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Mehrotra S, Kalyan BG P, Nayak PG, Joseph A, Manikkath J. Recent Progress in the Oral Delivery of Therapeutic Peptides and Proteins: Overview of Pharmaceutical Strategies to Overcome Absorption Hurdles. Adv Pharm Bull 2024; 14:11-33. [PMID: 38585454 PMCID: PMC10997937 DOI: 10.34172/apb.2024.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose Proteins and peptides have secured a place as excellent therapeutic moieties on account of their high selectivity and efficacy. However due to oral absorption limitations, current formulations are mostly delivered parenterally. Oral delivery of peptides and proteins (PPs) can be considered the need of the hour due to the immense benefits of this route. This review aims to critically examine and summarize the innovations and mechanisms involved in oral delivery of peptide and protein drugs. Methods Comprehensive literature search was undertaken, spanning the early development to the current state of the art, using online search tools (PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect and Scopus). Results Research in oral delivery of proteins and peptides has a rich history and the development of biologics has encouraged additional research effort in recent decades. Enzyme hydrolysis and inadequate permeation into intestinal mucosa are the major causes that result in limited oral absorption of biologics. Pharmaceutical and technological strategies including use of absorption enhancers, enzyme inhibition, chemical modification (PEGylation, pro-drug approach, peptidomimetics, glycosylation), particulate delivery (polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, micelles, microspheres), site-specific delivery in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), membrane transporters, novel approaches (self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems, Eligen technology, Peptelligence, self-assembling bubble carrier approach, luminal unfolding microneedle injector, microneedles) and lymphatic targeting, are discussed. Limitations of these strategies and possible innovations for improving oral bioavailability of protein and peptide drugs are discussed. Conclusion This review underlines the application of oral route for peptide and protein delivery, which can direct the formulation scientist for better exploitation of this route.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonal Mehrotra
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka State, India
| | - Pavan Kalyan BG
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka State, India
| | - Pawan Ganesh Nayak
- Department of Pharmacology,Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka State, India
| | | | - Jyothsna Manikkath
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka State, India
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Kommineni N, Sainaga Jyothi VGS, Butreddy A, Raju S, Shapira T, Khan W, Angsantikul P, Domb AJ. SNAC for Enhanced Oral Bioavailability: An Updated Review. Pharm Res 2023; 40:633-650. [PMID: 36539668 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-022-03459-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The delivery of proteins and peptides via an oral route poses numerous challenges to improve the oral bioavailability and patient compliance. To overcome these challenges, as well as to improve the permeation of proteins and peptides via intestinal mucosa, several chemicals have been studied such as surfactants, fatty acids, bile salts, pH modifiers, and chelating agents, amongst these medium chain fatty acid like C10 (sodium caprate) and Sodium N-[8-(2-hydroxybenzoyl) amino] caprylate (SNAC) and its derivatives that have been well studied from a clinical perspective. This current review enumerates the challenges involved in protein and peptide delivery via the oral route, i.e., non-invasive routes of protein and peptide administration. This review also covers the chemistry behind SNAC and toxicity as well as mechanisms to enhance the oral delivery of clinically proven molecules like simaglutide and other small molecules under clinical development, as well as other permeation enhancers for efficient delivery of proteins and peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagavendra Kommineni
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Hyderabad, Telangana, India.
| | - Vaskuri G S Sainaga Jyothi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Arun Butreddy
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, 38677, USA
| | - Saka Raju
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Tovi Shapira
- School of Pharmacy and Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Hadassah Medical Center, Ein Kerem Campus, 91120, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Wahid Khan
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
- Natco Research Centre, NATCO Pharma Limited, Hyderabad, 500018, India
| | - Pavimol Angsantikul
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Abraham J Domb
- School of Pharmacy and Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Hadassah Medical Center, Ein Kerem Campus, 91120, Jerusalem, Israel.
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3
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Patil S, Narvekar A, Puranik A, Jain R, Dandekar P. Formulation of Therapeutic Proteins: Strategies for Developing Oral Protein Formulations. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/9783527812172.ch12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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4
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Dumont C, Bourgeois S, Fessi H, Jannin V. Lipid-based nanosuspensions for oral delivery of peptides, a critical review. Int J Pharm 2018; 541:117-135. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.02.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2018] [Revised: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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5
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Targeting of gastrointestinal tract for amended delivery of protein/peptide therapeutics: Strategies and industrial perspectives. J Control Release 2014; 196:168-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2014] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 09/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Sahu KK, Minz S, Kaurav M, Pandey RS. Proteins and peptides: The need to improve them as promising therapeutics for ulcerative colitis. ARTIFICIAL CELLS NANOMEDICINE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2014; 44:642-53. [PMID: 25379956 DOI: 10.3109/21691401.2014.975239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The present review briefly describes the nature, type and pathogenesis of ulcerative colitis, and explores the potential use of peptides and proteins in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease, especially ulcerative colitis. Intestinal absorption and the barrier mechanism of peptide and protein drugs are also discussed, with special emphasis on various strategies which make these drugs better therapeutics having high specificity, potency and molecular targeting ability. However, the limitation of such therapeutics are oral administration, poor pharmacokinetic profile and decreased bioavailability. The recent findings illustrated in this review will be helpful in designing the peptide/protein drugs as a promising treatment of choice for ulcerative colitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kantrol Kumar Sahu
- a Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya , Bilaspur, C.G. , India
| | - Sunita Minz
- a Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya , Bilaspur, C.G. , India
| | - Monika Kaurav
- a Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya , Bilaspur, C.G. , India
| | - Ravi Shankar Pandey
- a Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya , Bilaspur, C.G. , India
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7
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Karaman R. Prodrugs Design Based on Inter- and Intramolecular Chemical Processes. Chem Biol Drug Des 2013; 82:643-68. [DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.12224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2013] [Revised: 08/13/2013] [Accepted: 08/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rafik Karaman
- Bioorganic Chemistry Department; Faculty of Pharmacy; Al-Quds University; P.O. Box 20002 Jerusalem Palestine
- Department of Science; University of Basilicata; Via dell'Ateneo Lucano 10 85100 Potenza Italy
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8
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Karaman R, Fattash B, Qtait A. The future of prodrugs – design by quantum mechanics methods. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2013; 10:713-29. [DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2013.786699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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9
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Karaman R, Karaman D, Zeiadeh I. Computationally-designed phenylephrine prodrugs – a model for enhancing bioavailability. Mol Phys 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/00268976.2013.779395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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10
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Khafagy ES, Kamei N, Takeda-Morishita M. Cell-penetrating Peptide-biodrug Strategy for Oral and Nasal Delivery: Review of Recent Findings. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecm.2012.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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11
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Pedersen BT, Ostergaard J, Larsen SW, Cornett C, Ankersen M, Larsen C. Physicochemical characteristics and in vitro release from oil-based vehicles of peptidomimetics: parenteral depots for intra-articular administration. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2010; 37:62-71. [PMID: 20545510 DOI: 10.3109/03639045.2010.491831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
RESULTS Basic physicochemical properties including their apparent solubility in aqueous buffer and vegetable oils of a series of 11 peptidomimetics varying with respect to chain length and degree of N-methylation were estimated. It was observed that the compounds in contact with water transformed into sticky, slowly dissolving semisolid materials. Based on these observations, the in vitro release behavior of selected peptide derivatives from oil solutions and in situ formed precipitates was investigated using a validated in vitro release model. CONCLUSION The results of this investigation suggest that both types of oil-based drug delivery systems might constitute alternative sustained release formulation principles of such amorphous peptide derivatives for the intra-articular route of administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Thoning Pedersen
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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Morishita M, Peppas NA. Is the oral route possible for peptide and protein drug delivery? Drug Discov Today 2006; 11:905-10. [PMID: 16997140 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2006.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 351] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2006] [Revised: 07/14/2006] [Accepted: 08/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Oral delivery of peptides and proteins remains an attractive alternative to parenteral delivery and has challenged various attempts at delivery development. Incorporation of new tools into the delivery systems that can raise membrane permeability of macromolecules is essential to attain high oral bioavailability that is acceptable in clinical applications. In developing oral protein delivery systems with high bioavailability, three practical approaches might be most helpful: (1) modification of the physicochemical properties of macromolecules; (2) addition of novel function to macromolecules; or (3) use of improved delivery carriers. Clearly, it is essential that these approaches maintain the biological activity of the proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariko Morishita
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Hoshi University, Ebara 2-4-41, Shinagawa, Tokyo 142-8501, Japan.
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13
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Abstract
Enzymes are essential for the activation of many prodrugs. In this review, the most important enzymes (e.g., paraoxonase, carboxylesterase, acetylcholinesterase, cholinesterase) involved in the bioconversion of ester-based prodrugs will be discussed in terms of their biology and biochemistry. Most of these enzymes fall into the category of hydrolytic enzymes. However, nonhydrolytic enzymes, including cytochrome P450s, can also catalyze the bioconversion of ester prodrugs and thus will be discussed here. Other factors influencing the ability of these enzymes to catalyze the bioconversion of ester-based prodrugs, particularly species and interindividual differences and stereochemical and structural features of the prodrugs, will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca M Liederer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, The University of Kansas, 2095 Constant Avenue, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
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14
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Abstract
A wide variety of peptide drugs are now produced on a commercial scale as a result of advances in the biotechnology field. Most of these therapeutic peptides are still administered by the parenteral route because of insufficient absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Peptide drugs are usually indicated for chronic conditions, and the use of injections on a daily basis during long-term treatment has obvious drawbacks. In contrast to this inconvenient and potentially problematic method of drug administration, the oral route offers the advantages of self-administration with a high degree of patient acceptability and compliance. The main reasons for the low oral bioavailability of peptide drugs are pre-systemic enzymatic degradation and poor penetration of the intestinal mucosa. A considerable amount of research has focused on overcoming the challenges presented by these intestinal absorption barriers to provide effective oral delivery of peptide and protein drugs. Attempts to improve the oral bioavailability of peptide drugs have ranged from changing the physicochemical properties of peptide molecules to the inclusion of functional excipients in specially adapted drug delivery systems. However, the progress in developing an effective peptide delivery system has been hampered by factors such as the inherent toxicities of absorption-enhancing excipients, variation in absorption between individuals, and potentially high manufacturing costs. This review focuses on the intestinal barriers that compromise the systemic absorption of intact peptide and protein molecules and on the advanced technologies that have been developed to overcome the barriers to peptide drug absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josias H Hamman
- School of Pharmacy, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa.
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15
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Testa B. Prodrug research: futile or fertile? Biochem Pharmacol 2004; 68:2097-106. [PMID: 15498500 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2004.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2004] [Accepted: 07/01/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this Commentary is to help clarify and illustrate what prodrugs are, what they are not, which benefits they can offer, and what their limits are. To this end, a number of criteria of classification and evaluation are presented. This is followed by a discussion of the pharmaceutical, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic objectives of prodrug research. Recent examples (e.g. oseltamivir, bambuterol, capecitabine, clopidogrel and tirapazamine) are discussed in a biochemical perspective to illustrate these objectives and to demonstrate some of the therapeutic benefits afforded by successful prodrugs. Attention is also called to the fact that the in vitro and in vivo behavior of prodrug candidates may differ from that of the parent drug in ways that go beyond the original pharmaceutical, pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic objective being pursued. We conclude that prodrugs offer a viable strategy to disentangle pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Testa
- Pharmacy Department, University Hospital Centre, CHUV/BH-04, 46 Rue du Bugnon, CH-1011 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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16
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Yang JZ, Bastian KC, Moore RD, Stobaugh JF, Borchardt RT. Quantitative analysis of a model opioid peptide and its cyclic prodrugs in rat plasma using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence and tandem mass spectrometric detection. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2002; 780:269-81. [PMID: 12401352 DOI: 10.1016/s1570-0232(02)00536-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Two analytical methods were developed for quantitative determination of DADLE (H(2)N-Tyr-D-Ala-Gly-Phe-D-Leu-COOH) and its two cyclic prodrugs in rat plasma. For high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (LC-FLU), precolumn derivatization of DADLE was accomplished by labeling the N-terminal amino group with the reagent naphthalene-2,3-dicarboxaldehyde in the presence of cyanide (NDA/CN) to form a highly fluorescent 1-cyanobenz[f]isoindole (CBI) derivative. A multi-dimensional LC system was employed to improve selectivity, and solid-phase extraction (SPE) was used for plasma sample preparation. The cyclic prodrugs were converted to DADLE prior to their derivatization. With fluorescence detection after derivatization, the limit of quantitation (LOQ) was 6 ng ml(-1) for the analysis of DADLE, and good linearity was observed up to 6000 ng ml(-1) in rat plasma. Quantitative analysis of DADLE and its cyclic prodrugs was also performed using liquid chromatography interfaced to electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS-MS). Chromatographic separation was achieved on a C(18) column using gradient elution in a water-acetonitrile system containing 0.1% (v/v) formic acid. The tandem mass spectrometric analysis was performed in the multiple reaction monitoring mode using internal standardization to improve assay precision and accuracy. For plasma sample pretreatment, acetonitrile was added first to precipitate proteins and SPE was used to minimize matrix effects. Using LC-ESI-MS-MS, the LOQ was 0.5 ng ml(-1) for DADLE and 2 to 5 ng ml(-1) for its prodrugs. Good linearity was observed from the LOQ up to 1000 ng ml(-1) for all compounds. For the analysis of DADLE, both analytical methods showed good precision, accuracy and stability. However, for prodrug analysis, LC-FLU showed some sensitivity and accuracy problems, while the LC-ESI-MS-MS method provided consistent and satisfactory results. In conclusion, LC-ESI-MS-MS is the method of choice for the analysis of DADLE and its cyclic prodrugs in rat plasma samples due to its good selectivity, high sensitivity, and fast analysis. Its application was demonstrated through biodisposition and bioconversion studies of the coumarinic acid-based prodrug after intravenous administration in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerry Z Yang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, The University of Kansas, 2095 Constant Avenue, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
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17
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Hugger ED, Audus KL, Borchardt RT. Effects of poly(ethylene glycol) on efflux transporter activity in Caco-2 cell monolayers. J Pharm Sci 2002; 91:1980-90. [PMID: 12210045 DOI: 10.1002/jps.10175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) is an excipient commonly used in pharmaceutical formulations to increase the aqueous solubility of drugs intended for oral administration. High concentrations of PEG are often used to solubilize drug candidates for in vitro experiments in cell culture (e.g., Caco-2 cell permeability studies) and/or for in vivo pharmacokinetic and safety studies in animals. Although PEG is often deemed safe in these studies based on gross morphological studies, changes on a molecular level may be overlooked. The purpose of this study was to determine the possible effects of PEG on efflux transporter activity in Caco-2 cell monolayers, an in vitro model of the intestinal mucosa. In these studies, relatively high, yet clinically achievable, concentrations of PEG-300 did not significantly change the passive paracellular or transcellular permeation of model solutes across Caco-2 cell monolayers. More importantly, PEG-300 inhibited efflux transporter activity in Caco-2 cell monolayers, which is probably mediated by P-gp and/or MRP. Such PEG-induced inhibition of efflux transporter activity is most likely caused by changes in the microenvironment of the Caco-2 cell membranes, which perturbs the ability of these transporters to efflux substrates such as taxol and doxorubicin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin D Hugger
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, The University of Kansas, 2095 Constant Avenue, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA.
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18
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Ouyang H, Morris-Natschke SL, Ishaq KS, Ward P, Liu D, Leonard S, Thakker DR. Structure-activity relationship for enhancement of paracellular permeability across Caco-2 cell monolayers by 3-alkylamido-2-alkoxypropylphosphocholines. J Med Chem 2002; 45:2857-66. [PMID: 12061888 DOI: 10.1021/jm020001x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Paracellular permeability enhancers have been used to improve the oral bioavailability of hydrophilic drugs; however, the mechanism of action of many enhancers is poorly understood. In this study, highly potent enhancers of paracellular permeability were identified in the 3-alkylamido-2-alkoxypropylphosphocholine series, and a structure-activity relationship was developed for enhancement of paracellular permeability across Caco-2 cell monolayers. Compounds with short (<5 carbons) hydrocarbon chains at both C-2 and C-3 were generally inactive. The potency exhibited a parabolic relationship with respect to the chain length at either C-2 or C-3. Linear molecules (i.e., compounds with a short hydrocarbon chain at C-2 or C-3 and a long hydrocarbon chain on C-3 or C-2, respectively) were more potent than the corresponding branched molecules with the same carbon load. The efficacy of 3-alkylamido-2-alkoxypropylphosphocholines as enhancers of paracellular permeability was not dependent on their existence in micellar form or their ability to alter the fluidity of cell membrane. Previously, a correlation between the potency of alkylphosphocholines as enhancers of paracellular permeability and the inhibitors of phospholipase C (PLC) was established in Madine Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cell monolayers. The potencies of selected 3-alkylamido-2-alkoxypropylphosphocholines as inhibitors of PLC and enhancers of paracellular permeability fit well into this correlation. Therefore, phosphocholines are likely to increase paracellular permeability by modulating the signal transduction pathway initiated by a PLC-catalyzed reaction rather than by physically altering the cell membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Ouyang
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Products, School of Pharmacy, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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Ouyang H, Vander Velde DG, Borchardt RT, Siahaan TJ. Synthesis and conformational analysis of a coumarinic acid-based cyclic prodrug of an opioid peptide with modified sensitivity to esterase-catalyzed bioconversion. THE JOURNAL OF PEPTIDE RESEARCH : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN PEPTIDE SOCIETY 2002; 59:183-95. [PMID: 11972752 DOI: 10.1034/j.1399-3011.2002.1o983.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The coumarinic acid-based cyclic DADLE (H-Tyr-D-Ala-Gly-Phe-D-Leu-OH) prodrug 1a exhibited more favorable physicochemical properties than did DADLE for permeation across the intestinal mucosa. However, prodrug 1a, whose bioconversion to DADLE was slow, was subject to extensive biliary clearance when administered to rats in vivo. To increase the rate of esterase-catalyzed bioconversion of prodrug 1a, thus decreasing its biliary clearance, the oxymethyl-modified prodrug 1, in which an aldehyde equivalent is inserted between the phenolic group of the promoiety and the carboxylic acid group of the peptide, was synthesized from benzofuran-2-carboxylic acid 16 via a nine-step procedure. Briefly, phenacyl-protected 3-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-propynoic acid 17 was coupled with Boc-d-Leu-OCH(2)I 5 to give the intermediate 18, which was further elaborated and conjugated with tetrapeptide 4 to give linear precursor 2. Precursor 2 was then deprotected and cyclized to obtain compound 1 using a high dilution technique. In an attempt to investigate the effect of the physicochemical properties and the conformation of prodrug 1 on its permeation characteristics, we calculated its physicochemical parameters and determined its solution conformation using spectroscopic techniques (CD and NMR) and molecular dynamics simulations. Prodrug 1 showed a cLogP value and a molecular size similar to that of prodrug 1a. The deconvoluted CD spectra indicated that prodrug 1 has more random component (71%) than prodrug 1a (42%). 2D-NMR studies of prodrug 1 showed no signals for amide-amide hydrogen interactions and few ROE cross-peaks in ROESY spectra. Using distance restraints constructed from ROESY spectra, molecular dynamics simulations of prodrug 1 generated five conformation families. One family satisfied most of the distance restraints and all of the dihedral angles measured by NMR coupling constants. In summary, prodrug 1 showed favorable physicochemical properties for permeation of the intestinal mucosa. Prodrug 1 adopted a more random conformation in solution than prodrug 1a. These differences in solution conformation could affect the permeation of the prodrugs across the intestinal mucosa by passive diffusion and/or their ability to interact with efflux transporter(s) that would limit their transcellular permeation.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Ouyang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence 66047, USA
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20
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Wang W, Camenisch G, Sane DC, Zhang H, Hugger E, Wheeler GL, Borchardt RT, Wang B. A coumarin-based prodrug strategy to improve the oral absorption of RGD peptidomimetics. J Control Release 2000; 65:245-51. [PMID: 10699284 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-3659(99)00241-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, major progress has been made in the design and synthesis of fibrinogen antagonists, which are peptidomimetic Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) analogs. These RGD analogs are very promising antiplatelet agents. However, the clinical development of orally active RGD analogs has been hindered by the low oral bioavailability of many such RGD analogs. Aimed at enhancing their oral bioavailability, we have synthesized several coumarin-based cyclic prodrugs of RGD analogs, which have the two most polar functional groups, a carboxyl and an amino group, masked as an ester and an amide, respectively. As expected, these cyclic prodrugs have higher membrane interaction potentials as estimated by determining their partitioning between aqueous buffer and an immobilized artificial membrane than the corresponding RGD analogs. Consequently, these cyclic prodrugs are 5-6-fold more able to permeate monolayers of Caco-2 cells, an in vitro cell culture model of the intestinal mucosa barrier. Preliminary studies using dog also indicate the promising potential of using this coumarin-based prodrug strategy to improve the oral bioavailability of such RGD analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Wang
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
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21
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Pagliara A, Reist M, Geinoz S, Carrupt PA, Testa B. Evaluation and prediction of drug permeation. J Pharm Pharmacol 1999; 51:1339-57. [PMID: 10678488 DOI: 10.1211/0022357991777164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
A major challenge confronting the pharmaceutical scientist is to optimize the selective and efficient delivery of new active entities and drug candidates. Successful drug development requires not only optimization of specific and potent pharmacodynamic activity, but also efficient delivery to the target site. Following advances in rational drug design, combinatorial chemistry and high-throughput screening techniques, the number of newly discovered and promising active compounds has increased dramatically in recent years, often making delivery problems the rate-limiting step in drug research. To overcome these problems, a good knowledge of the pharmacokinetic barriers encountered by bioactive compounds is required. This review gives an overview of the properties of relevant physiological barriers and presents some important biological models for evaluation of drug permeation and transport. Physicochemical determinants in drug permeation and the relevance of quantitative and qualitative approaches to the prediction and evaluation of passive drug absorption are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Pagliara
- Institut de Chimie Thérapeutique, Université de Lausanne, Switzerland
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22
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Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) was unambiguously identified in the year 1989 as the agent responsible for most cases of non-A, non-B hepatitis, a chronic disease that often leads to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Having developed the means to detect the virus in the general population, it is now apparent that HCV infection is widespread and is likely to remain a health threat unless effective treatments are developed. The inability to propagate the virus in tissue culture and the scarcity of convenient animal models have proved to be major obstacles in drug discovery. Despite these limitations, several opportunities exist for targeted drug development based on the viral enzymes that have been characterized so far. These targets and inhibitors reported to be active against them are discussed in the following review.
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Affiliation(s)
- MA Walker
- Bristol-Myers Squibb, Pharmaceutical Research Institute, 5 Research Pkwy, Wallingford, CT 06492, USA
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23
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Abstract
Prodrug strategies applied to peptides have tended to focus on modification of a single functional group (e.g., N-terminal end). Recently, our laboratory introduced the concept of making cyclic prodrugs of peptides as a way to modify their physicochemical properties sufficiently to allow them to permeate biological barriers (i.e., intestinal mucosa). This cyclization strategy required the development of new 'chemical linkers,' including an acyloxyalkoxy linker, a phenylpropionic acid linker, and a coumarinic acid linker. All three chemical linkers were designed to be susceptible to esterase metabolism (slow step), leading to a cascade of chemical reactions (fast steps) that result in release of the peptide. These cyclic prodrug strategies have been applied to opioid peptides in an attempt to stabilize them to metabolism and/or improve their intestinal mucosal permeation. Specifically, we prepared acyloxyalkoxy-, phenylpropionic acid- and coumarinic acid-based cyclic prodrugs of [Leu(5)]-enkephalin (H-Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Leu-OH) and its metabolically stable analog DADLE (H-Tyr-D-Ala-Gly-Phe-D-Leu-OH) and determined their metabolic and biopharmaceutical properties. The cyclic prodrugs of these opioid peptides were shown to have: (i) favorable physicochemical properties (e.g., increased lipophilicity) for membrane permeation; (ii) unique solution structures (e.g., beta-turns) that reduce their hydrogen bonding potential; and (iii) metabolic stability to exo- and endopeptidases. The cell membrane permeation characteristics of [Leu(5)]-enkephalin, DADLE and the cyclic peptide prodrugs were evaluated using Caco-2 cell monolayers, a cell culture model of the intestinal mucosa. The phenylpropionic acid- and coumarinic acid-based cyclic prodrugs of [Leu(5)]-enkephalin and DADLE were shown to have significantly better cell permeation characteristics than the parent opioid peptides. Furthermore, these cyclic prodrugs were shown to be transcellular permeants (in contrast to the opioid peptides, which are paracellular permeants), and were not substrates for polarized efflux systems. Surprisingly, the acyloxyalkoxy-based prodrugs of [Leu(5)]-enkephalin and DADLE were shown to exhibit very low permeation through Caco-2 cell monolayers, which could be attributed to their substrate activity for efflux systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- R T Borchardt
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA.
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24
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Liao Y, Wang B. Substituted coumarins as esterase-sensitive prodrug moieties with improved release rates. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1999; 9:1795-800. [PMID: 10406644 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(99)00289-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Our laboratory has recently reported a coumarin-based prodrug system for the preparation of esterase-sensitive prodrugs of amines, peptides, and peptidomimetics. However, the release from this prodrug system was undesirably slow for some drug moieties. In this report, we describe the synthesis and evaluation of several substituted coumarin-based prodrugs of model amines with significantly increased release rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Liao
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh 27695-8204, USA
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25
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Lepist EI, Ostergaard J, Fredholt K, Lennernäs H, Friis GJ. Stability and perfusion studies of Desmopressin (dDAVP) and prodrugs in the rat jejunum. EXPERIMENTAL AND TOXICOLOGIC PATHOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE GESELLSCHAFT FUR TOXIKOLOGISCHE PATHOLOGIE 1999; 51:363-8. [PMID: 10445399 DOI: 10.1016/s0940-2993(99)80023-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Three aliphatic carboxylic acid esters of the tyrosine phenolic group in Desmopressin (dDAVP) were investigated in vitro for their stability and metabolism in rat gastrointestinal media. The degradation followed strictly first-order kinetics and the prodrugs were quantitatively converted to dDAVP. The n-hexanoyl (II) and n-octanoyl (III) esters were rapidly hydrolysed in 10% rat jejunal fluid showing half-lives of 1.1+/-0.2 min and 1.4+/-0.1 min, respectively. In 5 % rat jejunal homogenate the half-lives were 3.2+/-0.2 min and <30 sec, respectively. The sterically hindered pivalate ester (I) proved to be more stable. The half-lives were 10.3+/-0.3 min in 10% rat jejunal fluid and 1.5+/-0.1 min in 10% rat jejunal homogenate, respectively. The presence of paraoxon, an inhibitor of type B esterases significantly decreased the degradation rate of the pivalate ester (I) in rat jejunal fluid (t1/2 > 5 hrs) indicating that the prodrug is converted to dDAVP by rapid luminal breakdown of the ester bond. It was shown that approximately 13 % of prodrug I disappeared from the gut lumen during a single-pass perfusion experiment in rat jejunum. Our results indicate that the disappearance from the jejunal lumen was primarily caused by degradation of the prodrug to dDAVP by esterases rather than absorption. The better stability of the sterically hindered prodrug (I) indicate that even more sterically hindered prodrugs will be a better choice for a further optimization of stability and lipophilicity, and consequently a potentially improved intestinal absorption of dDAVP.
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Affiliation(s)
- E I Lepist
- The Royal Danish School of Pharmacy, Copenhagen
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26
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Wang B, Nimkar K, Wang W, Zhang H, Shan D, Gudmundsson O, Gangwar S, Siahaan T, Borchardt RT. Synthesis and evaluation of the physicochemical properties of esterase-sensitive cyclic prodrugs of opioid peptides using coumarinic acid and phenylpropionic acid linkers. THE JOURNAL OF PEPTIDE RESEARCH : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN PEPTIDE SOCIETY 1999; 53:370-82. [PMID: 10406215 DOI: 10.1034/j.1399-3011.1999.00071.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In an attempt to improve the membrane permeabilities of opioid peptides, we have synthesized cyclic prodrugs of [Leu5]-enkephalin and DADLE using a coumarinic acid or a phenylpropionic acid linker. The synthesis of the coumarinic acid- and phenylpropionic acid-based cyclic prodrugs followed similar strategies. Key intermediates were the compounds with the C-terminal amino acids of opioid peptides (L-Leu, [Leu5]-enkephalin; D-Leu, DADLE) attached to the phenol hydroxyl group and the remaining amino acids of the peptide linked via the N-terminal amino acid (L-Tyr) attached to the carboxylic acid groups of the prodrug moieties (coumarinic acid or propionic acid). Cyclization of these linear precursors gave the cyclic prodrugs in 30-50% yields. These cyclic prodrugs exhibited excellent transcellular permeation characteristics across Caco-2 cell monolayers, an in vitro model of the intestinal mucosa. To correlate the cellular permeabilities of these cyclic prodrugs with their physicochemical properties, we calculated their Stokes-Einstein molecular radii from their diffusion coefficients which were determined by NMR and we determined their membrane interaction potentials using immobilized artificial membrane (IAM) column chromatography. The cyclic prodrugs exhibited molecular radii similar to those of the parent compounds, [Leu5]-enkephalin and DADLE. However, these cyclic prodrugs were shown to have much higher membrane interaction potentials than their corresponding opioid peptides. Therefore, the enhanced cellular permeation of the cyclic prodrugs is apparently due to the alteration of their lipophilicity and hydrogen bonding potential, but not their molecular sizes.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Cell Membrane Permeability/drug effects
- Chemical Phenomena
- Chemistry, Physical
- Coumaric Acids/chemistry
- Enkephalin, Leucine/chemistry
- Enkephalin, Leucine/pharmacology
- Enkephalin, Leucine-2-Alanine/chemistry
- Enkephalin, Leucine-2-Alanine/pharmacology
- Esterases/metabolism
- Membranes, Artificial
- Models, Biological
- Opioid Peptides/chemical synthesis
- Opioid Peptides/chemistry
- Opioid Peptides/metabolism
- Peptides, Cyclic/chemical synthesis
- Peptides, Cyclic/chemistry
- Peptides, Cyclic/metabolism
- Permeability
- Phenylpropionates/chemistry
- Prodrugs/chemical synthesis
- Prodrugs/chemistry
- Prodrugs/metabolism
- Prodrugs/pharmacology
- Structure-Activity Relationship
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Affiliation(s)
- B Wang
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh 27695-8204, USA.
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27
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Gudmundsson OS, Jois SD, Vander Velde DG, Siahaan TJ, Wang B, Borchardt RT. The effect of conformation on the membrane permeation of coumarinic acid- and phenylpropionic acid-based cyclic prodrugs of opioid peptides. THE JOURNAL OF PEPTIDE RESEARCH : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN PEPTIDE SOCIETY 1999; 53:383-92. [PMID: 10406216 DOI: 10.1034/j.1399-3011.1999.00076.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In an earlier study using Caco-2 cells, an in vitro cell culture model of the intestinal mucosa, we have shown that the coumarinic-based (3 and 4) and the phenylpropionic acid-based (5 and 6) cyclic prodrugs were more able to permeate the cell monolayers than were the corresponding opioid peptides, [Leu5]-enkephalin (1, H-Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Leu-OH) and DADLE (2, H-Tyr-D-Ala-Gly-Phe-D-Leu-OH). In an attempt to explain the increased permeation of the cyclic prodrugs, we have determined the possible conformations of these cyclic prodrugs in solution, using spectroscopic techniques (2D-NMR, CD) and molecular dynamics simulations. Spectroscopic as well as molecular dynamic studies indicate that cyclic prodrug 4 exhibits two major conformers (A and B) in solution. Conformer A exhibited a type I beta-turn at Tyr1-D-Ala2-Gly3-Phe4. The presence of a turn was supported by ROE cross-peaks between the NH of D-Ala2 and the NH of Gly3 and between the NH of Gly3 and the NH of Phe4. Conformer B of cyclic prodrug 4 consisted of type II beta-turns at the same positions. The type II turn was stabilized by hydrogen bonding, thus forming a more compact structure, whereas the type I turn did not exhibit similar intramolecular hydrogen bonding. Spectroscopic data for compounds 3, 5 and 6 are consistent with the conclusion that these cyclic prodrugs have solution structures similar to those observed with cyclic prodrug 4. The increased lipophilicity and well-defined secondary structures in cyclic prodrugs 3-6, but not in the linear peptides 1 and 2, could both contribute to the enhanced ability of these prodrugs to permeate membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- O S Gudmundsson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence 66047, USA
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28
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Zheng A, Wang W, Zhang H, Wang B. Two new improved approaches to the synthesis of coumarin-based prodrugs. Tetrahedron 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4020(99)00121-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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29
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Pauletti GM. Peptidomimetics designed for oral absorption. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s1874-5113(99)80005-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
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30
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Affiliation(s)
- B Testa
- School of Pharmacy, University of Lausanne, Switzerland.
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31
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Testa B, Mayer J. Molecular toxicology and the medicinal chemist. FARMACO (SOCIETA CHIMICA ITALIANA : 1989) 1998; 53:287-91. [PMID: 9658587 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-827x(98)00012-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Drug metabolism has a number of pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic consequences which cannot be ignored even at the early stages of drug research. A number of aspects of drug metabolism are thus of interest to medicinal chemists, e.g. prodrug and soft drug design. This mini-review focuses mainly on toxication resulting from reactions of functionalization and conjugation. In the former case, oxidoreductases can reduce xenobiotics to nucleophilic radicals, or oxidize them to electrophilic and oxidizable metabolites. Conjugation reactions also play a role in toxication by generating lipophilic residues (e.g. hybrid triglycerides) or adduct-forming metabolites (e.g. some acylglucuronides), or by interfering with physiological pathways (e.g. Coenzyme A conjugates). Functional moieties undergoing such reactions are known as toxophoric groups. Because they are the biochemical endpoint of several toxication reactions, macromolecular adducts are now of special significance in molecular toxicology. But, as discussed in the conclusion, the substrate specificity of drug-metabolizing enzymes, the many biological factors that influence metabolism, and various repair and removal mechanisms all contribute to decrease toxicological risks and to protect organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Testa
- Institut de Chimie Thérapeutique, Ecole de Pharmacie, Université de Lausanne, Switzerland.
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