre-rRNA to promote its processing. However, U3 must be removed to allow folding of the central pseudoknot, a key feature of the small subunit. Previously, we showed that the DEAH/RHA RNA helicase Dhr1 dislodges U3 from the pre-rRNA. DHR1 can be linked to UTP14, encoding an essential protein of the preribosome, through genetic interactions with the rRNA methyltransferase Bud23. Here, we report that Utp14 regulates Dhr1. Mutations within a discrete region of Utp14 reduced interaction with Dhr1 that correlated with reduced function of Utp14. These mutants accumulated Dhr1 and U3 in a pre-40S particle, mimicking a helicase-inactive Dhr1 mutant. This similarity in the phenotypes led us to propose that Utp14 activates Dhr1. Indeed, Utp14 formed a complex with Dhr1 and stimulated its unwinding activity in vitro. Moreover, the utp14 mutants that mimicked a catalytically inactive dhr1 mutant in vivo showed reduced stimulation of unwinding activity in vitro. Dhr1 binding to the preribosome was substantially reduced only when both Utp14 and Bud23 were depleted. Thus, Utp14 is bifunctional; together with Bud23, it is needed for stable interaction of Dhr1 with the preribosome, and Utp14 activates Dhr1 to dislodge U3.

Ketorolac salt is a newly discovered DDX3 inhibitor to treat oral cancer

DDX3 belongs to DEAD box RNA helicase family and is involved in the progression of several types of cancer. In this work, we employed a High Throughput Virtual screening approach to identify bioactive compounds against DDX3 from ZINC natural database. Ketorolac salt was selected based on its binding free energy less than or equals to −5 Kcal/mol with reference to existing synthetic DDX3 inhibitors and strong hydrogen bond interactions as similar to crystallized DDX3 protein (2I4I). The anti-cancer activity of Ketorolac salt against DDX3 was tested using oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cell lines. This compound significantly down regulated the expression of DDX3 in human OSCC line (H357) and the half maximal growth inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of Ketorolac salt in H357 cell line is 2.6 µM. Ketorolac salt also inhibited the ATP hydrolysis by directly interacting with DDX3. More importantly, we observed decreased number of neoplastic tongue lesions and reduced lesion severity in Ketorolac salt treated groups in a carcinogen induced tongue tumor mouse model. Taken together, our result demonstrates that Ketorolac salt is a newly discovered bioactive compound against DDX3 and this compound can be used as an ideal drug candidate to treat DDX3 associated oral cancer.

DEAD-box RNA helicase Dbp4 is required for small-subunit processome formation and function

DEAD-box RNA helicase Dbp4 is required for 18S rRNA synthesis: cellular depletion of Dbp4 impairs the early cleavage reactions of the pre-rRNA and causes U14 small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) to remain associated with pre-rRNA. Immunoprecipitation experiments (IPs) carried out with whole-cell extracts (WCEs) revealed that hemagglutinin (HA)-tagged Dbp4 is associated with U3 snoRNA but not with U14 snoRNA. IPs with WCEs also showed association with the U3-specific protein Mpp10, which suggests that Dbp4 interacts with the functionally active U3 RNP; this particle, called the small-subunit (SSU) processome, can be observed at the 5' end of nascent pre-rRNA. Electron microscopy analyses indicated that depletion of Dbp4 compromised SSU processome formation and cotranscriptional cleavage of the pre-rRNA. Sucrose density gradient analyses revealed that depletion of U3 snoRNA or the Mpp10 protein inhibited the release of U14 snoRNA from pre-rRNA, just as was seen with Dbp4-depleted cells, indicating that alteration of SSU processome components has significant consequences for U14 snoRNA dynamics. We also found that the C-terminal extension flanking the catalytic core of Dbp4 plays an important role in the release of U14 snoRNA from pre-rRNA.

GPKOW is essential for pre-mRNA splicing in vitro and suppresses splicing defect caused by dominant-negative DHX16 mutation in vivo

Human GPKOW [G-patch (glycine-rich) domain and KOW (Kyrpides, Ouzounis and Woese) domain] protein contains a G-patch domain and two KOW domains, and is a homologue of Arabidopsis MOS2 and Saccharomyces Spp2 protein. GPKOW is found in the human spliceosome, but its role in pre-mRNA splicing remains to be elucidated. In this report, we showed that GPKOW interacted directly with the DHX16/hPRP2 and with RNA. Immuno-depletion of GPKOW from HeLa nuclear extracts resulted in an inactive spliceosome that still bound DHX16. Adding back recombinant GPKOW restored splicing to the depleted extract. In vivo, overexpression of GPKOW partially suppressed the splicing defect observed in dominant-negative DHX16 mutant expressing cells. Mutations at the G-patch domain greatly diminished the GPKOW–DHX16 interaction; however, the mutant was active in splicing and was able to suppress splicing defect. Mutations at the KOW1 domain slightly altered the GPKOW–RNA interaction, but the mutant was less functional in vitro and in vivo. Our results indicated that GPKOW can functionally impact DHX16 but that interaction between the proteins is not required for this activity.

Using biochemical, mutation, and cellular analyses, we characterized important domains involved in the functionality of a RNA-binding protein in RNA splicing. We also showed the similarity and difference between yeast and human counterparts.

Physical and functional interaction between the methyltransferase Bud23 and the essential DEAH-box RNA helicase Ecm16

The small ribosomal subunit assembles cotranscriptionally on the nascent primary transcript. Cleavage at site A2 liberates the pre-40S subunit. We previously identified Bud23 as a conserved eukaryotic methyltransferase that is required for efficient cleavage at A2. Here, we report that Bud23 physically and functionally interacts with the DEAH-box RNA helicase Ecm16 (also known as Dhr1). Ecm16 is also required for cleavage at A2. We identified mutations in ECM16 that suppressed the growth and A2 cleavage defects of a bud23Δ mutant. RNA helicases often require protein cofactors to provide substrate specificity. We used yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) two-hybrid analysis to map the binding site of Bud23 on Ecm16. Despite the physical and functional interaction between these factors, mutations that disrupted the interaction, as assayed by two-hybrid analysis, did not display a growth defect. We previously identified mutations in UTP2 and UTP14 that suppressed bud23Δ. We suggest that a network of protein interactions may mask the loss of interaction that we have defined by two-hybrid analysis. A mutation in motif I of Ecm16 that is predicted to impair its ability to hydrolyze ATP led to accumulation of Bud23 in an ∼45S particle containing Ecm16. Thus, Bud23 enters the pre-40S pathway at the time of Ecm16 function.

Nucleolar proteins Bfr2 and Enp2 interact with DEAD-box RNA helicase Dbp4 in two different complexes

Different pre-ribosomal complexes are formed during ribosome biogenesis, and the composition of these complexes is highly dynamic. Dbp4, a conserved DEAD-box RNA helicase implicated in ribosome biogenesis, interacts with nucleolar proteins Bfr2 and Enp2. We show that, like Dbp4, Bfr2 and Enp2 are required for the early processing steps leading to the production of 18S ribosomal RNA. We also found that Bfr2 and Enp2 associate with the U3 small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA), the U3-specific protein Mpp10 and various pre-18S ribosomal RNA species. Thus, we propose that Bfr2, Dbp4 and Enp2 are components of the small subunit (SSU) processome, a large complex of ∼80S. Sucrose gradient sedimentation analyses indicated that Dbp4, Bfr2 and Enp2 sediment in a peak of ∼50S and in a peak of ∼80S. Bfr2, Dbp4 and Enp2 associate together in the 50S complex, which does not include the U3 snoRNA; however, they associate with U3 snoRNA in the 80S complex (SSU processome). Immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that U14 snoRNA associates with Dbp4 in the 50S complex, but not with Bfr2 or Enp2. The assembly factor Tsr1 is not part of the '50S' complex, indicating this complex is not a pre-40S ribosome. A combination of experiments leads us to propose that Bfr2, Enp2 and Dbp4 are recruited at late steps during assembly of the SSU processome.

Genome-wide comparative in silico analysis of the RNA helicase gene family in Zea mays and Glycine max: a comparison with Arabidopsis and Oryza sativa

RNA helicases are enzymes that are thought to unwind double-stranded RNA molecules in an energy-dependent fashion through the hydrolysis of NTP. RNA helicases are associated with all processes involving RNA molecules, including nuclear transcription, editing, splicing, ribosome biogenesis, RNA export, and organelle gene expression. The involvement of RNA helicase in response to stress and in plant growth and development has been reported previously. While their importance in Arabidopsis and Oryza sativa has been partially studied, the function of RNA helicase proteins is poorly understood in Zea mays and Glycine max. In this study, we identified a total of RNA helicase genes in Arabidopsis and other crop species genome by genome-wide comparative in silico analysis. We classified the RNA helicase genes into three subfamilies according to the structural features of the motif II region, such as DEAD-box, DEAH-box and DExD/H-box, and different species showed different patterns of alternative splicing. Secondly, chromosome location analysis showed that the RNA helicase protein genes were distributed across all chromosomes with different densities in the four species. Thirdly, phylogenetic tree analyses identified the relevant homologs of DEAD-box, DEAH-box and DExD/H-box RNA helicase proteins in each of the four species. Fourthly, microarray expression data showed that many of these predicted RNA helicase genes were expressed in different developmental stages and different tissues under normal growth conditions. Finally, real-time quantitative PCR analysis showed that the expression levels of 10 genes in Arabidopsis and 13 genes in Zea mays were in close agreement with the microarray expression data. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a comparative genome-wide analysis of the RNA helicase gene family in Arabidopsis, Oryza sativa, Zea mays and Glycine max. This study provides valuable information for understanding the classification and putative functions of the RNA helicase gene family in crop growth and development.

Molecular and cellular pathogenesis of melanoma initiation and progression

Melanoma is a malignant tumor of melanocytes that can spread to other organs of the body, resulting in severe and/or lethal malignancies. Melanocytes are pigment-producing cells found in the deep layer of the epidermis and are originated from melanocytes stem cells through a cellular process called melanogenesis. Several genes and epigenetic and micro-environmental factors are involved in this process via the regulation and maintenance of the balance between melanocytes stem cells proliferation and their differentiation into melanocytes. Dysregulation of this balance through gain or loss of function of key genes implicated in the control and regulation of cell cycle progression and/or differentiation results in melanoma initiation and progression. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview about the origin of melanocytes, the oncogenic events involved in melanocytes stem cells transformation, and the mechanisms implicated in the perpetuation of melanoma malignant phenotype.

Identification of unique interactions between the flexible linker and the RecA-like domains of DEAD-box helicase Mss116

DEAD-box RNA helicases are ATP-dependent proteins implicated in nearly all aspects of RNA metabolism. The yeast DEAD-box helicase Mss116 is unique in its functions of splicing group I and group II introns and activating mRNA translation, but the structural understanding of why it performs these unique functions remains unclear. Here we used sequence analysis and molecular dynamics simulation to identify residues in the flexible linker specific for yeast Mss116, potentially associated with its unique functions. We first identified residues that are 100% conserved in Mss116 of different species of the Saccharomycetaceae family. The amino acids of these conserved residues were then compared with the amino acids of the corresponding residue positions of other RNA helicases to identify residues that have distinct amino acids from other DEAD-box proteins. Four residues in the flexible linker, i.e. N334, E335, P336 and H339, are conserved and Mss116-specific. Molecular dynamics simulation was conducted for the wild-type Mss116 structure and mutant models to examine mutational effects of the linker on the conformational equilibrium. Relatively short MD simulation runs (within 20 ns) were enough for us to observe mutational effects, suggesting serious structural perturbations by these mutations. The mutation of E335 depletes the interactions between E335 and K95 in domain 1. The interactions between N334/P336 and N496/I497 of domain 2 are also abolished by mutation. Our results suggest that tight interactions between the Mss116-specific flexible linker and the two RecA-like domains may be mechanically required to crimp RNA for the unique RNA processes of yeast Mss116.

Importance and determinants of induction of cold-induced DEAD RNA helicase in the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis

Thermococcus kodakarensis, which grows optimally at 85°C, expresses cold stress-inducible DEAD box RNA helicase (Tk-deaD) when shifted to 60°C. A DDA1 deletion (ΔTk-deaD) mutant exhibited decreased cell growth, and cells underwent lysis at 60°C in nutrient broth in the absence of elemental sulfur. In contrast, cells in medium containing elemental sulfur at 60°C did not undergo lysis, suggesting that Tk-deaD is necessary for cell growth in sulfur-free medium. To identify the element responsible for the cold response, a pTKR expression probe plasmid was constructed using thermostable catalase from Pyrobaculum calidifontis as a reporter. The plasmid pTKRD, which contained the transcription factor B recognition element, TATA region, and Shine-Dalgarno (SD) region, including the initiation codon of the Tk-deaD gene, exhibited cold inducibility. We also constructed a series of deletion and chimeric constructs with the glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) promoter, whose expression is constitutive independent of culture temperatures and catalase expression. Reporter assay experiments indicated that the regulatory element is located in the region between the SD region and the initiation codon (ATG). Nucleotide sequences in the upstream regions of Tk-deaD and gdh were compared and revealed a five-adenosine (AAAAA) sequence between SD and ATG of Tk-deaD that was not present in gdh. Replacement of the repeated adenosine sequence with other sequences revealed that the AAAAA sequence is important for cold induction. This sequence-specific mechanism is unique and is one that has not been identified in other known cold-inducible genes.

Functions of DEAD-box proteins in bacteria: current knowledge and pending questions

DEAD-box proteins are RNA-dependent ATPases that are widespread in all three kingdoms of life. They are thought to rearrange the structures of RNA or ribonucleoprotein complexes but their exact mechanism of action is rarely known. Whereas in yeast most DEAD-box proteins are essential, no example of an essential bacterial DEAD-box protein has been reported so far; at most, their absence results in cold-sensitive growth. Moreover, whereas yeast DEAD-box proteins are implicated in virtually all reactions involving RNA, in E. coli (the bacterium where DEAD-box proteins have been mostly studied) their role is limited to ribosome biogenesis, mRNA degradation, and possibly translation initiation. Plausible reasons for these differences are discussed here. In spite of their dispensability, E. coli DEAD-box proteins are valuable models for the mechanism of action of DEAD-box proteins in general because the reactions in which they participate can be reproduced in vitro. Here we review our present understanding of this mechanism of action. Using selected examples for which information is available: (i) we describe how, by interacting directly with a particular RNA motif or by binding to proteins that themselves recognize such a motif, DEAD-box proteins are brought to their specific RNA substrate(s); (ii) we discuss the nature of the structural transitions that DEAD-box proteins induce on their substrates; and (iii) we analyze the reasons why these proteins are mostly important at low temperatures. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The Biology of RNA helicases-Modulation for life.

Yeast and human RNA helicases involved in ribosome biogenesis: current status and perspectives

Ribosome biogenesis is a fundamental process that is conserved in eukaryotes. Although spectacular progress has been made in understanding mammalian ribosome synthesis in recent years, by far, this process has still been best characterised in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In yeast, besides the rRNAs, the ribosomal proteins and the 75 small nucleolar RNAs, more than 250 non-ribosomal proteins, generally referred to as trans-acting factors, are involved in ribosome biogenesis. These factors include nucleases, RNA modifying enzymes, ATPases, GTPases, kinases and RNA helicases. Altogether, they likely confer speed, accuracy and directionality to the ribosome synthesis process, however, the precise functions for most of them are still largely unknown. This review summarises our current knowledge on eukaryotic RNA helicases involved in ribosome biogenesis, particularly focusing on the most recent advances with respect to the molecular roles of these enzymes and their co-factors in yeast and human cells. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The Biology of RNA helicases-Modulation for life.

Bacterial helicases in post-transcriptional control

Among the five superfamilies of helicases involved in RNA and DNA metabolism, superfamily 2 and superfamily 5 include bacterial RNA-helicases. These enzymes have been shown to be involved in ribosome biogenesis and post-transcriptional gene regulation. Here, we focus on bacterial regulatory mechanisms that are mediated by RNA helicases belonging to superfamily 2, which includes DEAD-box and DEAH-box helicases. Some of these helicases are part of bacterial degradosomes and were shown to unwind RNA duplexes. We will review examples where these enzymes have been implicated in translatability and metabolic stability of bacterial transcripts. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The Biology of RNA helicases - Modulation for life.