Study on superoxide and hydroxyl radicals generated in indirect electrochemical oxidation by chemiluminescence and UV-Visible spectra

Interplay between Catalyst Corrosion and Homogeneous Reactive Oxygen Species in Electrochemical Ozone Production

Electrochemical ozone production (EOP), a six-electron water oxidation reaction, offers promising avenues for creating value-added oxidants and disinfectants. However, progress in this field is slowed by a dearth of understanding of fundamental reaction mechanisms. In this work, we combine experimental electrochemistry, spectroscopic detection of reactive oxygen species (ROS), oxygen-anion chemical ionization mass spectrometry, and computational quantum chemistry calculations to determine a plausible reaction mechanism on nickel- and antimony-doped tin oxide (Ni/Sb-SnO2, NATO), one of the most selective EOP catalysts. Antimony doping is shown to increase the conductivity of the catalyst, leading to improved electrochemical performance. Spectroscopic analysis and electrochemical experiments combined with quantum chemistry predictions reveal that hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a critical reaction intermediate. We propose that leached Ni4+ cations catalyze hydrogen peroxide into solution phase hydroperoxyl radicals (•OOH); these radicals are subsequently oxidized to ozone. Isotopic product analysis shows that ozone is generated catalytically from water and corrosively from the catalyst oxide lattice without regeneration of lattice oxygens. Further quantum chemistry calculations and thermodynamic analysis suggest that the electrochemical corrosion of tin oxide itself might generate hydrogen peroxide, which is then catalyzed to ozone. The proposed pathways explain both the roles of dopants in NATO and its lack of stability. Our study interrogates the possibility that instability and electrochemical activity are intrinsically linked through the formation of ROS. In doing so, we provide the first mechanism for EOP that is consistent with computational and experimental results and highlight the central challenge of instability as a target for future research efforts.

Electrocatalytic reduction of nitrate to ammonia by Pd/In modified Nickel foam electrode in aqueous solution

Nitrate pollution in surface water and ground water has drawn wide attention, which has brought challenges to human health and natural ecology. Electroreduction of nitrate to NH3 in waste water was a way to turn waste into wealth, which has attracted interest of many researchers. Using Nickel foam as substrate, we prepared Pd/In bimetallic electrode (NF-Pd/In) according to a two-step electrodeposition method. There are many irregularly shaped particles in the size range of 10 nm-100 nm accumulated on the surface of prepared NF-Pd/In electrode, which could supply high specific area and more active sites for nitrate electroreduction. FESEM-EDS, XRD and XPS analysis confirmed the uniform distribution of Pd and In on the surface of prepared NF-Pd/In electrode, with a mass ratio of 4.5/1. Above 96% of 100 mg/L NO3--N was removed and 95% of NH3 selectivity was reached after 5 h of reaction under -1.6 V vs. Ag/AgCl sat. KCl when using 0.05 mol/L of Na2SO4 as electrolyte. High concentration of NaCl (0.05 mol/L) in the test solution dramatically decreased the NH3 selectivity because the produced NH3 could be further oxidized to N2 by the formed HClO from Cl-. EIS tests indicated that the prepared NF-Pd/In electrode showed much lower electrode resistance than NF due to the adsorptive property and electrocatalytic ability for nitrate removal. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations indicated that the presence of In could promote the conversion of NO3- to *NO3 during the process of nitrate electroreduction to NH3. Circulating tests demonstrated the stability of prepared NF-Pd/In electrode.

Appraising efficacy of existing and advanced technologies for the remediation of beta-blockers from wastewater: A review

The discharge of emerging pollutants, such as beta-blockers (BB), has been recognized as one of the major threats to the environment due to the ecotoxicity associated with these emerging pollutants. The BB are prescribed to treat high blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases; however, even at lower concentration, these pollutants can pose eco-toxic impacts towards aquatic organisms. Additionally, owing to their recalcitrant nature, BB are not effectively removed through conventional technologies, such as activated sludge process, trickling filter and moving bed bioreactor; thus, it is essential to understand the degradation mechanism of BB in established as well as embryonic technologies, like adsorption, electro-oxidation, Fenton process, ultraviolet-based advance oxidation process, ozonation, membrane systems, wetlands and algal treatment. In this regard, this review articulates the recalcitrant nature of BB and their associated removal technologies. Moreover, the major advantages and limitations of these BB removal technologies along with the recent advancements with regard to the application of innovative materials and strategies have also been elucidated. Therefore, the present review intends to aid the researchers in improving the BB removal efficiency of these technologies, thus alleviating the problem of the release of BB into the environment.

Preparing Pd/Sn modified nickel foam electrode for nitrate removal from aqueous solutions

Nitrate pollution in ground water and surface water has been becoming a worldwide problem that poses a great challenge to steady water ecosystem and human health. Electrochemical reduction is a promising way to remove nitrate from water because of advantages. We prepared Pd/Sn modified nickel foam (NF) electrode according to a two-step electrodeposition method. The prepared NF-Pd/Sn electrode showed a micromorphology like "Karst Fengcong" with peaks, saddles and nadirs intertwined with each other. Pd⁰ and Sn⁰ were detected on the NF-Pd/Sn electrode and the mass ratio of Pd/Sn was 4.3/1. The NF-Pd/Sn electrode showed the highest reaction rate (k_obs: 0.543 h^-1) and removal efficiency (94%) under the condition of 100 mg N/L, 0.05 mol/L Na₂SO₄ and -1.6 V vs. Ag/AgCl sat. KCl. The highest N₂-selectivity (100%) was reached under the condition of 100 mg N/L, 0.05 mol/L NaCl and -1.6 V vs. Ag/AgCl sat. KCl. The microstructure of NF-Pd/Sn electrode like "Karst Fengcong" could provide large specific surface area and more active sites for nitrate adsorption and electrocatalytic reduction in aqueous solution. The adsorption and the reduction reaction of nitrate on the surface of NF-Pd/Sn could increase the electric current response in the test system.

Syntheses of flower and tube-like MoSe2 nanostructures for ultrafast piezocatalytic degradation of organic dyes on cotton fabrics

The synthesis of few-layered transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) with abundant exposure of the active site, viz., is an important key to achieve excellent dye degradation performance. Here, we have reported synthesis and ultrafast dye degradation performance of flowers-like MoSe₂ nanostructure (FMN) with ~230 nm in diameter and its transformation to tube-like MoSe₂ microstructure (~1 μm in length) by tuning the solvothermal reaction time. The piezoelectric devices are developed using the FMNs delivers the highest open-circuit voltage of ~ 2.12 V, which is ~21 times higher than that of the developed device with the tube-like MoSe₂ microstructure. The piezoelectric property of the synthesized samples has been judiciously utilized further for ultrafast degradation of organic dyes within 60-120 s only under the low-frequency (40 kHz) ultrasonication vibration in the dark. The estimated dye degradation efficiencies of the FMNs-based piezocatalyst are found to be ∼86% and 85% for degradation of Rhodamine B (RhB) and methylene blue (MB) dye within the 60 s, respectively. Also, the FMN has exhibited an excellent piezocatalytic dye degradation capability for RhB-MB dye mixture and dye loaded on a cotton fabric with an efficiency of ~98% (60 s) and 84% (120 s), respectively. The piezocatalytic dye degradation mechanism of FMNs has also been explained theoretically.

Complete arsenite removal from groundwater by UV activated potassium persulfate and iron oxide impregnated granular activated carbon

Removal of toxic arsenite [As(III)] from the contaminated surface and groundwater is essential for human health. However, direct arsenite removal is difficult compared to arsenate [As(V)]. Therefore, the peroxidation of arsenite to arsenate is vital for its effective removal from water. Herein, we investigated the removal efficiency of arsenic from groundwater by oxidizing it with UV activated potassium persulfate (KPS) and subsequently adsorbing it on iron oxide impregnated granular activated carbon (FeO/GAC). A batch experiment was carried out to determine the adsorption kinetics and thermodynamics. Further, the effects of the adsorbent mass (FeO/GAC), C/Fe molar ratio, pH, arsenic concentration, competing anions, and humic acid in arsenic adsorption was studied. The characterization of FeO/GAC adsorbent was investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), and zeta potential measurements. Using the UV activated KPS and FeO/GAC, a ∼100% removal amount was achieved for 10 ppm of the arsenic solution in 1 h. Also, the effect of pH showed the highest removal efficiency in the pH range of 6.0-7.0 and it decreased dramatically at higher and lower pH values. The groundwater collected from Cheongyang in South Korea was spiked with 10 ppm of the arsenic (III) and more than 82% removal of arsenic was achieved in 90 min even in the presence of natural contaminants. Therefore, the results suggest that the UV activated KPS with FeO/GAC provides an effective method for treating highly-arsenic-contaminated water sources and this may be a viable alternative method over the existing methods.

Application of percarbonate and peroxymonocarbonate in decontamination technologies

Sodium percarbonate (SPC) and peroxymonocarbonate (PMC) have been widely used in modified Fenton reactions because of their multiple superior features, such as a wide pH range and environmental friendliness. This broad review is intended to provide the fundamental information, status and progress of SPC and PMC based decontamination technologies according to the peer-reviewed papers in the last two decades. Both SPC and PMC can directly decompose various pollutants. The degradation efficiency will be enhanced and the target contaminants will be expanded after the activation of SPC and PMC. The most commonly used catalysts for SPC activation are iron compounds while cobalt compositions are applied to activate PMC in homogenous and heterogeneous catalytical systems. The generation and participation of hydroxyl, superoxide and/or carbonate radicals are involved in the activated SPC and PMC system. The reductive radicals, such as carbon dioxide and hydroxyethyl radicals, can be generated when formic acid or methanol is added in the Fe(II)/SPC system, which can reduce target contaminants. SPC can also be activated by energy, tetraacetylethylenediamine, ozone and buffered alkaline to generate different reactive radicals for pollutant decomposition. The SPC and activated SPC have been assessed for application in-situ chemical oxidation and sludge dewatering treatment. The challenges and prospects of SPC and PMC based decontamination technologies are also addressed in the last section.

Fullerenol as a photoelectrochemical nanoprobe for discrimination and ultrasensitive detection of amplification-free single-stranded DNA

Traditional approaches for nucleic acids detection require prior amplification of target genes, while nanomaterials-aided DNA biosensors are very magnificent but still suffer from the nanomaterial acquirement and limited sensitivity (above picomolar level). Herein, fullerenol C60(OH)25, a representative fullerene derivative, was employed as a photoelectrochemical (PEC) nanoprobe to achieve discrimination and ultrasensitive detection of amplification-free single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) down to sub-femtomolar level. The bonded hydroxyl groups with intense density endowed fullerenol to directly recognize and capture ssDNA-AuNPs via the hydrogen bonding interactions (H-bonds), leading to a sharply decreased photocurrent with quenching efficiency up to 85%, which could be attributed to the photo-generated electrons on the conduction band of fullerenol (-4.66 eV) preferentially migrating to the Fermi level of AuNPs (-5.1 eV) rather than the electrode. In the presence of target gene (mutant human p53 gene fragment), the H-bonds between fullerenol and ssDNA were competitively depleted during the base pairing process of complete hybridization between ssDNA and target, making double-stranded DNA-AuNPs (dsDNA-AuNPs) depart so that the photocurrent powerfully recovered. On basis of the photocurrent variation before and after target introduction, this proposed simple, rapid and ultrasensitive PEC biosensor for amplification-free target gene detection illustrated a wide liner ranged from 1 fM to 100 pM and a detection limit of 0.338 fM. This work presented an ingenious strategy for the discrimination and ultrasensitive detection of nucleic acids, and the well-designed PEC biosensor was further conducive to the impetus of clinic diagnostics.

Insights into real industrial wastewater treatment by Fenton's oxidation in gas bubbling reactors

In the present study, bubbling reactors (BRs) were chosen to design a new procedure for real industrial wastewater (WW) treatment by Fenton's oxidation. The process was carried out in BRs under batch mode for the treatment of a WW with a high organic load (chemical oxygen demand (COD) above 7000 mgO₂/L), being the efficient mixing of the liquid phase ensured by the gas bubbling. The parameters that influenced the WW treatment (i.e., H₂O₂ and Fe²⁺ concentration, and initial pH) were optimized in a smaller BR (0.5 L volumetric capacity); the maximum oxidation efficiency (dissolved organic carbon (DOC) removal = 52% and COD removal = 83% after 60 min) was reached under the following conditions: Q_air = 1.0 L/min (measured at room temperature and atmospheric pressure), [H₂O₂] = 22.5 g/L, [Fe²⁺] = 0.75 g/L, and pH = 4.6 - original WW pH. It was not detected any significant effect in the process efficiency of the air flow rate and gas phase composition (i.e., N_2, and air), but when the process was performed with continuous O₂ bubbling an increase in the DOC removal (from 43% to 53%) was observed after 5 min of oxidation. Even so, the high costs discourage the use of pure oxygen streams in real WWTPs. To understand the dynamics of the process, the continuous air bubbling was compared to another mixing mode (mechanical stirring), and similar mineralization was achieved, proving the feasibility of Fenton's process in a BR. In addition, the gas bubbling proved to be more efficient in terms of heat dissipation during the treatment, decreasing temperature profiles along the oxidation of heavily charged real effluents. An effective scale-up with a bubble column reactor with a higher volumetric capacity by a factor of almost one order of magnitude was also proved, providing similar mineralization. The final effluent was non-toxic and more biodegradable.

Fast determination of peroxymonosulfate by flow injection chemiluminescence using the Tb(III) ligand in micelle medium

Based on the chemiluminescence (CL) phenomenon of peroxymonosulfate (PMS) and Tb(III) enhanced by its ligand in a micelle microenvironment, a fast and sensitive flow injection CL method for PMS detection was proposed and applied to the analysis of different samples and PMS decomposition. Under the optimized conditions, a linear range was obtained from 4.0 × 10^-6  mol L^-1 to 2.0 × 10^-4  mol L^-1 with a high correlation coefficient (r = 0.9997), detection limit of 5.0 × 10^-7  mol L^-1 (S/N = 3) and relative standard deviation of 2.4% for 1.0 × 10^-5  mol L^-1 PMS (n = 9). This was successfully applied to the determination of PMS in Virkon powder, tap water, and swimming pool water samples with satisfactory recoveries from 94.8% to 104.8%. In particular, the analytical frequency could be as fast as five samples per minute because there was no reaction step before analysis and the CL phenomenon was instantaneous. Therefore, this CL method has also been successfully applied to investigate the PMS decomposition profiles in carbon material (carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibres, activated carbon and graphene oxide) catalysis systems, which followed pseudo-first-order kinetics with good correlation coefficients (r > 0.9305). Quenching experiments and electron spin resonance spectra verified that the CL phenomenon was due to the formation of singlet oxygen, and that hydroxyl and sulfate radicals might be important in the generation of singlet oxygen. Tb(III) is the luminescent emitter according to the characteristics emission bands of the fluorescence and CL spectra in different media.

Degradation of pharmaceutical compounds in water by oxygenated electrochemical oxidation: Parametric optimization, kinetic studies and toxicity assessment

The pharmaceutical compounds sulfamethoxazole (SMX), propranolol (PRO) and carbamazepine (CBZ) are biorecalcitrant and frequently detected in waters causing negative impacts on human health and aquatic organisms. Electrochemical oxidation appears as an effective option for the removal of recalcitrant compounds and its enhancement is an important issue for the removal of emerging compounds in water. The contribution of this research lies in the comprehensive analysis of the oxygenated electro chemical oxidation of CBZ, SMX and PRO using Nb/BDD mesh anode. The effect of treatment time, current, pH and oxygen injection on the SMX, PRO and CBZ degradation was assessed using Na₂SO₄ as electrolyte, process optimization was performed, by-products were identified, kinetic and toxicity tests were carried out using different electrolytes. Finally, the process effectiveness was tested using real secondary effluent spiked with the mixture of the pharmaceutical compounds and the acute toxicity was determined. The obtained results indicated that the oxygenated electrochemical oxidation allows effective simultaneous SMX, PRO and CBZ degradation, which showed a significant dependence of treatment time, current and oxygen injection in Na₂SO₄ electrolyte. At 90 min of electrolysis the parent compounds were detected as well as eight by-products. At 150 min of treatment, further to the already determined by-products and the parent compounds, appeared phenol and p-benzoquinone. Based on the identified compounds, degradation pathways were explained as a result of two main mechanisms: transformation (hydroxylation, deamination, desulfunation) and bond rupture. The kinetic study indicated an increase of the first-order kinetic constant in the oxygenated electrochemical oxidation process using Na₂SO₄ and NaBr as electrolyte, nevertheless the constant decreased in the presence of NaCl. In the assays with secondary effluent spiked with SMX, PRO and CBZ, the oxygenation did not enhance the performance of the process, however; pharmaceuticals were degraded with a higher removal rates compared with the ones determined in the Na₂SO₄ synthetic solutions assays; the oxygenation enhanced the TOC and COD removal. The acute toxicity of spiked secondary effluent was reduced from the first few minutes of the electrochemical oxidation process.

In Situ Photoelectrochemical Chloride Activation Using a WO3 Electrode for Oxidative Treatment with Simultaneous H2 Evolution under Visible Light

Reactive chlorine species (RCS) such as HOCl and chlorine radical species is a strong oxidant and has been widely used for water disinfection. This study investigated a photoelectrochemical (PEC) method of RCS production from ubiquitous chloride ions using a WO₃ film electrode and visible light. The degradation of organic substrates coupled with H₂ evolution using a WO₃ electrode was compared among electrochemical (EC), photocatalytic (PC), and PEC conditions (potential bias: +0.5 V vs Ag/AgCl; λ > 420 nm). The degradation of 4-chlorophenol, bisphenol A, acetaminophen, carbamazepine, humic acid, and fulvic acid and the inactivation of E. coli were remarkably enhanced by in situ RCS generated in PEC conditions, whereas the activities of the PC and EC processes were negligible. The activities of the WO₃ film were limited by rapid charge recombination in the PC condition, and the potential bias of +0.5 V did not induce any significant reactions in the EC condition. The PEC activities of WO₃ were limited in the absence of Cl^- but significantly enhanced in the presence of Cl^-, which confirmed the essential role of RCS in this PEC system. The PEC mineralization of organic compounds was also markedly enhanced in the presence of Cl^- where dark chemical chlorination by NaOCl addition induced a negligible mineralization. The H₂ generation was observed only at the PEC condition and was negligible at PC and EC conditions. On the other hand, the oxidation of chloride on a WO₃ photoanode produced chlorate (ClO₃^-) as a toxic byproduct under UV irradiation, but the visible light-irradiated PEC system generated no chlorate.

Surface Treatment with Non-thermal Humid Argon Plasma as a Treatment for Allergic Contact Dermatitis in a Mouse Model

Cold plasma generated at atmospheric pressure has attracted intense interest in biomedical applications, particularly as an antimicrobial treatment. Here we report the therapeutic effect of humidified cold argon plasma on allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) in a mouse model. Treatment was carried out with different gas compositions: argon gas containing small amounts of either N₂, O₂, or H₂O. The best effect was obtained using humid plasma (H₂O addition), where the ACD symptoms decreased after one or two 1-min plasma treatments. Even for severe ACD with ulcers and crust formation, the humid plasma-treated mice recovered faster than the control group. Histopathological analysis by H&E-staining showed enhanced epithelialization with formation of collagen and hair follicles in the affected skin after humid plasma exposure. The therapeutic ability of the humid argon plasma discharge was proposed to be induced by reactive oxygen species (H_xO_y) transported from the discharge zone, which are adhesive and accumulate on the skin surface, penetrating the subcutis to eliminate inflammation. However, in treatments using plasma with addition of oxygen or nitrogen (without water) the active gaseous species are blocked due to poor adhesion to and penetration into the dry ACD skin, with correspondingly poor treatment effects. The enhanced in vivo healing in ACD mice indicate the non-thermal humid plasma could be a potential alternative approach for therapy of ACD and other inflammatory skin diseases.

Electro-catalytic oxidation of phenacetin with a three-dimensional reactor: Degradation pathway and removal mechanism

Phenacetin is a common analgesic, anti-arthritic and anti-rheumatic drug. This study dealt with the degradation of phenacetin in alkaline media using a three-dimensional reactor with particle electrodes. Particular attention was paid to the degradation pathway and the reaction mechanism in the system. Liquid chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry was used to identify the intermediates. The phenacetin was observed to be firstly cut off the branch chains main by direct oxidation, and then the intermediates further degraded to ring opening products by hydroxyl radical resulting from indirect oxidation and finally mineralized to CO2, H2O. A possible removal mechanism was proposed that direct and indirect oxidation together did effect on the pollutants with oxygen.

Effects of polarization in the presence and absence of biocides on biofilms in a simulated paper machine water

The antifouling potential of electric polarization combined and not combined with biocides was studied in nonsaline warm water with high organic content. Deinococcus geothermalis is a bacterium known for forming colored biofilms in paper machines and for its persistence against cleaning and chemical treatments. When D. geothermalis biofilms grown for 24 h in simulated paper machine water were exposed to cathodic or cathodically weighted pulsed polarization at least 60% (P < 0.05) of the biofilms were removed from stainless steel (AISI 316L). Biofilm removal by 25 ppm (effective substances 5-25 ppm) of oxidizing biocides (bromochloro-5,5-dimethylhydantoin, 2,2-dibromo-2-cyanoacetamide, peracetic acid) increased to 70% when combined with cathodically weighted pulsed polarization. Using a novel instrument that allows real-time detection of reactive oxygen species (ROS) we showed that the polarization program effective in antifouling generated ROS in a pulsed manner on the steel surface. We thus suggest that the observed added value of oxidative biocides combined with polarization depended on ROS. This suggestion was supported by the finding that a reductive biocide, methylene bisthiocyanate, counteracted the antifouling effect of polarization.

On-line high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry-chemiluminescence assay of radical scavengers in Epimedium

An on-line analysis method for the simultaneous detection and identification of radical scavenging compounds in plant extracts was developed by combining HPLC with hydrogen dioxide radical scavenging and HPLC-DAD-MS-CL system. The structural identification and activity characteristics of various constituents could be rapidly achieved by the on-line assay of UV, MS and CL in one run. In 4 species of Epimedium studied 32 compounds, including phenolic acids, 8-isopentenyl-flavonoid glycosides and flavonoid glycosides containing a ortho-hydroxyl group, were identified by comparison with authentic standards and published mass data. Among these compounds, phenolic acids and flavonoid glycosides containing an ortho-hydroxyl group could obviously inhibit CL, which suggested their strong radical scavenging activity. These four species each exhibited different active properties, which might correlate to their respective quality. The results indicated that the on-line HPLC-DAD-MS-CL system would be a potential method to rapidly and sensitively screen radical scavengers in herbal medicines, and could display an integrated fingerprint based on different detectors.

Reaction of N-acylhomoserine lactones with hydroxyl radicals: rates, products, and effects on signaling activity

Chemical communication in bacteria, sometimes called quorum sensing, is a fundamental microbial process that is based on the exchange of molecular signals between cells. The signaling molecules involved in this process are thermodynamically unstable in some environments and their degradation affects microbial communication. This work reports the oxidation of a series of substituted N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs, a class of quorum sensing signals) by hydroxyl radicals. The corresponding bimolecular rate constants were obtained and correlated positively with the length of the acyl side chain (C, in numbers of carbon atoms) ranging from 2.4 × 10(9) M(-1) s(-1) to 9.4 × 10(9) M(-1) s(-1) (C4- to C10-AHL), 2.4 × 10(8) M(-1) s(-1) for 3-oxo C6-AHL, and 2.94 × 10(9) M(-1) s(-1) for 3-oxo C8-AHL. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric techniques were applied to qualify the identity and quantify the yields of the hydroxyl radical oxidation products of C6-AHL (aldo, keto, and hydroxylated C6-analogues identified). The biological activity of C6-AHL and associated products was determined using the Vibrio harveyi bioluminescence bioassay. Oxidation resulted in a net increase in assay response indexed against the starting AHL. This result suggested that the application of HO• based technologies such as advanced oxidation processes for biofilm control may result in unintended quorum sensing responses by microbial communities.

Characterization and free radical scavenging activity of rapeseed meal polysaccharides WPS-1 and APS-2

Two major polysaccharide fractions, WPS-1 and APS-2, were isolated from water-soluble and alkali-soluble extracts of Huaza No. 4 rapeseed meal with a stepwise procedure of D3520 macroporous adsorption resin column chromatography, ethanol precipitation, and DE-52 cellulose column chromatography. Physicochemical properties of the polysaccharides were determined by chemical methods, high -performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gel permeation chromatography (GPC), and Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR). The chemiluminescence (CL) method was used to investigate the free radical scavenging activity of the polysaccharide fractions. The polysaccharides were primarily polymers of arabinose, galactose, and glucose, associated with protein portions consisting of 13 different amino acids. The average molecular masses of WPS-1 and APS-2 were 7.20 x 10(5) and 1.61 x 10(5) Da, respectively. Compared with APS-2, WPS-1 was more effective at scavenging superoxide radical (O(2)(*-)) and hydroxyl radical (HO(*)), but less effective at scavenging hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)). In decreasing order, the free radical scavenging activity of WPS-1 and APS-2 toward reactive oxygen species (ROS) was H(2)O(2) > HO(*) > O(2)(*-).