The role of mobile genetic elements in bacterial adaptation to xenobiotic organic compounds

Insights into the genomic and functional divergence of NAT gene family to serve microbial secondary metabolism

Microbial NAT enzymes, which employ acyl-CoA to acylate aromatic amines and hydrazines, have been well-studied for their role in xenobiotic metabolism. Some homologues have also been linked to secondary metabolism, but this function of NAT enzymes is not as well-known. For this comparative study, we surveyed sequenced microbial genomes to update the list of formally annotated NAT genes, adding over 4000 new sequences (mainly bacterial, but also archaeal, fungal and protist) and portraying a broad but not universal distribution of NATs in the microbiocosmos. Localization of NAT sequences within microbial gene clusters was not a rare finding, and this association was evident across all main types of biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) implicated in secondary metabolism. Interrogation of the MIBiG database for experimentally characterized clusters with NAT genes further supports that secondary metabolism must be a major function for microbial NAT enzymes and should not be overlooked by researchers in the field. We also show that NAT sequences can be associated with bacterial plasmids potentially involved in horizontal gene transfer. Combined, our computational predictions and MIBiG literature findings reveal the extraordinary functional diversification of microbial NAT genes, prompting further research into their role in predicted BGCs with as yet uncharacterized function.

Systematic identification of cargo-mobilizing genetic elements reveals new dimensions of eukaryotic diversity

Cargo-mobilizing mobile elements (CMEs) are genetic entities that faithfully transpose diverse protein coding sequences. Although common in bacteria, we know little about eukaryotic CMEs because no appropriate tools exist for their annotation. For example, Starships are giant fungal CMEs whose functions are largely unknown because they require time-intensive manual curation. To address this knowledge gap, we developed starfish, a computational workflow for high-throughput eukaryotic CME annotation. We applied starfish to 2 899 genomes of 1 649 fungal species and found that starfish recovers known Starships with 95% combined precision and recall while expanding the number of annotated elements ten-fold. Extant Starship diversity is partitioned into 11 families that differ in their enrichment patterns across fungal classes. Starship cargo changes rapidly such that elements from the same family differ substantially in their functional repertoires, which are predicted to contribute to diverse biological processes such as metabolism. Many elements have convergently evolved to insert into 5S rDNA and AT-rich sequence while others integrate into random locations, revealing both specialist and generalist strategies for persistence. Our work establishes a framework for advancing mobile element biology and provides the means to investigate an emerging dimension of eukaryotic genetic diversity, that of genomes within genomes.

Genomic islands and their role in fitness traits of two key sepsis-causing bacterial pathogens

To survive and establish a niche for themselves, bacteria constantly evolve. Toward that, they not only insert point mutations and promote illegitimate recombinations within their genomes but also insert pieces of 'foreign' deoxyribonucleic acid, which are commonly referred to as 'genomic islands' (GEIs). The GEIs come in several forms, structures and types, often providing a fitness advantage to the harboring bacterium. In pathogenic bacteria, some GEIs may enhance virulence, thus altering disease burden, morbidity and mortality. Hence, delineating (i) the GEIs framework, (ii) their encoded functions, (iii) the triggers that help them move, (iv) the mechanisms they exploit to move among bacteria and (v) identification of their natural reservoirs will aid in superior tackling of several bacterial diseases, including sepsis. Given the vast array of comparative genomics data, in this short review, we provide an overview of the GEIs, their types and the compositions therein, especially highlighting GEIs harbored by two important pathogens, viz. Acinetobacter baumannii and Klebsiella pneumoniae, which prominently trigger sepsis in low- and middle-income countries. Our efforts help shed some light on the challenges these pathogens pose when equipped with GEIs. We hope that this review will provoke intense research into understanding GEIs, the cues that drive their mobility across bacteria and the ways and means to prevent their transfer, especially across pathogenic bacteria.

Biodegradation of furfuryl alcohol by indigenous Bacillus species of industrial effluent-contaminated sites: estimation, biokinetics and toxicity assessment of bio-transformed metabolites

Furfuryl alcohol (FA) and other furanic compounds have garnered considerable attention in the quest for sustainable alternatives. FA-based resins have been used in various sectors that entail the release of FA into the environment. Hence, to ensure sustainability in this scenario, devising a dependable approach to its degradation is imperative. Given the crucial role of bacterial strains in the biodegradation of various organic pollutants, this study investigates the microbial degradation of FA, using bacterial strains isolated from sites that are constantly exposed to industrial waste. Three potential isolates were identified as B. paramycoides, B. cereus, and B. tequilensis by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. At a concentration of 300 µg/ml, these isolates demonstrated efficient FA degradation; 60-70% (at 300 µg/ml FA) and 50-60%, (at 500 µg/ml FA). Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) analysis further supported the result that the bacterial isolates consumed FA as the carbon source. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) facilitates the detection of the major metabolic intermediate product in which FA gets transformed. The prominent peaks at 113 and 119 m/z obtained in the MS spectra of the degraded FA samples indicated the possibility of the conversion of FA into furoic acid or levulinic acid. The phytotoxicity bioassay findings revealed the non-toxic nature of the bio-transformed products as compared to pure FA. This investigation presents the initial documentation of the FA degradative potential of Bacillus strains, thereby augmenting the understanding of the prospective implementation of Bacillus species in industrial waste treatment projects.

Metatranscriptomic responses and microbial degradation of background polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the coastal Mediterranean and Antarctica

Although microbial degradation is a key sink of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in surface seawaters, there is a dearth of field-based evidences of regional divergences in biodegradation and the effects of PAHs on site-specific microbial communities. We compared the magnitude of PAH degradation and its impacts in short-term incubations of coastal Mediterranean and the Maritime Antarctica microbiomes with environmentally relevant concentrations of PAHs. Mediterranean bacteria readily degraded the less hydrophobic PAHs, with rates averaging 4.72 ± 0.5 ng L h-1. Metatranscriptomic responses showed significant enrichments of genes associated to horizontal gene transfer, stress response, and PAH degradation, mainly harbored by Alphaproteobacteria. Community composition changed and increased relative abundances of Bacteroidota and Flavobacteriales. In Antarctic waters, there was no degradation of PAH, and minimal metatranscriptome responses were observed. These results provide evidence for factors such as geographic region, community composition, and pre-exposure history to predict PAH biodegradation in seawater.

Meta-omic profiling reveals ubiquity of genes encoding for the nitrogen-rich biopolymer cyanophycin in activated sludge microbiomes

Recovering nitrogen (N) from municipal wastewater is a promising approach to prevent nutrient pollution, reduce energy use, and transition toward a circular N bioeconomy, but remains a technologically challenging endeavor. Existing N recovery techniques are optimized for high-strength, low-volume wastewater. Therefore, developing methods to concentrate dilute N from mainstream wastewater will bridge the gap between existing technologies and practical implementation. The N-rich biopolymer cyanophycin is a promising candidate for N bioconcentration due to its pH-tunable solubility characteristics and potential for high levels of accumulation. However, the cyanophycin synthesis pathway is poorly explored in engineered microbiomes. In this study, we analyzed over 3,700 publicly available metagenome assembled genomes (MAGs) and found that the cyanophycin synthesis gene cphA was ubiquitous across common activated sludge bacteria. We found that cphA was present in common phosphorus accumulating organisms (PAO) Ca. 'Accumulibacter' and Tetrasphaera, suggesting potential for simultaneous N and P bioconcentration in the same organisms. Using metatranscriptomic data, we confirmed the expression of cphA in lab-scale bioreactors enriched with PAO. Our findings suggest that cyanophycin synthesis is a ubiquitous metabolic activity in activated sludge microbiomes. The possibility of combined N and P bioconcentration could lower barriers to entry for N recovery, since P concentration by PAO is already a widespread biotechnology in municipal wastewater treatment. We anticipate this work to be a starting point for future evaluations of combined N and P bioaccumulation, with the ultimate goal of advancing widespread adoption of N recovery from municipal wastewater.

Comparative Analysis of Transcriptome and Proteome Revealed the Common Metabolic Pathways Induced by Prevalent ESBL Plasmids in Escherichia coli

Antibiotic resistance has emerged as one of the most significant threats to global public health. Plasmids, which are highly efficient self-replicating genetic vehicles, play a critical role in the dissemination of drug-resistant genes. Previous studies have mainly focused on drug-resistant genes only, often neglecting the complete functional role of multidrug-resistant (MDR) plasmids in bacteria. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive investigation of the transcriptomes and proteomes of Escherichia coli J53 transconjugants harboring six major MDR plasmids of different incompatibility (Inc) groups, which were clinically isolated from patients. The RNA-seq analysis revealed that MDR plasmids influenced the gene expression in the bacterial host, in particular, the genes related to metabolic pathways. A proteomic analysis demonstrated the plasmid-induced regulation of several metabolic pathways including anaerobic respiration and the utilization of various carbon sources such as serine, threonine, sialic acid, and galactarate. These findings suggested that MDR plasmids confer a growth advantage to bacterial hosts in the gut, leading to the expansion of plasmid-carrying bacteria over competitors without plasmids. Moreover, this study provided insights into the versatility of prevalent MDR plasmids in moderating the cellular gene network of bacteria, which could potentially be utilized in therapeutics development for bacteria carrying MDR plasmids.

Cultivating antimicrobial resistance: how intensive agriculture ploughs the way for antibiotic resistance

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing threat to public health, global food security and animal welfare. Despite efforts in antibiotic stewardship, AMR continues to rise worldwide. Anthropogenic activities, particularly intensive agriculture, play an integral role in the dissemination of AMR genes within natural microbial communities - which current antibiotic stewardship typically overlooks. In this review, we examine the impact of anthropogenically induced temperature fluctuations, increased soil salinity, soil fertility loss, and contaminants such as metals and pesticides on the de novo evolution and dissemination of AMR in the environment. These stressors can select for AMR - even in the absence of antibiotics - via mechanisms such as cross-resistance, co-resistance and co-regulation. Moreover, anthropogenic stressors can prime bacterial physiology against stress, potentially widening the window of opportunity for the de novo evolution of AMR. However, research to date is typically limited to the study of single isolated bacterial species - we lack data on how intensive agricultural practices drive AMR over evolutionary timescales in more complex microbial communities. Furthermore, a multidisciplinary approach to fighting AMR is urgently needed, as it is clear that the drivers of AMR extend far beyond the clinical environment.

Evolution of genetic architecture and gene regulation in biphenyl/PCB-degrading bacteria

A variety of bacteria in the environment can utilize xenobiotic compounds as a source of carbon and energy. The bacterial strains degrading xenobiotics are suitable models to investigate the adaptation and evolutionary processes of bacteria because they appear to have emerged relatively soon after the release of these compounds into the natural environment. Analyses of bacterial genome sequences indicate that horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is the most important contributor to the bacterial evolution of genetic architecture. Further, host bacteria that can use energy effectively by controlling the expression of organized gene clusters involved in xenobiotic degradation will have a survival advantage in harsh xenobiotic-rich environments. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of evolutionary mechanisms operative in bacteria, with a focus on biphenyl/PCB-degrading bacteria. We then discuss metagenomic approaches that are useful for such investigation.

Strong variation in sedimental antibiotic resistomes among urban rivers, estuaries and coastal oceans: Evidence from a river-connected coastal water ecosystem in northern China

Sediment is thought to be a vital reservoir to spread antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) among various natural environments. However, the spatial distribution patterns of the sedimental antibiotic resistomes around the Bohai Bay region, a river-connected coastal water ecosystem, are still poorly understood. The present study conducted a comprehensive investigation of ARGs among urban rivers (UR), estuaries (ES) and Bohai Bay (BHB) by metagenomic sequencing. Overall, a total of 169 unique ARGs conferring resistance to 15 antimicrobial classes were detected across all sediment samples. The Kruskal-Wallis test showed that the diversity and abundance of ARGs in the UR were all significantly higher than those in the ES and BHB (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01), revealing the distance dilution of the sedimental resistomes from the river to the ocean. Multidrug resistance genes contained most of the ARG subtypes, whereas rifamycin resistance genes were the most abundant ARGs in this region. Our study demonstrated that most antimicrobial resistomes were highly accumulated in urban river sediments, whereas beta-lactamase resistance genes (mainly PNGM-1) dramatically increased away from the estuary to the open ocean. The relative abundance of mobile genetic elements (MGEs) also gradually decreased from rivers to the coastal ocean, whereas the difference in pathogenic bacteria was not significant in the three classifications. Among MGEs, plasmids were recognized as the most important carriers to support the horizontal gene transfer of ARGs within and between species. According to co-occurrence networks, pathogenic Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes were recognized as potential and important hosts of ARGs. Heavy metals, pH and moisture content were all recognized as the vital environmental factors influencing the distribution of ARGs in sediment samples. Overall, the present study may help to understand the distribution patterns of ARGs at a watershed scale, and help to make effective policies to control the emergence, spread and evolution of different ARG subtypes in different habitats.

Bacterial remediation of pesticide polluted soils: Exploring the feasibility of site restoration

For decades, reclamation of pesticide contaminated sites has been a challenging avenue. Due to increasing agricultural demand, the application of synthetic pesticides could not be controlled in its usage, and it has now adversely impacted the soil, water, and associated ecosystems posing adverse effects on human health. Agricultural soil and pesticide manufacturing sites, in particular, are one of the most contaminated due to direct exposure. Among various strategies for soil reclamation, ecofriendly microbial bioremediation suffers inherent challenges for large scale field application as interaction of microbes with the polluted soil varies greatly under climatic conditions. Methodically, starting from functional or genomic screening, enrichment isolation; functional pathway mapping, production of tensioactive metabolites for increasing the bioavailability and bio-accessibility, employing genetic engineering strategies for modifications in existing catabolic genes to enhance the degradation activity; each step-in degradation study has challenges and prospects which can be addressed for successful application. The present review critically examines the methodical challenges addressing the feasibility for restoring and reclaiming pesticide contaminated sites along with the ecotoxicological risk assessments. Overall, it highlights the need to fine-tune the available processes and employ interdisciplinary approaches to make microbe assisted bioremediation as the method of choice for reclamation of pesticide contaminated sites.

IncP-type plasmids carrying genes for antibiotic resistance or for aromatic compound degradation are prevalent in sequenced Aromatoleum and Thauera strains

Self-transferable plasmids of the incompatibility group P-1 (IncP-1) are considered important carriers of genes for antibiotic resistance and other adaptive functions. In the laboratory, these plasmids have a broad host range; however, little is known about their in situ host profile. In this study, we discovered that Thauera aromatica K172^T , a facultative denitrifying microorganism capable of degrading various aromatic compounds, contains a plasmid highly similar to the IncP-1 ε archetype pKJK5. The plasmid harbours multiple antibiotic resistance genes and is maintained in strain K172^T for at least 1000 generations without selection pressure from antibiotics. In a subsequent search, we found additional nine IncP-type plasmids in a total of 40 sequenced genomes of the closely related genera Aromatoleum and Thauera. Six of these plasmids form a novel IncP-1 subgroup designated θ, four of which carry genes for anaerobic or aerobic degradation of aromatic compounds. Pentanucleotide sequence analyses (k-mer profiling) indicated that Aromatoleum spp. and Thauera spp. are among the most suitable hosts for the θ plasmids. Our results highlight the importance of IncP-1 plasmids for the genetic adaptation of these common facultative denitrifying bacteria and provide novel insights into the in situ host profile of these plasmids.

Comparative Genomic Analysis of Carbofuran-Degrading Sphingomonads Reveals the Carbofuran Catabolism Mechanism in Sphingobium sp. Strain CFD-1

Owing to the extensive use of carbofuran over the past 50 years, bacteria have evolved catabolic pathways to mineralize this insecticide, which plays an important role in eliminating carbofuran residue in the environment. In this study, the cfd gene cluster, responsible for the catabolism of carbofuran phenol, was predicted by comparing sphingomonad genomes.

Complete Genome Report of a Hydrocarbon-Degrading Sphingobium yanoikuyae S72

Sphingobium yanoikuyae S72 was isolated from the rhizosphere of sorghum plant in Mexico and we evaluated its survival and role in the degradation of some selected monoaromatic hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) using minimal medium (Bushnell Hass medium (BH)) in which each of the hydrocarbons (naphthalene, phenanthrene, xylene, toluene, and biphenyl) served as sole carbon source. Gas column chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis was used to evaluate the effect of S72’s growth in the medium with the hydrocarbons. The genome of the S72 was sequenced to determine the genetic basis for the degradation of the selected hydrocarbon in S72. The genome was assembled de novo with Spades assembler and Velvet assembler and the obtained contigs were reduced to 1 manually using Consed software. Genome annotation was carried out Prokka version 1.12, and gene calling and further annotation was carried out with NCBI PGAAP. Pangenome analysis and COG annotation were done with bacteria pangenome analysis tool (BPGA) and with PATRIC online server, respectively. S72 grew effectively in the culture medium with the hydrocarbon with concentration ranging from 20–100 mg/mL for each hydrocarbon tested. S72 degraded biphenyl by 85%, phenanthrene by 93%, naphthalene by 81%, xylene by 19%, and toluene by 30%. The sequenced S72 genome was reduced to 1 contig and genome analysis revealed the presence of genes essential for the degradation of hydrocarbons in S72. A total of 126 unique genes in S72 are associated with the degradation of hydrocarbons and xenobiotics. S72 grew effectively in the tested hydrocarbon and shows good degradation efficiency. S72 will therefore be a good candidate for bioremediation of hydrocarbon contaminated soil.

Genomic Analysis of Carbapenem-Resistant Comamonas in Water Matrices: Implications for Public Health and Wastewater Treatments

Comamonas spp. are Gram-negative bacteria that catabolize a wide range of organic and inorganic substrates. Comamonas spp. are abundant in aquatic and soil environments, including wastewater, and can cause opportunistic infections in humans. Because of their potential in wastewater bioaugmentation and bioremediation strategies, the identification of Comamonas species harboring genes encoding carbapenemases and other clinically important antibiotic resistance genes warrant further investigation. Here, we present an analysis of 39 whole-genome sequences comprising three Comamonas species from aquatic environments in South Australia that were recovered on media supplemented with carbapenems. The analysis includes a detailed description of 33 Comamonas denitrificans isolates, some of which carried chromosomally acquired bla_GES-5, bla_OXA, and aminoglycoside resistance (aadA) genes located on putative genomic islands (GIs). All bla_GES-5- and bla_OXA-containing GIs appear to be unique to this Australian collection of C. denitrificans. Notably, most open reading frames (ORFs) within the GIs, including all antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes, had adjacent attC sites, indicating that these ORFs are mobile gene cassettes. One C. denitrificans isolate carried an IncP-1 plasmid with genes involved in xenobiotic degradation and response to oxidative stress. Our assessment of the sequences highlights the very distant nature of C. denitrificans to the other Comamonas species and its apparent disposition to acquire antimicrobial resistance genes on putative genomic islands. IMPORTANCE Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a global public health threat, and the increase in resistance to "last-resort drugs," such as carbapenems, is alarming. Wastewater has been flagged as a hot spot for AMR evolution. Comamonas spp. are among the most common bacteria in wastewater and play a role in its bioaugmentation. While the ability of Comamonas species to catabolize a wide range of organic and inorganic substrates is well documented, some species are also opportunistic pathogens. However, data regarding AMR in Comamonas spp. are limited. Here, through the genomic analyses of 39 carbapenem-resistant Comamonas isolates, we make several key observations, including the identification of a subset of C. denitrificans isolates that harbored genomic islands encoding carbapenemase bla_GES-5 or extended-spectrum β-lactamase bla_OXA alleles. Given the importance of Comamonas species in potential wastewater bioaugmentation and bioremediation strategies, as well as their status as emerging pathogens, the acquisition of critically important antibiotic resistance genes on genomic islands warrants future monitoring.

Moving persistence assessments into the 21st century: A role for weight-of-evidence and overall persistence

Assessing the persistence of chemicals in the environment is a key element in existing regulatory frameworks to protect human health and ecosystems. Persistence in the environment depends on many fate processes, including abiotic and biotic transformations and physical partitioning, which depend on substances' physicochemical properties and environmental conditions. A main challenge in persistence assessment is that existing frameworks rely on simplistic and reductionist evaluation schemes that may lead substances to be falsely assessed as persistent or the other way around-to be falsely assessed as nonpersistent. Those evaluation schemes typically assess persistence against degradation half-lives determined in single-compartment simulation tests or against degradation levels measured in stringent screening tests. Most of the available test methods, however, do not apply to all types of substances, especially substances that are poorly soluble, complex in composition, highly sorptive, or volatile. In addition, the currently applied half-life criteria are derived mainly from a few legacy persistent organic pollutants, which do not represent the large diversity of substances entering the environment. Persistence assessment would undoubtedly benefit from the development of more flexible and holistic evaluation schemes including new concepts and methods. A weight-of-evidence (WoE) approach incorporating multiple influencing factors is needed to account for chemical fate and transformation in the whole environment so as to assess overall persistence. The present paper's aim is to begin to develop an integrated assessment framework that combines multimedia approaches to organize and interpret data using a clear WoE approach to allow for a more consistent, transparent, and thorough assessment of persistence. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2022;18:868-887. © 2021 ExxonMobil Biomedical Sciences, Inc. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Liming mitigates the spread of antibiotic resistance genes in an acid black soil

The threat of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) caused by animal manure application to human health has been the focus of attention in agriculture. Applying lime to acid soil for the amelioration of soil acidity is a prevailing agricultural practice. However, the role of lime on the spread of antibiotic resistome from soil to plant is unknown. In this study, a pot experiment of lettuce was established in the acid black soil with lime addition at the rate (w/w) of 0%, 0.08%, 0.16%, and 0.32% of the total soil mass to explore the transmission of ARGs introduced by the fresh poultry manure in the soil-plant system. The bulk and rhizosphere soils as well as the leaf samples were collected after lettuce was cultivated for 60 days, the bacterial community and antibiotic resistome in these samples were determined by using Illumina sequencing and high-throughput quantitative PCR (HT-qPCR) methods, respectively. Results showed that lime application decreased the number and abundance of ARGs and slowed down the spread of manure-derived ARGs in the soil-plant system. The ARGs and bacterial community composition were significantly varied among bulk soils, rhizosphere soils and leaf endophyte, and also influenced by lime within the same sampling types. The structural equation model further demonstrated that the lime addition had a negative effect on ARG diversity, which was also indirectly regulated by bacterial community diversity. These findings suggest that lime addition can alleviate the level and dissemination of ARGs in soils and provide a potential measure to control the spread of ARGs derived from animal manure.

Ecological selection of bacterial taxa with larger genome sizes in response to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons stress

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous priority pollutants that cause great damage to the natural environment and health. Average genome size in a community is critical for shedding light on microbiome's functional response to pollution stress within an environment. Here, microcosms under different concentrations were performed to evaluate the selection of PAHs stress on the average genome size in a community. We found the distinct communities of significantly larger genome size with the increase of PAHs concentration gradients in soils, and consistent trends were discovered in soils at different latitudes. The abundance of Proteobacteria and Deinococcus-Thermus with relatively larger genomes increased along with PAHs stress and well adapted to polluted environments. In contrast, the abundance of Patescibacteria with a highly streamlined and smaller genome decreased, implying complex interactions between environmental selection and functional fitness resulted in bacteria with larger genomes becoming more abundant. Moreover, we confirmed the increased capacity for horizontal transfer of degrading genes between communities by showing an increased connection number per node positively related to the nidA gene along the concentration gradients in the co-occurrence network. Our findings suggest PAHs tend to select bacterial taxa with larger genome sizes, with significant consequences for community stability and potential biodegradation strategies.

The impact of pollutant as selection pressure on conjugative transfer of dioxin-catabolic plasmids harbored by Rhodococcus sp. strain p52

Plasmid-mediated bioaugmentation has potential application in the cleanup of recalcitrant environmental pollutants. In this study, we examined the influence of various contaminants (in different categories or different amounts) as a selection pressure on the spread of catabolic plasmids within an activated sludge bacteria community bioaugmented with Rhodococcus sp. strain p52 harboring pDF01 and pDF02. The distinguishable genera of transconjugants were isolated under the stresses of phenanthrene, dibenzothiophene, and dibenzo-p-dioxin. The three contaminants exerted different degrees of influence on the activated sludge bacteria bearing the catabolic plasmids. The relatively high ratios of transconjugant-bearing catabolic plasmids were detected in the reactor fed with dibenzo-p-dioxin. As dibenzo-p-dioxin from 10 to 80 mg/L was fed into the reactors, the ratios of transconjugant-bearing catabolic plasmids increased. Additionally, levels of ROS and extracellular LDH of activated sludge bacteria in the contaminants-fed reactors increased, comparing with that in the control reactor, indicating that the contaminants exerted toxicity which promoted the cell membrane permeability of the activated sludge bacteria. Our study provides a characterization of the recalcitrant contaminants as a selection pressure that can modulate catabolic plasmid transfer during genetic bioaugmentation for the removal of contaminants.

Proteogenomic analysis of Georgfuchsia toluolica revealed unexpected concurrent aerobic and anaerobic toluene degradation

Denitrifying Betaproteobacteria play a key role in the anaerobic degradation of monoaromatic hydrocarbons. We performed a multi-omics study to better understand the metabolism of the representative organism Georgfuchsia toluolica strain G5G6 known as a strict anaerobe coupling toluene oxidation with dissimilatory nitrate and Fe(III) reduction. Despite the genomic potential for degradation of different carbon sources, we did not find sugar or organic acid transporters, in line with the inability of strain G5G6 to use these substrates. Using a proteomics analysis, we detected proteins of fumarate-dependent toluene activation, membrane-bound nitrate reductase, and key components of the metal-reducing (Mtr) pathway under both nitrate- and Fe(III)-reducing conditions. High abundance of the multiheme cytochrome MtrC implied that a porin-cytochrome complex was used for respiratory Fe(III) reduction. Remarkably, strain G5G6 contains a full set of genes for aerobic toluene degradation, and we detected enzymes of aerobic toluene degradation under both nitrate- and Fe(III)-reducing conditions. We further detected an ATP-dependent benzoyl-CoA reductase, reactive oxygen species detoxification proteins, and cytochrome c oxidase indicating a facultative anaerobic lifestyle of strain G5G6. Correspondingly, we found diffusion through the septa a substantial source of oxygen in the cultures enabling concurrent aerobic and anaerobic toluene degradation by strain G5G6.

Plasmid-mediated catabolism for the removal of xenobiotics from the environment

The large-scale application of xenobiotics adversely affects the environment. The genes that are present in the chromosome of the bacteria are considered nonmobile, whereas the genes present on the plasmids are considered mobile genetic elements. Plasmids are considered indispensable for xenobiotic degradation into the contaminated environment. In the contaminated sites, bacteria with plasmids can transfer the mobile genetic element into another strain. This mechanism helps in spreading the catabolic genes into the bacterial population at the contaminated sites. The indigenous microbial strains with such degradative plasmids are important for the bioremediation of xenobiotics. Environmental factors play a critical role in the conjugation efficiency, which is involved in the bioremediation of the xenobiotics at the contaminated sites. However, there is still a need for more research to fill in the gaps regarding plasmids and their impact on bioremediation. This review explores the role of bacterial plasmids in the bioremediation of xenobiotics from contaminated environments.

Overview of Approaches to Improve Rhizoremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon-Contaminated Soils

Soil contamination with petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs) has become a global concern and has resulted from the intensification of industrial activities. This has created a serious environmental issue; therefore, there is a need to find solutions, including application of efficient remediation technologies or improvement of current techniques. Rhizoremediation is a green technology that has received global attention as a cost-effective and possibly efficient remediation technique for PHC-polluted soil. Rhizoremediation refers to the use of plants and their associated microbiota to clean up contaminated soils, where plant roots stimulate soil microbes to mineralize organic contaminants to H2O and CO2. However, this multipartite interaction is complicated because many biotic and abiotic factors can influence microbial processes in the soil, making the efficiency of rhizoremediation unpredictable. This review reports the current knowledge of rhizoremediation approaches that can accelerate the remediation of PHC-contaminated soil. Recent approaches discussed in this review include (1) selecting plants with desired characteristics suitable for rhizoremediation; (2) exploiting and manipulating the plant microbiome by using inoculants containing plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) or hydrocarbon-degrading microbes, or a combination of both types of organisms; (3) enhancing the understanding of how the host–plant assembles a beneficial microbiome, and how it functions, under pollutant stress. A better understanding of plant–microbiome interactions could lead to successful use of rhizoremediation for PHC-contaminated soil in the future.

Responses of Coastal Marine Microbiomes Exposed to Anthropogenic Dissolved Organic Carbon

Coastal seawaters receive thousands of organic pollutants. However, we have little understanding of the response of microbiomes to this pool of anthropogenic dissolved organic carbon (ADOC). In this study, coastal microbial communities were challenged with ADOC at environmentally relevant concentrations. Experiments were performed at two Mediterranean sites with different impact by pollutants and nutrients: off the Barcelona harbor ("BCN"), and at the Blanes Bay ("BL"). ADOC additions stimulated prokaryotic leucine incorporation rates at both sites, indicating the use of ADOC as growth substrate. The percentage of "membrane-compromised" cells increased with increasing ADOC, indicating concurrent toxic effects of ADOC. Metagenomic analysis of the BCN community challenged with ADOC showed a significant growth of Methylophaga and other gammaproteobacterial taxa belonging to the rare biosphere. Gene expression profiles showed a taxon-dependent response, with significantly enrichments of transcripts from SAR11 and Glaciecola spp. in BCN and BL, respectively. Further, the relative abundance of transposon-related genes (in BCN) and transcripts (in BL) correlated with the number of differentially abundant genes (in BCN) and transcripts (in BLA), suggesting that microbial responses to pollution may be related to pre-exposure to pollutants, with transposons playing a role in adaptation to ADOC. Our results point to a taxon-specific response to low concentrations of ADOC that impact the functionality, structure and plasticity of the communities in coastal seawaters. This work contributes to address the influence of pollutants on microbiomes and their perturbation to ecosystem services and ocean health.

Effect of concentration and hydraulic reaction time on the removal of pharmaceutical compounds in a membrane bioreactor inoculated with activated sludge

Pharmaceuticals are often not fully removed in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and are thus being detected at trace levels in water bodies all over the world posing a risk to numerous organisms. These organic micropollutants (OMPs) reach WWTPs at concentrations sometimes too low to serve as growth substrate for microorganisms; thus, co-metabolism is thought to be the main conversion mechanism. In this study, the microbial removal of six pharmaceuticals was investigated in a membrane bioreactor at increasing concentrations (4-800 nM) of the compounds and using three different hydraulic retention times (HRT; 1, 3.5 and 5 days). The bioreactor was inoculated with activated sludge from a municipal WWTP and fed with ammonium, acetate and methanol as main growth substrates to mimic co-metabolism. Each pharmaceutical had a different average removal efficiency: acetaminophen (100%) > fluoxetine (50%) > metoprolol (25%) > diclofenac (20%) > metformin (15%) > carbamazepine (10%). Higher pharmaceutical influent concentrations proportionally increased the removal rate of each compound, but surprisingly not the removal percentage. Furthermore, only metformin removal improved to 80-100% when HRT or biomass concentration was increased. Microbial community changes were followed with 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing in response to the increment of pharmaceutical concentration: Nitrospirae and Planctomycetes 16S rRNA relative gene abundance decreased, whereas Acidobacteria and Bacteroidetes increased. Remarkably, the Dokdonella genus, previously implicated in acetaminophen metabolism, showed a 30-fold increase in abundance at the highest concentration of pharmaceuticals applied. Taken together, these results suggest that the incomplete removal of most pharmaceutical compounds in WWTPs is dependent on neither concentration nor reaction time. Accordingly, we propose a chemical equilibrium or a growth substrate limitation as the responsible mechanisms of the incomplete removal. Finally, Dokdonella could be the main acetaminophen degrader under activated sludge conditions, and non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals might still be toxic to relevant WWTP bacteria.

Noncytotoxic silver nanoparticles as a new antimicrobial strategy

Drug-resistance of bacteria is an ongoing problem in hospital treatment. The main mechanism of bacterial virulency in human infections is based on their adhesion ability and biofilm formation. Many approaches have been invented to overcome this problem, i.e. treatment with antibacterial biomolecules, which have some limitations e.g. enzymatic degradation and short shelf stability. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) may be alternative to these strategies due to their unique and high antibacterial properties. Herein, we report on yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae extracellular-based synthesis of AgNPs. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed the morphology and structure of the metallic nanoparticles, which showed a uniform distribution and good colloid stability, measured by hydrodynamic light scattering (DLS). The energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) of NPs confirms the presence of silver and showed that sulfur-rich compounds act as a capping agent being adsorbed on the surface of AgNPs. Antimicrobial tests showed that AgNPs inhibit the bacteria growth, while have no impact on fungi growth. Moreover, tested NPs was characterized by high inhibitory potential of bacteria biofilm formation but also eradication of established biofilms. The cytotoxic effect of the NPs on four mammalian normal and cancer cell lines was tested through the metabolic activity, cell viability and wound-healing assays. Last, but not least, ability to deep penetration of the silver colloid to the root canal was imaged by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to show its potential as the material for root-end filling.

Novel clades of soil biphenyl degraders revealed by integrating isotope probing, multi-omics, and single-cell analyses

Most microorganisms in the biosphere remain uncultured and poorly characterized. Although the surge in genome sequences has enabled insights into the genetic and metabolic properties of uncultured microorganisms, their physiology and ecological roles cannot be determined without direct probing of their activities in natural habitats. Here we employed an experimental framework coupling genome reconstruction and activity assays to characterize the largely uncultured microorganisms responsible for aerobic biodegradation of biphenyl as a proxy for a large class of environmental pollutants, polychlorinated biphenyls. We used ¹³C-labeled biphenyl in contaminated soils and traced the flow of pollutant-derived carbon into active cells using single-cell analyses and protein–stable isotope probing. The detection of ¹³C-enriched proteins linked biphenyl biodegradation to the uncultured Alphaproteobacteria clade UBA11222, which we found to host a distinctive biphenyl dioxygenase gene widely retrieved from contaminated environments. The same approach indicated the capacity of Azoarcus species to oxidize biphenyl and suggested similar metabolic abilities for species of Rugosibacter. Biphenyl oxidation would thus represent formerly unrecognized ecological functions of both genera. The quantitative role of these microorganisms in pollutant degradation was resolved using single-cell-based uptake measurements. Our strategy advances our understanding of microbially mediated biodegradation processes and has general application potential for elucidating the ecological roles of uncultured microorganisms in their natural habitats.

Properties affecting transfer and expression of degradative plasmids for the purpose of bioremediation

Plasmids, circular DNA that exist and replicate outside of the host chromosome, have been important in the spread of non-essential genes as well as the rapid evolution of prokaryotes. Recent advances in environmental engineering have aimed to utilize the mobility of plasmids carrying degradative genes to disseminate them into the environment for cost-effective and environmentally friendly remediation of harmful contaminants. Here, we review the knowledge surrounding plasmid transfer and the conditions needed for successful transfer and expression of degradative plasmids. Both abiotic and biotic factors have a great impact on the success of degradative plasmid transfer and expression of the degradative genes of interest. Properties such as ecological growth strategies of bacteria may also contribute to plasmid transfer and may be an important consideration for bioremediation applications. Finally, the methods for detection of conjugation events have greatly improved and the application of these tools can help improve our understanding of conjugation in complex communities. However, it remains clear that more methods for in situ detection of plasmid transfer are needed to help detangle the complexities of conjugation in natural environments to better promote a framework for precision bioremediation.

Response of soil bacterial communities to high petroleum content in the absence of remediation procedures

Oil spills are events that frequently lead to petroleum pollution. This pollution may cause stress to microbial communities, which require long adaption periods. Soil petroleum pollution is currently considered one of the most serious environmental problems. In the present work, processes occurring in the bacterial communities of three soil samples with different physicochemical characteristics, artificially polluted with 12% of crude oil, were investigated in 120-day laboratory experiment. It was found that the total petroleum hydrocarbon content did not decrease during this time; however, the proportion of petroleum fractions was altered. Petroleum pollution led to a short-term decrease in the bacterial 16S rRNA gene copy number. On the basis of amplicon sequencing analysis, it was concluded that bacterial community successions were similar in the three soils investigated. Thus, the phyla Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria and candidate TM7 phylum (Saccaribacteria) were predominant with relative abundances ranging from 35 to 58%, 25 to 30%, and 15 to 35% in different samples, respectively. The predominant operational taxonomic units (OTUs) after pollution belonged to the genera Rhodococcus and Mycobacterium, families Nocardioidaceae and Sinobacteraceae, and candidate class ТМ7-3. Genes from the alkIII group encoding monoxygenases were the most abundant compared with other catabolic genes from the alkI, alkII, GN-PAH, and GP-PAH groups, and their copy number significantly increased after pollution. The copy numbers of expressed genes involved in the horizontal transfer of catabolic genes, FlgC, TraG, and OmpF, also increased after pollution by 11-33, 16-63, and 11-71 times, respectively. The bacterial community structure after a high level of petroleum pollution changed because of proliferation of the cells that initially were able to decompose hydrocarbons, and in the second place, because proliferation of the cells that received these catabolic genes through horizontal transfer.

The role of mobile genetic elements in organic micropollutant degradation during biological wastewater treatment

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are crucial for producing clean effluents from polluting sources such as hospitals, industries, and municipalities. In recent decades, many new organic compounds have ended up in surface waters in concentrations that, while very low, cause (chronic) toxicity to countless organisms. These organic micropollutants (OMPs) are usually quite recalcitrant and not sufficiently removed during wastewater treatment. Microbial degradation plays a pivotal role in OMP conversion. Microorganisms can adapt their metabolism to the use of novel molecules via mutations and rearrangements of existing genes in new clusters. Many catabolic genes have been found adjacent to mobile genetic elements (MGEs), which provide a stable scaffold to host new catabolic pathways and spread these genes in the microbial community. These mobile systems could be engineered to enhance OMP degradation in WWTPs, and this review aims to summarize and better understand the role that MGEs might play in the degradation and wastewater treatment process. Available data about the presence of catabolic MGEs in WWTPs are reviewed, and current methods used to identify and measure MGEs in environmental samples are critically evaluated. Finally, examples of how these MGEs could be used to improve micropollutant degradation in WWTPs are outlined. In the near future, advances in the use of MGEs will hopefully enable us to apply selective augmentation strategies to improve OMP conversion in WWTPs.

Plant Species-Dependent Increased Abundance and Diversity of IncP-1 Plasmids in the Rhizosphere: New Insights Into Their Role and Ecology

IncP-1 plasmids, first isolated from clinical specimens (R751, RP4), are recognized as important vectors spreading antibiotic resistance genes. The abundance of IncP-1 plasmids in the environment, previously reported, suggested a correlation with anthropogenic pollution. Unexpectedly, qPCR-based detection of IncP-1 plasmids revealed also an increased relative abundance of IncP-1 plasmids in total community DNA from the rhizosphere of lettuce and tomato plants grown in non-polluted soil along with plant age. Here we report the successful isolation of IncP-1 plasmids by exploiting their ability to mobilize plasmid pSM1890. IncP-1 plasmids were captured from the rhizosphere but not from bulk soil, and a high diversity was revealed by sequencing 14 different plasmids that were assigned to IncP-1β, δ, and ε subgroups. Although backbone genes were highly conserved and mobile elements or remnants as Tn501, IS1071, Tn402, or class 1 integron were carried by 13 of the sequenced IncP-1 plasmids, no antibiotic resistance genes were found. Instead, seven plasmids had a mer operon with Tn501-like transposon and five plasmids contained putative metabolic gene clusters linked to these mobile elements. In-depth sequence comparisons with previously known plasmids indicate that the IncP-1 plasmids captured from the rhizosphere are archetypes of those found in clinical isolates. Our findings that IncP-1 plasmids do not always carry accessory genes in unpolluted rhizospheres are important to understand the ecology and role of the IncP-1 plasmids in the natural environment.

Evaluating the Potential Antibiotic Resistance Status in Environment Based on the Trait of Microbial Community

The overuse of antibiotics has promoted the propagation and dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in environment. Due to the dense human population and intensive activities in coastal areas, the health risk of ARGs in coastal environment is becoming a severe problem. To date, there still lacks of a quantitative method to assess properly the gross antibiotic resistance at microbial community level. Here, we collected sediment samples from Hangzhou Bay (HB), Taizhou Bay (TB), and Xiangshan Bay (XB) of the East China Sea for community-level ARGs analysis. Based on the 16S rRNA genes and predictive metagenomics, we predicted the composition of intrinsic ARGs (piARGs) and some related functional groups. Firstly, a total of 40 piARG subtypes, belonging to nine drug classes and five resistance mechanisms, were obtained, among which the piARGs encoding multidrug efflux pumps were the most dominant in the three bays. Secondly, XB had higher relative abundances of piARGs and pathogens than the other two bays, which posed higher potential health risk and implied the heavier impact of long-term maricultural activities in this bay. Thirdly, the co-occurrence network analysis identified that there were more connections between piARGs and some potential pathogenic bacteria. Several piARG subtypes (e.g., tetA, aacA, aacC, and aadK) distributed widely in the microbial communities. And finally, the microbial diversity correlated negatively with the relative abundance of piARGs. Oil, salinity, and arsenic had significant effects on the variations of piARGs and potential pathogenic bacteria. The abundance-weighted average ribosomal RNA operon (rrn) copy number of microbial communities could be regarded as an indicator to evaluate the antibiotic resistance status. In conclusion, this study provides a new insight on how to evaluate antibiotic resistance status and their potential risk in environment based on a quantitative analysis of microbial communities.

A novel incompatibility group X3 plasmid carrying bla NDM-1 encodes a small RNA that regulates host fucose metabolism and biofilm formation

The emergence of New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase (NDM-1) has become a major health threat to clinical managements of gram-negative bacteria infections. A novel incompatibility group X3 plasmid (IncX3) pNDM-HN380 carrying bla _NDM-1 has recently been found to epidemiologically link with multiple geographical areas in China. In this paper, we studied the metabolic responses of host bacteria E. coli J53 upon introduction of pNDM-HN380. A reduction of bacterial motility was observed in J53/pNDM-HN380. We profiled the RNA repertoires of the transconjugants and found a downregulation of genes involved in flagella and chemotaxis metabolic pathways at logarithmic (log) phase. We also identified a novel intragenic region (IGR) small RNA plas2. The plasmid-transcribed sRNA IGR plas2 was further characterized as a regulator of fucRwhich controls the fucose metabolism. By knockdown of IGR plas2 using an antisense decoy, we managed to inhibit the formation of bacterial biofilm of the host. Our study demonstrated a potential way of utilizing plasmid-transcribed sRNA against infectious bacteria.

A Novel Small RNA on the Pseudomonas putida KT2440 Chromosome Is Involved in the Fitness Cost Imposed by IncP-1 Plasmid RP4

Plasmids can provide advantageous traits to host bacteria, although they may impose a fitness cost. Chromosome-encoded factors are important for regulating the expression of genes on plasmids, and host chromosomes may differ in terms of their interactions with a given plasmid. Accordingly, differences in fitness cost loading and compensatory co-evolution may occur for various host chromosome/plasmid combinations. However, the mechanisms of compensatory evolution are highly divergent and require further insights. Here, we reveal novel evolutionally mechanisms of Pseudomonas putida KT2440 to improve the fitness cost imposed by the incompatibility P-1 (IncP-1) multidrug resistance plasmid RP4. A mixed culture of RP4-harboring and -free KT2440 cells was serially transferred every 24 h under non-selective conditions. Initially, the proportion of RP4-harboring cells decreased rapidly, but it immediately recovered, suggesting that the fitness of RP4-harboring strains improved during cultivation. Larger-sized colonies appeared during 144-h mixed culture, and evolved strains isolated from larger-sized colonies showed higher growth rates and fitness than those of the ancestral strain. Whole-genome sequencing revealed that evolved strains had one of two mutations in the same intergenic region of the chromosome. Based on the research of another group, this region is predicted to contain a stress-inducible small RNA (sRNA). Identification of the transcriptional start site in this sRNA indicated that one mutation occurred within the sRNA region, whereas the other was in its promoter region. Quantitative reverse-transcription PCR showed that the expression of this sRNA was strongly induced by RP4 carriage in the ancestral strain but repressed in the evolved strains. When the sRNA region was overexpressed in the RP4-free strain, the fitness decreased, and the colony size became smaller. Using transcriptome analysis, we also showed that the genes involved in amino acid metabolism and stress responses were differentially transcribed by overexpression of the sRNA region. These results indicate that the RP4-inducible chromosomal sRNA was responsible for the fitness cost of RP4 on KT2440 cells, where this sRNA is of key importance in host evolution toward rapid amelioration of the cost.

Formation of new PHE plasmids in pseudomonads in a phenol-polluted environment

Several years ago, a laboratory-constructed plasmid with a single-component phenol monooxygenase gene (pheBA operon) flanked by two IS elements was released to a phenol-polluted area. During the following years, we found in the test area widely distributed pheBA operon-containing bacteria. The new pheBA⁺ strains belong predominantly to the Pseudomonas fluorescens group, and they did not arise via selection of the released PHE plasmid. On the contrary, the formation of several different types of PHE plasmids occurred, namely pPHE101 (60,958 bp) from the IncP-9 group, non-transferable plasmid pPHE69 (44,717 bp), mobilizable plasmid pPHE20 (39,609 bp) and the IncP-7 type plasmid pPHE24ΔpheBA (120,754 bp), in which the pheBA operon was translocated from the plasmid to the chromosome. In two cases, PHE plasmid-bearing strains exist in a multi-plasmid state, also containing the non-catabolic plasmids pG20 (133,709 bp) and pG69 (144,433 bp) with backbones sharing 97% DNA identity and with redundant genes for the initiation of replication, repA1and repA2, of which only one was active. Seemingly, several other plasmids and bacterial features besides the pheBA operon were involved in selective distribution of catabolic operons in the natural environment. The comparison of the genetic structure of plasmids and IS elements' functions, as well as resistance to heavy metals of seven completely sequenced plasmids, are discussed.

Engineering a CRISPR Interference System To Repress a Class 1 Integron in Escherichia coli

Microbial multidrug resistance (MDR) poses a huge threat to human health. Bacterial acquisition of MDR relies primarily on class 1 integron-involved horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). To date, no strategies other than the use of antibiotics can efficiently cope with MDR. Here, we report that an engineered CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) system can markedly reduce MDR by blocking a class 1 integron in Escherichia coli Using CRISPRi to block plasmid R388 class 1 integron, E. coli recombinants showed halted growth upon exposure to relevant antibiotics. A microplate alamarBlue assay showed that both subgenomic RNAs (sgRNAs) R3 and R6 led to 8- and 32-fold decreases in half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) for trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole, respectively. Reverse transcription and quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) revealed that the strain employing sgRNA R6 exhibited 97% and 84% decreases in the transcriptional levels of the dfrB2 cassette and sul1, two typical ARGs, respectively. RT-qPCR analysis also demonstrated that the strain recruiting sgRNA R3 showed a 96% decrease in the transcriptional level of intI1, and a conjugation assay revealed a 1,000-fold decrease in HGT rates of ARGs. Overall, the sgRNA R3 targeting the 31 bp downstream of the Pc promoter on the intI1 nontemplate strand outperformed other sgRNAs in reducing integron activity. Furthermore, this CRISPRi system is reversible, genetically stable, and titratable by varying the concentration of the inducer. To our knowledge, this is the first report on exploiting a CRISPRi system to reduce the class 1 integron in E. coli This study provides valuable insights for future development of CRISPRi-based antimicrobial agents and cellular therapy to suppress MDR.

Bacterial catabolism of s-triazine herbicides: biochemistry, evolution and application

The synthetic s-triazines are abundant, nitrogen-rich, heteroaromatic compounds used in a multitude of applications including, herbicides, plastics and polymers, and explosives. Their presence in the environment has led to the evolution of bacterial catabolic pathways in bacteria that allow use of these anthropogenic chemicals as a nitrogen source that supports growth. Herbicidal s-triazines have been used since the mid-twentieth century and are among the most heavily used herbicides in the world, despite being withdrawn from use in some areas due to concern about their safety and environmental impact. Bacterial catabolism of the herbicidal s-triazines has been studied extensively. Pseudomonas sp. strain ADP, which was isolated more than thirty years after the introduction of the s-triazine herbicides, has been the model system for most of these studies; however, several alternative catabolic pathways have also been identified. Over the last five years, considerable detail about the molecular mode of action of the s-triazine catabolic enzymes has been uncovered through acquisition of their atomic structures. These structural studies have also revealed insights into the evolutionary origins of this newly acquired metabolic capability. In addition, s-triazine-catabolizing bacteria and enzymes have been used in a range of applications, including bioremediation of herbicides and cyanuric acid, introducing metabolic resistance to plants, and as a novel selectable marker in fermentation organisms. In this review, we cover the discovery and characterization of bacterial strains, metabolic pathways and enzymes that catabolize the s-triazines. We also consider the evolution of these new enzymes and pathways and discuss the practical applications that have been considered for these bacteria and enzymes. One Sentence Summary: A detailed understanding of bacterial herbicide catabolic enzymes and pathways offer new evolutionary insights and novel applied tools.

Mobile Genetic Elements in Pseudomonas stutzeri

Mobile genetic elements (MGE) play a large role in the plasticity of genomes, participating in several phenomena which involve genes acquisition. Pseudomonas stutzeri is an environmental widely distributed bacteria. This bacteria has a very large genomic plasticity, which would explain its occurrence in several different environments. NCBI data bank and online programs were used to build an inventory to investigate diversity and structure of MGE in Pseudomonas stutzeri, searching for insertion sequences (IS), integrases/transposases, plasmids and prophages. Five hundred and forty-eight ISs, 62 integrases, 166 transposases, five plasmids and eight complete prophages were found. MGE location and adjacent genes were investigated. Possible implications of the presence of these mobile elements explaining phenotypic diversity of Pseudomonas stutzeri were discussed. The study showed that MGEs might be good clues to understand the dynamics of genomes and their phenotypic plasticity, although they are not the only elements responsible for these characteristics.

Screening of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degrading bacterial isolates from oil refinery wastewater and detection of conjugative plasmids in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon tolerant and multi-metal resistant bacteria

Wastewater were collected from the effluent channel in the vicinity of Mathura oil refinery, U.P. (India) and analysed for physicochemical characteristics, heavy metals as well as organic compounds including PAHs. The interaction of PAHs and heavy metals with various group of microorganisms revealed the viable count of aerobic heterotrophs, asymbiotic nitrogen fixers, actinomycetes and fungi were found to be 2.38 × 10⁶, 1.89 × 10⁴, 2.20 × 10⁴ CFU/mL and 8.76 × 10³ CFU/mL respectively. We have selected and screened 50 bacterial isolates for their resistance/tolerance to heavy metal and PAHs. Out of 25 multi-metal resistant isolates, 6 were able to tolerate PAHs at the concentration of 5000 μg/mL (50μg/disc) to naphthalene, anthracene, phenanthrene and pyrene. The PAH degradation efficiency of the isolates was assessed using spectrophotometer with 100 μg/mL of phenanthrene and observed different degree of degradation ranging from 34-66% after 96 h of incubation. One of the bacterial isolates KWB3 (identified as Enterobacter ludwigii by 16S rDNA sequencing) exhibited maximum degradation efficiency (66%) was further tested for phenanthrene degrading ability in the presence and absence of a co-substrate (glucose) in a mineral salt medium; and a number of metabolites were produced and detected by GC-MS which revealed the presence of benzocoumarin, phthalic acid, catechol and several low molecular weight compounds. The DNA derived from multi-metal and PAHs tolerant bacteria were PCR amplified using Inc specific primers and positive PCR products were obtained with oriT and trfA2 of the IncP group; indicates that these bacteria have gene-mobilizing capacity.

Lessons from the genomes of lindane-degrading sphingomonads

Bacterial strains capable of degrading man-made xenobiotic compounds are good materials to study bacterial evolution towards new metabolic functions. Lindane (γ-hexachlorocyclohexane, γ-HCH, or γ-BHC) is an especially good target compound for the purpose, because it is relatively recalcitrant but can be degraded by a limited range of bacterial strains. A comparison of the complete genome sequences of lindane-degrading sphingomonad strains clearly demonstrated that (i) lindane-degrading strains emerged from a number of different ancestral hosts that have recruited lin genes encoding enzymes that are able to channel lindane to central metabolites, (ii) in sphingomonads lin genes have been acquired by horizontal gene transfer mediated by different plasmids and in which IS6100 plays a role in recruitment and distribution of genes, and (iii) IS6100 plays a role in dynamic genome rearrangements providing genetic diversity to different strains and ability to evolve to other states. Lindane-degrading bacteria whose genomes change so easily and quickly are also fascinating starting materials for tracing the bacterial evolution process experimentally in a relatively short time period. As the origin of the specific lin genes remains a mystery, such genes will be useful probes for exploring the cryptic 'gene pool' available to bacteria.

A genomic island in a plant beneficial rhizobacterium encodes novel antimicrobial fatty acids and a self-protection shield to enhance its competition

Rhizobacteria devote a relatively large percentage of their genomes to encode bioactive natural products that are important for competition in the rhizosphere. In this study, a plant beneficial rhizobacterium Bacillus velezensis SQR9 was discovered to produce novel antibacterial fatty acids, Bacillunoic acids, which are encoded on a genomic island (GI). This GI contains a hybrid type I fatty acid synthase (FAS)-polyketide synthase (PKS) system and an ABC transporter. The FAS was predicted to synthesize a primer that was transferred to the PKS to synthesize Bacillunoic acids. The synthesized Bacillunoic acids inhibit the growth of diverse bacteria, with the strongest activity against closely related Bacillus strains, the ABC transporter exported the toxic Bacillunoic acids upon their induction for protecting the producing strain. The inhibition of other Bacillus strains by Bacillunoic acids extended the antimicrobial spectrum of SQR9 and enhanced its competition with closely related root-associated bacteria. So, through the obtaining of this GI by horizontal gene transfer, strain SQR9 not only acquired a competitive weapon but also acquired a self-protecting shield, which increased its competition with other rhizobacteria.

Metabolic adaptation of fungal strains in response to contamination by polychlorinated biphenyls

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) represent a large group of recalcitrant environmental pollutants. Up to now, many studies have focused on bioremediation of PCBs by fungal strains; however, the mechanisms of adaptation of these strains towards PCBs remain unknown despite their importance in developing effective bioremediation processes. We studied five species, each consisting of two strains isolated either from PCB-polluted or PCB-unpolluted substrates (control strains). We investigated their responses to PCB contamination by studying their tolerance to PCBs, their ability to reduce these pollutants, and their expression level of Laccase genes. In Thermothelomyces thermophila, Thermothelomyces heterothallica, Thermoascus crustaceus, and Fusarium solani, all the studied strains showed a similar tolerance and PCB degradation regardless of their origin. In Schizophyllum commune, while both strains showed similar resistance to PCBs, i.e., PCBs and their degradation products presented no toxicity for these strains, the rate of PCB degradation of the strain from a PCB-polluted environment was significantly slightly higher. The PCB degradation did not correlate with the expression level of genes encoding Laccases. These results demonstrate that the tolerance and PCB degradation by the fungal strains, which did not involve Laccase genes, required different adaptation systems which seem to be constitutive or rapidly inducible by PCB according to the fungal species.

Exploring bacterial functionality in mangrove sediments and its capability to overcome anthropogenic activity

Mangrove forests are highly productive yet vulnerable ecosystems that act as important carbon sinks ("blue carbon"). The objective of this work was to analyze the impact of anthropogenic activities on microbiome structure and functioning. The metagenomic analysis revealed that the taxonomic compositions were grossly similar across all mangrove microbiomes. Remarkably, these microbiomes, along the gradient of anthropogenic impact, showed fluctuations in the relative abundances of bacterial taxa predicted to be involved in sulfur cycling processes. Functions involved in sulfur metabolism, such as APS pathways (associated with sulfate reduction and sulfur oxidation processes) were prevalent across the microbiomes, being sox and dsrAB genes highly expressed on anthropogenically-impacted areas. Apparently, the oil-impacted microbiomes were more affected in taxonomic than in functional terms, as high functional redundancies were noted across them. The microbial gene diversity found was typical for a functional system, even following the previous disturbance.

Biostimulation potentials of corn steep liquor in enhanced hydrocarbon degradation in chronically polluted soil

The effects of corn steep liquor (CSL) on hydrocarbon degradation and microbial community structure and function was evaluated in field-moist soil microcosms. Chronically polluted soil treated with CSL (AB4) and an untreated control (3S) was compared over a period of 6 weeks. Gas chromatographic fingerprints of residual hydrocarbons revealed removal of 95.95% and 94.60% aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon fractions in AB4 system with complete disappearance of nC₁-nC₈, nC₁₀, nC₁₅, nC₂₀-nC₂₃ aliphatics and aromatics such as naphthalene, acenaphthylene, fluorene, phenanthrene, pyrene, benzo(a)anthracene, and indeno(123-cd)pyrene in 42 days. In 3S system, there is removal of 61.27% and 66.58% aliphatic and aromatic fractions with complete disappearance of nC₂ and nC₂₁ aliphatics and naphthalene, acenaphthylene, fluorene, phenanthrene, pyrene, and benzo(a)anthracene aromatics in 42 days. Illumina shotgun sequencing of the DNA extracted from the two systems showed the preponderance of Actinobacteria (31.46%) and Proteobacteria (38.95%) phyla in 3S and AB4 with the dominance of Verticillium (22.88%) and Microbacterium (8.16%) in 3S, and Laceyella (24.23%), Methylosinus (8.93%) and Pedobacter (7.73%) in AB4. Functional characterization of the metagenomic reads revealed diverse metabolic potentials and adaptive traits of the microbial communities in the two systems to various environmental stressors. It also revealed the exclusive detection of catabolic enzymes in AB4 system belonging to the aldehyde dehydrogenase superfamily. The results obtained in this study showed that CSL is a potential resource for bioremediation of hydrocarbon-polluted soils.

Into the Thermus Mobilome: Presence, Diversity and Recent Activities of Insertion Sequences Across Thermus spp

A high level of transposon-mediated genome rearrangement is a common trait among microorganisms isolated from thermal environments, probably contributing to the extraordinary genomic plasticity and horizontal gene transfer (HGT) observed in these habitats. In this work, active and inactive insertion sequences (ISs) spanning the sequenced members of the genus Thermus were characterized, with special emphasis on three T. thermophilus strains: HB27, HB8, and NAR1. A large number of full ISs and fragments derived from different IS families were found, concentrating within megaplasmids present in most isolates. Potentially active ISs were identified through analysis of transposase integrity, and domestication-related transposition events of ISTth7 were identified in laboratory-adapted HB27 derivatives. Many partial copies of ISs appeared throughout the genome, which may serve as specific targets for homologous recombination contributing to genome rearrangement. Moreover, recruitment of IS1000 32 bp segments as spacers for CRISPR sequence was identified, pointing to the adaptability of these elements in the biology of these thermophiles. Further knowledge about the activity and functional diversity of ISs in this genus may contribute to the generation of engineered transposons as new genetic tools, and enrich our understanding of the outstanding plasticity shown by these thermophiles.

Intra- and inter-field diversity of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid-degradative plasmids and their tfd catabolic genes in rice fields of the Mekong delta in Vietnam

The tfd genes mediating degradation of the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) differ in composition and organization in bacterial isolates from different geographical origin and are carried by different types of mobile genetic elements (MGE). It is not known whether such global diversity of 2,4-D-catabolic MGE and their tfd gene cargo is reflected in the diversity at field scale. The genomic context of the 2,4-D catabolic genes of 2,4-D-degrading isolates from two rice fields with a 2,4-D application history, located in two distant provinces of the Vietnam Mekong delta, was compared. All isolates were β-proteobacteria, were unique for each rice field and carried the catabolic genes on MGE and especially plasmids. Most plasmids were IncP-1β plasmids and carried tfd clusters highly similar to those of the IncP-1β plasmid pJP4, typified by two chlorophenol catabolic gene modules (tfd-I and tfd-II). IncP-1β plasmids from the same field showed small deletions and/or insertions in accessory metabolic genes. One plasmid belonged to an unclassified plasmid group and carries a copy of both tfdA and tfd-II identical to those in the IncP-1β plasmids. Our results indicate intra-field evolution and inter-field exchange of 2,4-D-catabolic IncP-1β plasmids as well as the exchange of tfd genes between different plasmids within a confined local environment.

Chemotaxis by Pseudomonas putida (ATCC 17453) towards camphor involves cytochrome P450cam (CYP101A1)

The camphor-degrading microorganism, Pseudomonas putida strain ATCC 17453, is an aerobic, gram-negative soil bacterium that uses camphor as its sole carbon and energy source. The genes responsible for the catabolic degradation of camphor are encoded on the extra-chromosomal CAM plasmid. A monooxygenase, cytochrome P450_cam, mediates hydroxylation of camphor to 5-exo-hydroxycamphor as the first and committed step in the camphor degradation pathway, requiring a dioxygen molecule (O₂) from air. Under low O₂ levels, P450_cam catalyzes the production of borneol via an unusual reduction reaction. We have previously shown that borneol downregulates the expression of P450_cam. To understand the function of P450_cam and the consequences of down-regulation by borneol under low O₂ conditions, we have studied chemotaxis of camphor induced and non-induced P. putida strain ATCC 17453. We have tested camphor, borneol, oxidized camphor metabolites and known bacterial attractants (d)-glucose, (d) - and (l)-glutamic acid for their elicitation chemotactic behavior. In addition, we have used 1-phenylimidazole, a P450_cam inhibitor, to investigate if P450_cam plays a role in the chemotactic ability of P. putida in the presence of camphor. We found that camphor, a chemoattractant, became toxic and chemorepellent when P450_cam was inhibited. We have also evaluated the effect of borneol on chemotaxis and found that the bacteria chemotaxed away from camphor in the presence of borneol. This is the first report of the chemotactic behaviour of P. putida ATCC 17453 and the essential role of P450_cam in this process.