Language and internalizing and externalizing behavioral adjustment: developmental pathways from childhood to adolescence

Joint developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems from mid-childhood to late adolescence and childhood risk factors: Findings from a prospective pre-birth cohort

There is limited evidence on heterogenous co-developmental trajectories of internalizing (INT) and externalizing (EXT) problems from childhood to adolescence and predictors of these joint trajectories. We utilized longitudinal data from Raine Study participants (n = 2393) to identify these joint trajectories from 5 to 17 years using parallel-process latent class growth analysis and analyze childhood individual and family risk factors predicting these joint trajectories using multinomial logistic regression. Five trajectory classes were identified: Low-problems (Low-INT/Low-EXT, 29%), Moderate Externalizing (Moderate-EXT/Low-INT, 26.5%), Primary Internalizing (Moderate High-INT/Low-EXT, 17.5%), Co-occurring (High-INT/High-EXT, 17%), High Co-occurring (Very High-EXT/High-INT, 10%). Children classified in Co-occurring and High Co-occurring trajectories (27% of the sample) exhibited clinically meaningful co-occurring problem behaviors and experienced more adverse childhood risk-factors than other three trajectories. Compared with Low-problems: parental marital problems, low family income, and absent father predicted Co-occurring and High Co-occurring trajectories; maternal mental health problems commonly predicted Primary Internalizing, Co-occurring, and High Co-occurring trajectories; male sex and parental tobacco-smoking uniquely predicted High Co-occurring membership; other substance smoking uniquely predicted Co-occurring membership; speech difficulty uniquely predicted Primary Internalizing membership; child's temper-tantrums predicted all four trajectories, with increased odds ratios for High Co-occurring (OR = 8.95) and Co-occurring (OR = 6.07). Finding two co-occurring trajectories emphasizes the importance of early childhood interventions addressing comorbidity.

Care providers' view of the barriers in providing care for adolescents with emotional and behavioral problems

Objectives

Emotional and behavioral problems (EBP) during adolescence are a major public health issue due to its high prevalence and long-lasting consequences. The knowledge of the barriers in providing psychosocial care can be a starting point for subsequent efficiency improvement. Therefore, the aim of this study is to assess which barriers do care providers experience while providing psychosocial care for adolescents with EBP.

Methods

We performed a qualitative assessment that was embedded in the Slovak Care4Youth study mapping the system of care provided for adolescents with EBP. We conducted 25 semi-structured individual and group interviews with a total of 49 care providers from 17 institutions that provided preventive counselling, social, and mental healthcare for adolescents with EBP. We focused on the care provider's perception of barriers in providing care for these adolescents. The interviews were audiotaped and transcribed verbatim. We coded the data using the consensual qualitative research approach in combination with conventional content analysis.

Results

We found that care providers experienced several barriers in providing care for adolescents with EBP which relate to six themes-legislative framework and legislative changes; financing of the care system; coordination of care; workforce development, education, methodical guidance and supervision; personnel and institutional capacities; and administrative burden.

Conclusion

Addressing these barriers within the care system from the "front line" perspective provides clues to efficiently improve the psychosocial care for adolescents with EBP. According to the care providers, the organization and financing of the care system requires adaptation; the burden of the care providers should be reduced; and care providers require quality practical education, training, and methodological guidance.

Socioeconomic status, linguistic skills and language background differentially relate to preschoolers' emotional and behavioural profile

BACKGROUND

Proximal and distal factors interact to shape children's development and well-being. The present study aimed to examine socioeconomic status (SES), linguistic skills, and language background as concurrent predictors of socio-emotional and behavioural outcomes in heritage bilingual and monolingual children attending preschool.

METHODS

Parents of 1810 children (mean age = 63.42 months ± 7.36), attending preschool in Italy, completed the Four Factor Index of SES and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Teachers (n = 99) completed a questionnaire on children's linguistic skills and emotional and behavioural profiles. A subsample of 995 children was administered an expressive vocabulary task in Italian.

RESULTS

Regression analyses showed that linguistic skills were the only concurrent predictor of conduct problems, as well as the dominant predictor of hyperactivity/impulsivity, peer problems, and better prosocial behaviour. SES was negatively related to ADHD traits, peer problems, and prosocial behaviour. Finally, heritage bilingualism background was associated, although not as a primary predictor, with increased emotional problems, peer relationship problems, and lower teacher-rated emotional and behavioural skills. However, it was the main factor positively associated with prosocial behaviour.

CONCLUSIONS

The implications of these findings for research in this area and for educational policy are discussed, highlighting the need for a multidimensional perspective that includes linguistic skills and SES in the assessment of children's emotional and behavioural outcomes.

Between- and within-child level associations between externalizing and internalizing behavior problems in a nationally representative sample of US elementary school children

BACKGROUND

Both transactional and common etiological models have been proposed as explanations of why externalizing behavior problems (EBP) and internalizing behavior problems (IBP) co-occur in children. Yet little research has empirically evaluated these competing theoretical explanations. We examined whether EBP and IBP are transactionally related at the within-child level while also identifying antecedents commonly associated with between-child differences in underlying stability of both EBP and IBP across elementary school.

METHODS

We analyzed a nationally representative and longitudinal sample of US schoolchildren (N = 7,326; 51% male) using random-intercept cross-lagged panel modeling (RI-CLPM). We used teacher ratings of EBP and IBP as annually assessed from the spring of kindergarten (Mage = 6.12 years) through the spring of 5th grade (Mage = 11.09 years). Early childhood antecedents included child internal (i.e. inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and language/literacy) and external factors (i.e. parental warmth, harsh parenting, parenting stress, and maternal depressive symptoms).

RESULTS

We found little evidence for within-child, transactional relations between EBP and IBP. Both types of behavior problems instead were substantially associated at the between-child level. Inhibitory control was the strongest common antecedent that explained this longitudinal overlap. Cognitive flexibility, working memory, language/literacy skills, and maternal depression contributed specifically to the stability of IBP. Measures of parenting were specific to the stability of EBP.

CONCLUSIONS

Common etiological factors rather than transactional relations better explain the co-occurrence of EBP and IBP during elementary school. Inhibitory control is a promising target of early intervention efforts for schoolchildren at risk of displaying both EBP and IBP.

Relationship between cognitive ability and emotional problems in the context of poverty: a Nigerian adolescent twin study

Although previous studies have identified negative relationships between cognitive ability and emotional problems (EP), mechanism explaining these relationships remained unclear. This study evaluated two explanatory models using bivariate moderation model-fitting analysis in a twin design. The resilience model suggests that high cognitive ability decreases the risk of EP in adverse settings, and the scarring model suggests that EP symptoms lead to persistent cognitive deficits following onset. The Standard Progressive Matrices Plus (SPM) and EP scale were administered to a sample of 3,202 twins (mean age = 14.62 ± 1.74 years) attending public schools in Nigeria. The results of bivariate moderation model-fitting analyses only supported the resilience model. Moderation effects were not significant in the scarring model when genetic and environmental influences were incorporated. The best-fitting bivariate moderation model assuming the resilience model yielded a genetic correlation of - 0.57 (95% CI =  - 0.40, - 0.84) with no significant environmental correlations. Moreover, the SPM moderated the environmental, not genetic, influences on EP, such that environmental influences were strong when protective factors were absent (low SPM) and weak when these were present (high SPM). These results indicate the need to develop targeted prevention and intervention strategies for EP in adolescents displaying low cognitive ability in deprived settings.

Bidirectional associations between mental health problems and language ability across 8 years of childhood

Research examining the development of behavior, emotions and language, and their intertwining is limited as only few studies had a longitudinal design, mostly with a short follow-up period. Moreover, most studies did not evaluate whether internalizing symptoms and externalizing symptoms are independently associated with language ability. This study examines bidirectional associations between internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms and language ability in childhood in a large, population-based cohort. Longitudinal data from the Millennium Cohort Study, a cohort of children in the United Kingdom followed from birth to 11 years (n = 10,878; 50.7% boys), were analyzed. Internalizing and externalizing symptoms were based on parent reports. Language ability (higher scores reflecting poorer ability) was assessed by trained interviewers at ages 3, 5, 7 and 11 years. Structural Equation Models (SEM) were performed, including random-intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPM) and cross-lagged panel models (CLPM). Internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms and language ability were stable over time and co-occur with each other from early life onwards. Over time, externalizing symptoms in early childhood were associated with less growth in language skills and with increases in internalizing symptoms. In late childhood, language ability was negatively associated with later internalizing and externalizing symptoms. The early start, co-occurrence and persistent nature of internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms and (poorer) language ability highlights the importance of comprehensive assessments in young children who present problems in one of these domains. Specifically, among children in the early grades of elementary school, those with language difficulties may benefit from careful monitoring as they are more likely to develop difficulties in behavior and emotions.

Vocabulary size predicts behavioral problems in emotionally reactive children

Internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems place children at an increased risk for low academic achievement and socioemotional maladjustment. Children's language skills and level of emotional reactivity have been shown to predict behavioral problems later in development. Yet, there is an absence of research investigating vocabulary by negative emotionality interactions with respect to the development of behavioral problems during early childhood. Our study sought to fill this gap by examining whether the relation between preschool (age 3) vocabulary size and internalizing/externalizing problems during the early school years (age 6) is moderated by preschool negative emotional reactivity, even after controlling for preschool behavioral problems as well as children's socioeconomic background. Longitudinal data was collected from 256 typically developing children (129 girls, 75% White) and their mothers (64% held a college degree). Linear regression analyses revealed moderate rank-order stability in children's internalizing and externalizing problems across this period of development. Evidence of an interaction effect emerged in both the internalizing and externalizing problems regression models. That is, age 3 vocabulary was negatively related to age 6 behavioral problems, but only among children exhibiting higher levels of negative emotional reactivity. Our results indicate that early vocabulary acquisition may serve as a buffer against adverse behavioral outcomes in children with a natural propensity toward expressing negative emotions. These findings point to a more nuanced picture of the relations between language, emotional reactivity, and behavioral problems in childhood, which are discussed in greater detail to inform future intervention and educational research.

Anxiety, academic achievement, and academic self-concept: Meta-analytic syntheses of their relations across developmental periods

This systematic review examined how anxiety symptoms and anxiety disorders relate to academic achievement, school dropout, and academic self-concept. Studies with children or adult samples were included in seven meta-analyses (ks for number of samples ranged from 5 to 156; N's for participants ranged from 780 to 37, 203). Results revealed significant but very small effect sizes for the relations between anxiety and overall academic achievement (r = -.06), language achievement (r = -.07), and math achievement (r = -.09), and a nonsignificant effect size for science achievement (r = -.01). Participants with greater anxiety were also significantly more likely to not complete high school (r = .11). They also had a poorer overall academic self-concept (r = -.25) and mathematics self-concept (r = -.30). Few methodological moderators (e.g., study design, age) were significant. Results show that anxiety does not strongly hinder academic achievement, but it is an important correlate of dropout and academic self-concept, which in turn could contribute to poorer life outcomes. Interventions and preventive programs need to consider ways to ameliorate the relations of anxiety with academic outcomes, especially school continuation and academic self-concept. Future studies should identify risk factors that may amplify these relations.

Contributions of socioeconomic status and cognition to emotion processes and internalizing psychopathology in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review

This systematic review evaluated evidence from 25 manuscripts regarding three possible relationships of socioeconomic disadvantage (SESD) and cognition to emotion knowledge (EK), emotion regulation (ER), and internalizing psychopathology (IP) across development; a) independent contributions of disadvantage and cognition; b) cognition mediates relations of disadvantage; or c) cognition moderates' relations of disadvantage. Results support associations between SESD and cognition to emotion that differ by cognitive domain and developmental epoch. For EK, in early and middle childhood language and executive functions contribute to EK independent of SESD, and early childhood executive functions may interact with socioeconomic status (SES) to predict prospective EK. Regarding ER, language contributes to ER independent of SES across development and may mediate associations between SES and ER in adolescence. Regarding IP, SES, language, executive function, and general ability have independent contributions to IP across development; in adolescence executive function may mediate or moderate associations between SES and IP. Findings highlight the need for nuanced and developmentally sensitive research on the contributions of SESD and domains of cognition to emotion.

Transactional associations between vocabulary and disruptive behaviors during the transition to formal schooling

This study investigated the transactional relations between vocabulary and disruptive behaviors (DB; physical aggression and opposition/rule breaking/theft and vandalism), during the transition to formal schooling, using a community sample of 572 children. Cross-lagged panel model analyses were used to examine bidirectional relationships, comparing physical aggression to non-aggressive DB. Transactional associations between vocabulary and DB were observed, coinciding with school entry. Lower vocabulary in preschool (60mo.) was predictive of higher physical aggression scores in kindergarten. In turn, higher physical aggression in kindergarten was predictive of lower vocabulary in 1st grade. For non-aggressive DB, recurrent associations were found. Lower verbal skills in preschool (42mo.) and kindergarten predicted higher non-aggressive DB scores later in preschool and in 1st grade respectively. In turn, higher non-aggressive DB in kindergarten predicted lower vocabulary scores in 1st grade. In contrast to transactional paths from vocabulary to DB, transactional paths from DB to vocabulary observed after the transition to elementary school remained significant after controlling for comorbid hyperactivity, impulsivity and inattention behaviors, suggesting these links were specific to aggressive and non-aggressive DB. Practical implications for prevention are discussed.

Poor written pragmatic skills are associated with internalising symptoms in childhood: evidence from a UK birth cohort study

Introduction

This study examined the relation between pragmatic language and internalising (depressive and anxiety) symptoms in 11-year-olds, using data from the 1958 British birth cohort study.

Methods

The cohort children were asked at age 11 to write an essay on their life as they imagined it would be at age 25. We analysed 200 of these essays for relevance, organisation and context-dependent references.

Results

We found associations between these aspects of pragmatic language and children's internalising symptom scores across parent and teacher ratings, even after adjustment for cognitive ability, socioeconomic position and structural language. Most notably, children writing more coherent essays had fewer teacher-rated internalising symptoms, after adjustment for confounders. Additionally, children who provided more relevant and varied information about their imagined future home-lives had fewer parent-rated internalising symptoms, after adjustment for confounders.

Discussion

The unique associations between pragmatic language skills and internalising symptoms observed are notable but preliminary, highlighting both the need for further research and potential applications for risk-assessment tools.

Socioemotional and behavioural difficulties in children with chronic physical conditions: analysis of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children

OBJECTIVES

To examine the prevalence of socioemotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBDs) in children with chronic physical conditions (CPCs) and to analyse how this prevalence varied with the type and number of CPCs and the age of the child.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study of a secondary data analysis of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children.

SETTING

An Australian nationally representative sample of general population of children.

PARTICIPANTS

15 610 children-waves aged 6-14 years.

INTERVENTION/EXPOSURE

Children reported to have at least 1 of the 21 CPCs by their parents.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Clinically relevant SEBDs were defined using standardised cut-offs of the parent-administered Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.

RESULTS

Children with a CPC have significantly increased odds of total, internalising and externalising SEBDs than those without (total SEBDs, adjusted odds rartio or OR 3.13, 95% CI 2.52 to 3.89), controlling for sex, age, socioeconomic status and parental mental health status. The highest prevalence of total SEBDs was found in children with chronic fatigue (43.8%), epilepsy (33.8%) and day wetting (31.6%). An increasing number of comorbid CPCs was associated with a rising prevalence of SEBDs. On average, 24.2% of children with at least four CPCs had SEBDs. These children had 8.83-fold increased odds (95% CI 6.9 to 11.31) of total SEBDs compared with children without a CPC. Age was positively related to the odds of SEBDs.

CONCLUSION

Children with a CPC have a significantly increased risk of having SEBDs than those without. These findings highlight the need for routine assessment and integrated intervention for SEBDs among children with CPCs.

Internalizing and externalizing problems mediate the relationship between maltreatment and self-harm among UK adolescents

BACKGROUND

Maltreatment is a significant predictive factor for self-harm in adolescents. Internalizing and externalizing problems are both common psychopathological issues in adolescents. This study aimed to look into the link between maltreatment and self-harm in a large sample of adolescents in the UK, as well as the mediating effects that internalizing and externalizing problems play in this link.

METHODS

Data were pulled from the UK Millennium Cohort Study, and a total of 8894 adolescents were included in this analysis. All variables were assessed by Questionnaires. Path analysis was performed to assess the mediating effects of internalizing and externalizing problems in the link between maltreatment and self-harm.

RESULTS

23.4 % of samples reported self-harm incidents during the preceding 12 months. Emotional abuse and physical abuse were significantly related to self-harm, and adolescents who had experienced multiple forms of maltreatment were more prone to self-harm. Mediation analysis revealed that internalizing problems were the primary mediator in the link between emotional abuse and self-harm, with the mediation effect size being 0.29. Internalizing and externalizing problems performed similarly in the link between physical abuse and self-harm, with mediation effect sizes of 0.23 and 0.19, respectively.

LIMITATIONS

The majority of the data was gathered through self-reporting.

CONCLUSIONS

Emotional abuse and physical abuse were significant predictors of self-harm, and their links with self-harm were partially mediated via internalizing and externalizing problems. Better supervision of maltreatment, and timely intervention for both internalizing and externalizing problems, are critical in preventing self-harm among adolescents.

Risk factors for early language delay in children within a minority ethnic, bilingual, deprived environment (Born in Bradford's Better Start): a UK community birth cohort study

BACKGROUND

Preschool language skills and language delay predict academic and socioemotional outcomes. Children from deprived environments are at a higher risk of language delay, and both minority ethnic and bilingual children can experience a gap in language skills at school entry. However, research that examines late talking (preschool language delay) in an ethnically diverse, bilingual, deprived environment at age 2 is scarce.

METHODS

Data from Born in Bradford's Better Start birth cohort were used to identify rates of late talking (≤10th percentile on the Oxford-Communicative Development Inventory: Short) in 2-year-old children within an ethnically diverse, predominantly bilingual, deprived UK region (N=712). The relations between known demographic, maternal, distal and proximal child risk factors, and language skills and language delay were tested using hierarchical linear and logistic regression.

RESULTS

A total of 24.86% of children were classified as late talkers. Maternal demographic factors (ethnicity, born in UK, education, financial security, employment, household size, age) predicted 3.12% of the variance in children's expressive vocabulary. Adding maternal language factors (maternal native language, home languages) and perinatal factors (birth weight, gestation) to the model predicted 3.76% of the variance. Adding distal child factors (child sex, child age) predicted 11.06%, and adding proximal child factors (receptive vocabulary, hearing concerns) predicted 49.51%. Significant risk factors for late talking were male sex (OR 2.07, 95% CI 1.38 to 3.09), receptive vocabulary delay (OR 8.40, 95% CI 4.99 to 14.11) and parent-reported hearing concerns (OR 7.85, 95% CI 1.90 to 32.47). Protective factors were increased household size (OR 0.85, 95% CI 0.77 to 0.95) and age (OR 0.82, 95% CI 0.70 to 0.96).

CONCLUSIONS

Almost one in four children living in an ethnically diverse and deprived UK area have early language delay. Demographic factors explained little variance in early vocabulary, whereas proximal child factors held more predictive value. The results indicate further research on early language delay is warranted for vulnerable groups.

Behaviors related to autism spectrum disorder in children with developmental language disorder and children with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome

Background and Aim

Children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) are at an increased risk to develop behaviors associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The relationship between early language difficulties and the occurrence of ASD-related behaviors in DLD is poorly understood. One factor that may hinder progress in understanding this relationship is the etiological heterogeneity of DLD. We therefore study this relationship in an etiologically homogeneous group of children, who share phenotypic characteristics with children with DLD: children with the 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome (22q11DS). We compare children with 22q11DS, to children with DLD and age-matched typically developing children (TD).

Method

44 children with 22q11DS, 65 children with DLD and 81 TD children, between 3.0-6.5 years old, participated in a longitudinal cohort study that included a baseline measure and a follow-up measure with a 1-year interval. A parental questionnaire (SRS-2) was used to measure the incidence of behaviors in two key behavioral domains associated with ASD: Social Communication and Interaction and Restricted Repetitive Behaviors and Interests. At baseline, we assessed children's expressive and receptive language abilities as well as their intellectual functioning with standardized tests. We compared the distribution of ASD-related behaviors between the three groups. We used regression analyses to investigate whether language abilities at baseline predict ASD-related behavior at follow-up, accounting for ASD-related behavior at baseline, demographic variables and intellectual functioning.

Results

Both the children with 22q11DS and the children with DLD displayed significantly more ASD-related behaviors than the TD children. Over 30% of children in both clinical groups had scores exceeding the subclinical threshold for ASD in both behavioral domains. Both in 22q11DS and DLD, baseline receptive language scores were negatively correlated with ASD-related behaviors 1 year later, when controlling for baseline SRS-scores. However, this association was statistically significant only in children with 22q11DS, even when controlled for IQ-scores, and it was significantly stronger as than in the TD group. The strength of the association did not differ significantly between 22q11DS and DLD.

Conclusion

Both children with 22q11DS and children with DLD present with elevated rates of ASD-related behaviors at a preschool-age. Only in children with 22q11DS we observed that weaker receptive language skills were related to increased behavioral problems in the domain of social communication and interaction one year later.

Implications

Our findings indicate that relations between early language impairment and other behavioral phenotypes may be more feasible to detect in a subgroup of children with a homogeneous etiology, than in a group of children with a heterogeneous etiology (such as children with DLD). Our results in 22q11DS reveal that receptive language is especially important in predicting the occurrence of ASD-related behaviors. Future research is needed to determine to what extent receptive language predicts the occurrence of ASD-related behaviors in children with DLD, especially among those children with DLD with the weakest receptive language. Clinically, screening for ASD-related behaviors in children with developmental language difficulties is recommended from a young age, especially among children with receptive language difficulties.

The role of parents in the care for adolescents suffering from emotional and behavioral problems

Background

Parents play an important role in the psychosocial care of their children. Previous research has primarily examined their role in care entry, whereas evidence on their role in other stages of the care process is scarce and lacking particularly in regard to the perspective of care providers. Our aim was therefore to examine how psychosocial care providers perceive the role of parents in the process of psychosocial care for adolescents.

Methods

We used data from 25 semi-structured interviews with psychosocial care providers on the roles of parents in the care process. We analyzed data using consensual qualitative research and thematic analysis.

Results

Four main themes were identified: (1) parents as a source of adolescents' problems; (2) parents trying to escape from responsibility for adolescents with problems; (3) parents as an active part of the care for adolescents; and (4) parents as a barrier to effective care.

Conclusion

Psychosocial care providers should specifically address the role of the parents in psychosocial care to improve outcomes. Specific interventions are needed to support the involvement of parents in care, as their role is important. Moreover, professionals can be better trained in working with multi-problem families also to resolve some of the negative perceptions of these parents.

Language disorder and internalizing mental health problems in youth offenders: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of language disorder in youth offenders far exceeds rates reported in community samples. Youth involved in the justice system are also at increased risk of a range of psychiatric disorders, including internalizing mental health problems (i.e., anxiety, depression). However, the frequency with which these co-occur in this population is not known. Understanding the co-occurrence of language disorder with anxiety and depression in youth offenders may contribute to more coordinated and targeted support for these vulnerable youth.

AIMS

To explore the co-occurrence of language disorder and anxiety and depression in youth offenders.

METHODS & PROCEDURES

A systematic literature search of six databases (CINAHL, ERIC, Medline, PyscINFO, PubMED, Scopus) was conducted (September 2021) using key search terms relevant to the systematic review question. Study inclusion criteria were: (1) original research published in English; (2) youth up to 21 years of age involved in the justice system; and (3) reported outcomes on language and anxiety and/or depression. All included studies were appraised using the Joanna Briggs Critical Appraisal tool checklist relevant to study design. Due to the heterogeneity of included studies, data synthesis was narrative.

MAIN CONTRIBUTION

Eight studies met the eligibility criteria. A range of measures was used to assess language abilities across samples. Only two studies directly addressed the relationship between language disorder and internalizing mental health problems; both found no significant correlation.

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS

Although the results did not support a significant relationship between language disorder and internalizing mental health problems in youth offenders, the two appear to occur comorbidly as evidenced by heightened rates of both in the included samples. This review highlights the need for more robust studies aimed to better understand this relationship. Stronger evidence may contribute to increased collaborative speech pathology and psychology services which might increase youth offenders' accessibility and engagement in intervention programmes (e.g., cognitive-behaviour therapy; interpersonal skills training; individual counselling).

WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS

What is already known on this subject The markedly high rates of language disorder in youth involved in the justice system have been widely reported. It is also known that externalizing mental health problems often bring youth in contact with the justice system. Though there is some information about the prevalence of internalizing mental health problems in this population, the co-occurrence of language disorder and internalizing mental health problems has not been examined as widely. What this study adds to existing knowledge This study aimed to identify the frequency of co-occurrence of language disorder and anxiety and/or depression in youth offenders. Although the results did not support a significant relationship between language disorder and internalizing mental health problems in this population, results of the review provide evidence of heightened rates of both. This study also provides a summary of the various measures used to assess language and internalizing mental health in youth offenders across the eight studies included in this review. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? It is possible that the tests and sub-tests used to identify language disorders and internalizing mental health problems were not sensitive enough to identify the full extent of youth offenders' needs. Identifying the presence of language disorders and internalizing mental health problems and recognizing the impact these may have on the communication and behaviours of an individual can better inform staff and therapists as they engage and interact with youth in the justice system.

Creating a developmental scale to chart the development of psychopathology with different informants and measures across time

Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) aims to advance a dimensional, multilevel understanding of psychopathology across the life span. Two key challenges exist in applying a developmental perspective to RDoC: First, the most accurate informants for assessing a person's psychopathology often differ across development (e.g., parents and teachers may be better informants of a person's externalizing problems in early childhood, whereas peer- and self-report may also be important to assess in adolescence). Second, many constructs change in their behavioral manifestation across development (i.e., heterotypic continuity). Thus, different informants and measures across time may be necessary to account for the construct's changing manifestation. The challenge of using different informants and measures of a construct across time is ensuring that the same construct is assessed in a comparable way across development. Vertical scaling creates a developmental scale to link scores from changing informants and measures to account for heterotypic continuity and study people's development of psychopathology across the life span. This is the first study that created a developmental scale to assess people's development by putting different informants and measures on the same scale. We examined the development of externalizing problems from ages 2 to 15 years (N = 1,364) using annual ratings by mothers, fathers, teachers, other caregivers, and self-report. The developmental scale linked different informants and measures on the same scale. This allowed us to chart people's growth trajectories and to identify multilevel risk factors, including poor verbal comprehension. Creating a developmental scale may be crucial to advance RDoC's goal of studying the development of psychopathology across the life span. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Indirect Relations between Language and Behavior Problems in Preschoolers: The Role of Executive Difficulties

The present study investigated the concurrent relations between language ability, executive difficulties, and behavior problems in a sample of 142 preschoolers ranging in age between 3 and 6 years of age. Language skills were assessed with a direct task, whereas ratings of executive difficulties and behavior problems were obtained from teachers. Regression analyses indicated that difficulties in flexibility and inhibitory self-control were positively associated with internalizing problems, and difficulties in inhibitory self-control were positively associated with externalizing problems. The associations between emergent metacognition and internalizing problems and between inhibitory self-control and externalizing problems were both moderated by sex, being stronger in boys than in girls. Lastly, language had indirect effects on internalizing problems by decreasing children's difficulties in flexibility, as well as on externalizing problems by decreasing children' difficulties in inhibitory self-control. Overall, these findings support the idea that low language skills may interfere with preschoolers' ability to exploit the executive functions of inner language to self-regulate their own behaviors, especially in boys.

Research Review: Language and specific learning disorders in children and their co-occurrence with internalizing and externalizing problems: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Some studies suggest that children with language and learning disorders (LLDs) show more internalizing and externalizing problems than their peers. However, the available evidence remains inconsistent, especially regarding the conditions under which these psychological problems occur.

METHODS

We performed a meta-analysis of studies comparing children with LLDs and controls on internalizing (53 independent samples, 135 effect sizes) and externalizing problems (37 independent samples, 61 effect sizes) separately.

RESULTS

Children with LLDs showed higher internalizing (Hedges' g = 0.36) and externalizing problems (Hedges' g = 0.42) than controls did. The group standardized difference in internalizing problems was moderated by the primary disorder, with children with language disorders showing more internalizing problems than those with reading disorders. The severity of the primary disorder, IQ, and age did not moderate Hedge's g between children with LLDs and controls in internalizing and externalizing outcomes. The same pattern was found for gender as a moderator of Hedge's g in internalizing problems, while findings for externalizing problems were inconclusive. The results were consistent when methodological variables were assessed, also for informant, sample size, and geographical area. Clinical samples with LLDs reported higher internalizing problems respect to those with difficulties, but findings on externalizing outcomes were limited. Similarly, results on the presence of additional symptoms in learning and language, self-concept, and socioeconomic status were inconclusive, as few studies reported this information. Results were robust when publication bias, publication year, and study quality were assessed.

CONCLUSIONS

There is evidence that children with LLDs report higher internalizing and externalizing problems than controls do. Children with language disorders seemed more vulnerable to report more internalizing problems, and clinical samples reported higher problems than those with difficulties. For clinical practice, assessment and interventions should target socioemotional skills to support the psychological well-being of children with LLDs.

As Steady as a Rock! Gaining Insight in Recruitment and Retention Among Primary School Children With Behavioural Problems in Sport Mix Club

The number of children dealing with behavioural problems is increasing. A major challenge in many health-supportive programmes is the recruitment and retention of these children. In the current study, Sport Mix Club (SMC), an approach to enhance socioemotional disorders of 4- to 12-year-old children through sport classes in municipality Vaals, the Netherlands, is used as an illustration. Where many studies faced difficulties getting and keeping children in their interventions, SMC overcame this challenge. Therefore, we decided to explore "What factors contribute to enhanced recruitment and retention procedures among children with behavioural problems in Sport Mix Club?" A qualitative case study design using the analysis of the administrative logbook of the SMC coach and trainees, individual interviews with the SMC coach, trainees (n = 2), school teachers (n = 3) and parents of participating children (n = 9), and four focus group interviews with children (n = 13) were carried out. During the recruitment and retention of SMC, the human psychological need of relatedness seemed to be of crucial value. The fact that the SMC coach: (1) made efforts to become a familiar face for children, parents and community partners beforehand; (2) showed enthusiasm; and (3) placed her focus on having fun as opposed to the children's problems, seemed to be decisive in the process of getting children to participate in SMC and retaining their participation.

Cognitive performance in children and adolescents with psychopathology traits: A cross-sectional multicohort study in the general population

Psychopathology and cognitive development are closely related. Assessing the relationship between multiple domains of psychopathology and cognitive performance can elucidate which cognitive tasks are related to specific domains of psychopathology. This can help build theory and improve clinical decision-making in the future. In this study, we included 13,841 children and adolescents drawn from two large population-based samples (Generation R and ABCD studies). We assessed the cross-sectional relationship between three psychopathology domains (internalizing, externalizing, dysregulation profile (DP)) and four cognitive domains (vocabulary, fluid reasoning, working memory, and processing speed) and the full-scale intelligence quotient. Lastly, differential associations between symptoms of psychopathology and cognitive performance by sex were assessed. Results indicated that internalizing symptoms were related to worse performance in working memory and processing speed, but better performance in the verbal domain. Externalizing and DP symptoms were related to poorer global cognitive performance. Notably, those in the DP subgroup had a 5.0 point lower IQ than those without behavioral problems. Cognitive performance was more heavily affected in boys than in girls given comparable levels of psychopathology. Taken together, we provide evidence for globally worse cognitive performance in children and adolescents with externalizing and DP symptoms, with those in the DP subgroup being most heavily affected.

A Pre-registered sticky mittens study: active training does not increase reaching and grasping in a swedish context

Several studies have previously investigated the effects of sticky mittens training on reaching and grasping development. However, recent critique casted doubts on the robustness of the motor effect of this training. The current study presents a pre-registered report that aimed to generalize these effects to Swedish infants. Three-month-old infants N = 96, 51 females, mostly White middle class in Uppsala, received daily, parent-led sticky mittens or observational training for 2 weeks or no training in 2019. Reaching and grasping abilities were assessed before and after training, using motion tracking and a 4-step reaching task. Sticky mittens training did not facilitate successful reaching. These results indicate that beneficial motor effects of sticky mittens training did not generalize to this sample.

Socio-Emotional Problems and Learning Skills of Roma and Recently Arrived Refugee Children in German Elementary Schools

Abstract. Background: In Germany, many recently arrived and minority families live in multi-ethnic, high-poverty districts. Multiple risk factors threaten their children’s development. Aims: We examined the socio-emotional problems of these children in relation to their academic learning skills and executive functioning. Method: We compared teacher-rated socio-emotional problems of n = 112 Roma children (90% foreign-born), n = 101 refugee children (all foreign-born), and n = 56 German-born immigrant children (age in months: M = 99.66, SD = 13.61) between groups and to norm data. We related socio-emotional problems to receptive vocabulary, cognitive reasoning, motor skills, and executive functioning in n = 83 refugee and Roma children. Results: Roma children showed higher rates above cut-off than norm data in all subscales, more problems in all subscales but emotional symptoms than immigrant children, and more hyperactivity/inattention and peer problems than refugee children. Refugee children showed higher rates above cut-off than norm data in all subscales and more peer problems than immigrant children. Academic learning skills were overall below average among recently arrived children. Prosocial behavior was positively linked to fine motor skills. Other socio-emotional problems were not linked to academic learning skills and executive functioning. Gross and visuo-motor skills correlated positively with other academic learning skills. Limitations: We analyzed cross-sectional data. We did not include risk factors or non-immigrant German children. Conclusion: The heightened socio-emotional problems and low academic learning skills of refugee and particularly Roma children in high-poverty districts could jeopardize their educational trajectories. Additional support measures could increase their chances for educational participation.

The Role of Social and Emotional Adjustment in Mediating the Relationship Between Early Experiences and Different Language Outcomes

Background: Studies have highlighted the relationship between early childhood experiences and later language and communication skills on the one hand and social and emotional adjustment on the other. Less is known about this relationship between different types of early experiences and their relationship to different communication skills over time. Equally important is the extent to which the child's behaviour is related to later outcomes affecting the relationship between the child's environment and aspects of their communication development. Method: Drawing on data from 5,000 children in Growing Up in Scotland, a representative sample of children born in 2003. This paper looks are the differential relationships between home learning environment (HLE) (reads books/storeys, engages in painting or drawing, reads nursery rhymes and teaches letter/shapes and parental mental health (PMH) (Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS) in the first year of life and both structural language skills ("Listening Comprehension" and "Expressive Vocabulary" subtests of The Wechsler Individual Achievement Tests) and pragmatic competence (The Children's Communication Checklist) at 11 years and explores the extent to which they are mediated by social and emotional adjustment at school entry. Results: PMH was associated with pragmatics but not listening comprehension or vocabulary. By contrast HLE was associated with all three measures of communication. In the final mediated model social and emotional adjustment mediated the relationship between PMH and all three measures of communication. The mediation was statistically significant for the relationship between HLE and both pragmatics and listening comprehension but not for expressive vocabulary. The results are discussed in terms of the relationships concerned and what they tell us about the potential for targeted early interventions. Conclusions: The mediating role of socio-emotional adjustment at school entry points to the need for careful monitoring of children's social and emotional development in primary and middle childhood. Services and policy aimed at improving child outcomes through improving home learning environments must work hand in hand with those responsible for offering support for the mental health, social-emotional adjustment and wellbeing of parents and children from birth and into the school years.

Relationships between Child Development at School Entry and Adolescent Health-A Participatory Systematic Review

The relationship between child development and adolescent health, and how this may be modified by socio-economic conditions, is poorly understood. This limits cross-sector interventions to address adolescent health inequality. This review summarises evidence on the associations between child development at school starting age and subsequent health in adolescence and identifies factors affecting associations. We undertook a participatory systematic review, searching electronic databases (MEDLINE, PsycINFO, ASSIA and ERIC) for articles published between November 1990 and November 2020. Observational, intervention and review studies reporting a measure of child development and subsequent health outcomes, specifically weight and mental health, were included. Studies were individually and collectively assessed for quality using a comparative rating system of stronger, weaker, inconsistent or limited evidence. Associations between child development and adolescent health outcomes were assessed and reported by four domains of child development (socio-emotional, cognitive, language and communication, and physical development). A conceptual diagram, produced with stakeholders at the outset of the study, acted as a framework for narrative synthesis of factors that modify or mediate associations. Thirty-four studies were included. Analysis indicated stronger evidence of associations between measures of socio-emotional development and subsequent mental health and weight outcomes; in particular, positive associations between early externalising behaviours and later internalising and externalising, and negative associations between emotional wellbeing and later internalising and unhealthy weight. For all other domains of child development, although associations with subsequent health were positive, the evidence was either weaker, inconsistent or limited. There was limited evidence on factors that altered associations. Positive socio-emotional development at school starting age appears particularly important for subsequent mental health and weight in adolescence. More collaborative research across health and education is needed on other domains of development and on the mechanisms that link development and later health, and on how any relationship is modified by socio-economic context.

Language development and behaviour problems in toddlers indicated to have a developmental language disorder

BACKGROUND

There is empirical evidence that a developmental language disorder (DLD) in early childhood leads to behaviour problems. However, it is still not clear how changes in language proficiency in these children influence the presence of behaviour problems.

AIMS

The aim of this study is to examine if changes in language proficiency are related to changes in behaviour problems in toddlers indicated to have DLD.

METHODS & PROCEDURES

This study included 185 toddlers indicated to have DLD (mean age 38 months at pretest). Scores on receptive and expressive language domains and internalizing and externalizing behaviour were gathered on Wave 1 and Wave 2 using Routine Outcome Monitoring. The Reliable Change Index was used to categorize children into two groups: children improving in receptive and expressive language domains and children not improving.

OUTCOMES & RESULTS

For receptive syntax, receptive vocabulary and expressive syntax, 30% or less of the children improved. Only for expressive vocabulary, most children improved (63%). Behaviour problems were present in 17% (internalizing) and 23% (externalizing) of the children. Changes in language proficiency did not lead to changes in internalizing or externalizing behaviour problems, not for the total sample, nor for children displaying behaviour problems at Wave 1.

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS

Professionals working with toddlers indicated to have DLD need to be aware of the co-occurrence of language problems and behaviour problems, and have to realize that behaviour problems might not immediately decrease when language proficiency improves. If behaviour problems are present in toddlers indicated to have DLD, interventions should not only focus on language, but also on behaviour problems.

WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS

What is already known on the subject There is empirical evidence that a developmental language disorder (DLD) in early childhood leads to behaviour problems. However, it is still not clear how changes in language proficiency in children with DLD influence the presence of behaviour problems. What this paper adds to existing knowledge This study addresses if a change in language proficiency is related to changes in child behaviour problems in toddlers indicated to have DLD. The results of our study showed that most of the children did not show a positive reliable change in receptive syntax, receptive vocabulary and expressive syntax at this young age, but most of the children did in expressive vocabulary. Furthermore, changes in language proficiency did not lead to changes in the presence of internalizing or externalizing behaviour problems. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Therefore, professionals working with toddlers indicated to have DLD should be aware of the co-occurrence of language problems and behaviour problems, and have to realize that behaviour problems might not decrease as a result of improved language proficiency. If behaviour problems are present and need to be treated, other interventions, apart from the language intervention, might be necessary.

Sources of variability in the prospective relation of language to social, emotional, and behavior problem symptoms: Implications for developmental language disorder

Children with developmental language disorder (DLD) are at risk for social, emotional, and behavioral (SEB) maladjustment throughout development, though it is unclear if poor language proficiency per se can account for this risk as associations between language and SEB appear more variable among typical-language children. This study investigated whether the relationship between language and SEB problems is stronger at very low levels of language and considered confounders including socioeconomic status, sex, and nonverbal intelligence. These were examined using a population-based survey design, including children with a wide range of language and cognitive profiles, and assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and six standardized language measures (n = 363, weighted n = 6,451). Structural equation models adjusted for prior levels of SEB revealed that the relationship of language at age 5-6 years to SEB at 7-9 years was nonlinear. Language more strongly predicted all clusters of SEB at disordered language levels relative to typical language levels, with standardized betas of -.25 versus .03 for behavioral, -.31 versus -.04 for peer, and .27 versus .03 for prosocial problems. Wald tests between these pairs of betas yielded p values from .049 to .014. Sex moderated the nonlinear association between language and emotional symptoms. These findings indicate a clinical need to support language development in order to mitigate against problems of SEB and to carefully monitor the mental health needs of children with DLD, particularly in the context of multiple, and potentially sex-specific, risks. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Dimensions of the language environment in infancy and symptoms of psychopathology in toddlerhood

The quality of the early environment influences the development of psychopathology. Children who are deprived of sufficient environmental enrichment in infancy may be at higher risk for developing symptoms of psychopathology in toddlerhood. In this study, we investigated the prospective association between naturalistic measures of adult language input obtained through passive monitoring of infants' daily environments and emerging psychopathology in toddlerhood. In a sample of 100 mothers and their infants recruited from the community (mean age [range] = 6.73 [5-9] months), we used the Language ENvironment Analysis (LENA) system to measure multiple dimensions of infants' language environments, including both the quantity and consistency of adult speech and conversational turns in infants' daily lives as well as the quantity of infant vocalizations. Subsequently, during toddlerhood (mean age [range] = 18.29 [17-21] months), mothers reported on their children's symptoms of psychopathology. Infants who experienced more consistent adult speech and conversational turns had lower symptoms of psychopathology in toddlerhood, independent of negative emotionality in infancy, maternal depressive symptoms, and laboratory-based measures of maternal sensitivity. These findings have implications for the measurement of environmental factors that may confer risk and resilience to emerging psychopathology.

Does Early Child Language Predict Internalizing Symptoms in Adolescence? An Investigation in Two Birth Cohorts Born 30 Years Apart

Language is vital for social interaction, leading some to suggest early linguistic ability paves the way for good adolescent mental health. The relation between age-5 vocabulary and adolescent internalizing symptoms was examined in two U.K. birth cohorts that are nationally representative in terms of sex, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status: the 1970 British Cohort Study (BCS; N = 11,640) and the Millennium Cohort Study (MCS born ~2001; N = 14,754). In the BCS, no relation between receptive vocabulary and age-16 self-reported symptoms was observed (β = 0.00 [-0.03; 0.03]). In the MCS, better expressive vocabulary was associated with more age-14 self-reported symptoms (β = 0.05 [0.02; 0.07]). The direction of this effect was reversed for parent-reported symptoms. All effect sizes were small. The relation between childhood vocabulary and internalizing symptoms varies by generation and reporter.

Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Early Language Difficulties among U.S. Children

Objective: Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) is a serious public health concern with the potential to interfere with various components of healthy child development. Even so, there has been limited nationally representative research investigating these connections. The current study examines the relationship between ETS and language difficulties among toddlers and preschool-aged children in the United States. Method: Data are derived from the 2018 National Survey of Children's Health and facilitate strategic comparisons between different forms of ETS-namely, children who live with family members who smoke vs. children whose family members smoke inside the housing unit. Results: The findings reveal a robust association between family members smoking inside the housing unit and both receptive and expressive language difficulties, but only among male children. After adjusting for covariates, smoking inside the housing unit is associated with a 182% increase in the rate of early composite language difficulties among male children. These associations persist even when compared to male children who live with smoking family members who do not smoke inside the housing unit. Conclusions: The findings suggest a need for interventions designed to reduce ETS in households with young children and increase targeted language skill training for vulnerable children in an effort to enhance child development and well-being. To maximize this effort, we advocate for interdisciplinary teams, including medical and public health practitioners, educators, and researchers, to work together to develop and implement evidence-based strategies to limit ETS in homes and facilitate healthy language development among young children.

Deprivation and psychopathology in the Fragile Families Study: A 15-year longitudinal investigation

BACKGROUND

Early adversity consistently predicts youth psychopathology. However, the pathways linking unique dimensions of early adversity, such as deprivation, to psychopathology are understudied. Here, we evaluate a theoretical model linking early deprivation exposure with psychopathology prospectively through language ability.

METHODS

Participants included 2,301 youth (47.5% female) enrolled in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. We include data from assessment points at ages 1, 3, 5, 9, and 15. Latent factors for deprivation and threat were modeled from multiple indicators at ages 1 and 3. Youth language ability was assessed at Age 5. Indicators of psychopathology were assessed at ages 5, 9, and 15. A structural equation model tested longitudinal paths to internalizing and externalizing psychopathology from experiences of deprivation and threat.

RESULTS

Deprivation from birth to Age 3 was associated with an indirect effect on internalizing and externalizing symptoms in early childhood (Age 5), later childhood (Age 9), and adolescence (Age 15) via language ability in early childhood (Age 5). Early threat exposure was associated with increased internalizing and externalizing psychopathology across all ages. There was no significant indirect effect from threat to psychopathology via language ability.

CONCLUSIONS

The effects of deprivation on psychopathology during early childhood, late childhood, and adolescence are explained, in part, through early childhood language ability. Results provide insight into language ability as a possible opportunity for intervention.

The Specificity Principle in Young Dual Language Learners' English Development

This study employs the Specificity Principle to examine the relative impacts of external (input quantity at home and at school, number of books and reading frequency at home, teachers' degree and experience, language usage, socioeconomic status) and internal factors (children's working memory, nonverbal intelligence, learning-related social-skills, chronological age, gender) on children's English-language development in phonological awareness (PA), receptive vocabulary (RV), and word reading (WR). Altogether, 736 four- to five-year-old Singaporean Mandarin-English speaking kindergarteners were assessed twice longitudinally. Their English-language PA, RV, and WR development was predicted using the eight external factors and five internal factors with Bayesian least absolute shrinkage and selection operators. Internal factors explained more variance than external factors in all three language domains. External factors had their largest impact on RV.

A Family Socialization Model of Transdiagnostic Risk for Psychopathology in Preschool Children

This longitudinal study examined the presence of general (P) and specific internalizing (INT) and externalizing (EXT) psychopathology factors in a community sample of preschool children. We assessed child and contextual correlates of P, INT, and EXT, and tested a model connecting socioeconomic risk to these factors through family socialization processes and child cognitive abilities. Participants were 501 children recruited at birth and followed up at 18 months and 3 years. Child and family functioning were measured using parental reports, observation, and standardized assessments. Both mothers and their partners reported on children's mental health, permitting the estimation of a trifactor model of psychopathology that captured caregivers' shared and unique perspectives with respect to P, INT, and EXT. Results revealed several transdiagnostic correlates of the common-perspective P factor, including family income, maternal education, maternal depression, and maternal responsiveness, as well as marginal associations with sibling negativity and children's language and theory of mind abilities. Several shared and unique correlates of INT and EXT were also observed. Structural equation modelling revealed that the effects of family income and maternal education on P operated indirectly through maternal responsiveness, while the effects of maternal education on INT and EXT operated through maternal reflective capacity, albeit in opposite directions. Together, these results suggest that the effects of socioeconomic disadvantage on general psychopathology are organized in a temporal cascade from distal to proximal risk.

Child Language Difficulties and Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms: A Meta-Analysis

This study conducted two meta-analyses to synthesize the association between children's language skills and two broad-band dimensions of psychopathology: internalizing and externalizing. Pooled estimates across 139 samples (externalizing k = 105; internalizing k = 90) and 147,305 participants (age range: 2-17 years old; mean % males: 53.75; mean % White participants: 55.59; mean % minority participants: 43.12) indicated small but significant associations between child language skills and externalizing problems (Hedges' g = .22) and between language skills and internalizing problems (Hedges' g = .23). The association between language difficulties and externalizing problems was stronger amongst males and in children with low versus high sociodemographic risk. Implications of the results for theory and practice are discussed.

Infants' and Toddlers' Language, Math and Socio-Emotional Development: Evidence for Reciprocal Relations and Differential Gender and Age Effects

Toddlerhood is characterized by rapid development in several domains, such as language, socio-emotional behavior and emerging math skills all of which are important precursors of school readiness. However, little is known about how these skills develop over time and how they may be interrelated. The current study investigates young children’s development at two time points, with about 7 months in between, assessing their language, socio-emotional and math language and numeracy skills with teacher ratings. The sample includes 577 children from 18 until 36 months of age of 86 childcare classrooms. The results of the autoregressive path analyses showed moderate to strong stability of language, socio-emotional and math language and numeracy skills, although the magnitude of associations was smaller for the latter. The cross-lagged path analyses highlighted the importance of language and socio-emotional skills for development in the other domains. Differential relations were found for the autoregressive and cross-lagged paths depending on gender and age. Language skills appeared a stronger predictor of boys’ socio-emotional and math language and numeracy skill development compared to girls. Girls’ socio-emotional skills predicted growth in math. For boys, socio-emotional and math language and numeracy skills appeared to be unrelated. Language skills showed stronger relations with the development of math language and numeracy skills for younger children as compared to older children. Also, for older children math language and numeracy skills negatively predicted growth in their socio-emotional skills. The findings provide more insights in how language, math language and numeracy skills and socio-emotional skills co-develop in the early years and as such have important implications for interventions aimed to support children’s development.

Demographic, Social, and Economic Factors of Internalizing Problems in Referred and Non-Referred Adolescents

Depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation are common internalizing problems during adolescence. Numerous studies have explored the role of certain demographic, social, and economic factors in their development in referred or non-referred adolescents, but not simultaneously in both groups. In this study, we examined the association between age, gender, parents’ educational level, and socioeconomic status (SES) and depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation in a referred group (n = 211) and a non-referred (n = 1401) group of adolescents. We also examined the moderating role that these factors play in the relationships between both internalizing problems. The results showed: higher levels of depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation in the referred group; an increase in both problems during early-to-middle adolescence in the non-referred group; an association between low SES and suicidal ideation in both groups; an association between low father’s education level and depressive symptoms in the non-referred group; and no gender differences in either of these two internalizing problems. The moderation analyses showed that age, in referred adolescents, and SES, in non-referred adolescents, moderated the relationship between depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation. This study contributes to the identification of groups of vulnerable adolescents that could constitute the target populations of preventive programs.

A Common Family Factor Underlying Language Difficulties and Internalizing Problems: Findings From a Population-Based Sibling Study

Studies have identified concurrent, longitudinal, and bidirectional associations between language difficulties and internalizing problems. This is commonly explained by social exclusion or withdrawal from peers, but underlying mechanisms are not well understood. This study uses sibling data to investigate if the comorbidity between language difficulties and internalizing problems is best explained by familial factors shared by siblings, such as genes or family environment, or nonfamilial factors specific to each child, such as peer environment. Data include 5,568 siblings at 5 years and 3,654 siblings at 8 years participating in the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa). We constructed a latent factor model at 5 and 8 years, including a family comorbidity factor capturing correlations between language and internalizing problems that were equally strong between as within siblings. Results showed that the correlation between one sibling's internalizing problems and the other sibling's language problems was mostly accounted for by a family comorbidity factor. The best-fitting longitudinal model included stability of the family comorbidity factor and stability of language and internalizing problems within each sibling and no cross-sibling or cross-trait longitudinal associations. This suggests that the association between language and internalizing problems may be best explained by family factors.

The Reciprocal Effects of Language Proficiency and Depression among Low Income Latinx Youth

Objective: Extant research associates language with essential social and emotional processes. Although the risk for depression among Latinx youth in the United States is well documented, the link between their language proficiency and depressive symptoms remains poorly understood. Further, research employing standardized language assessments with Latinx early adolescents is scarce and reciprocal associations between language proficiency and depressive symptoms have not been examined.Method: This longitudinal study addressed these gaps by investigating the relation between language proficiency and depression in a sample of 218 dual language Latinx students of predominantly low-income backgrounds (M_age = 12.1, SD = 1.1; 49.1% female) recruited from seven public schools in a large city in the Midwest of the United States. Language proficiency in English and Spanish was assessed using the Woodcock-Muñoz Language Survey-Revised and depressive symptoms were assessed using the Children's Depression Inventory.Results: Paired samples t-tests showed lower than expected growth in English vocabulary and higher than expected growth in the ability to reason using lexical knowledge in Spanish over a one-year period. Cross-lagged panel analyses (χ² (99) = 211.19, p < .001, CFI = .93, TLI = .92, RMSEA = .07 (90% CI [.06, .09])) indicated that growth in English language proficiency is predictive of decreased depressive symptoms. Likewise, increases in depressive symptoms are predictive of decreased English language proficiency.Conclusions: Results have important implications for the design of appropriate psychological interventions and sensible educational policies for students of linguistic minority backgrounds.

Maternal Sensitivity and Language in Infancy Each Promotes Child Core Language Skill in Preschool

Supporting language skills in the early years is important because children who begin school with stronger language skills continue to perform well later in their language as well as academic and socioemotional growth. This three-wave longitudinal study of 50 mother-infant dyads reveals that maternal sensitivity and maternal language at 5 months each uniquely predicts child language at 49 months, controlling for age, education, and maternal verbal IQ as well as maternal supportive presence at 49 months. These findings reinforce the importance of maternal sensitivity and maternal language in infancy for child language development and specify that early maternal sensitivity and language, apart from maternal age, education, and IQ as well as later sensitivity, contribute to child language development.

Analysis of behavioural characteristics of children with developmental language disorders

Purpose: Developmental language disorder (DLD) is common in early childhood and there may be an increased risk of co-occurring social, emotional, and behavioural problems related to the language problems of children. The aim of this study was to determine whether children with DLD experience more emotional and/or behavioural problems as compared to their typically developing peers.Method: A prospective case-control study design was used to perform a comparison between children with DLD and their typically developing peers. Thirty-eight Turkish children with DLD (mean age 38.21 months, standard deviation 8.15 months) and 30 Turkish children with typical language development (mean age 37.03 months, standard deviation 9.01 months) participated in the study.Result: The results of the analysis indicate that children with DLD have significantly higher scores for emotional reactivity, anxiety/depression, somatic complaints, withdrawnness, sleep problems, attention problems, and aggressive behaviours as compared with their typically developing peers.Conclusion: This study provides evidence to support children with DLD being at risk of other emotional and/or behavioural problems. An in-depth analysis of the behavioural characteristics of these children may be required to prevent and/or reduce the co-occurrence of other problems.

Maltreatment experiences and psychopathology in children and adolescents: The intervening role of domain-specific self-representations moderated by age

BACKGROUND

Associations between maltreatment experiences and psychopathology symptoms in children and adolescents are well established. However, the role of domain-specific self-representations (SR) in those associations remains unexplored.

OBJECTIVE

This multi-informant study aimed to explore the indirect associations between maltreatment experiences and children's and adolescents' psychopathology symptoms (i.e., internalizing and externalizing problems), through domain-specific self-representations, and the moderating role of age in those indirect associations.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Participants were 203 children/adolescents (52.7 % boys), aged 8-16 years old (M = 12.64; SD = 2.47), referred to child/youth protection commissions, their parents, and case workers.

METHOD

Case workers reported on child/adolescent maltreatment, children/adolescents reported on SR, and parents reported on psychopathology symptoms.

RESULTS

Controlling for chronicity of maltreatment and child/adolescent sex effects, multiple mediation path analysis revealed that: 1) higher levels of physical and psychological abuse were associated with less externalizing problems through more negative social SR; 2) higher levels of physical neglect were associated with more externalizing problems through more positive opposition SR; 3) higher levels of psychological neglect were associated with less externalizing problems through more negative physical appearance SR, and 4) associated with more externalizing problems through more negative opposition SR. Moreover, the indirect effects of physical and psychological abuse on internalizing and externalizing problems through instrumental SR were conditional on child/adolescent age.

CONCLUSION

Findings signal the relevance of preventing child/adolescent maltreatment and promoting the construction of positive and, foremost, realistic and adaptive self-representations as protection against maladjustment.

Problem behavior in young children referred with language difficulties: Relations to language and intentional communication

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

This exploratory study aims to examine the relative contribution of language and intentional communication to internalizing and externalizing problem behavior.

METHODS

Twenty-nine Dutch-speaking children (age range 24-46 months) referred with language difficulties participated in this study. For the majority of children, these early language difficulties appeared to be part of a broader neurodevelopmental disorder, mainly autism spectrum disorder. Parent ratings on the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist 1½-5 were predicted from children's language level and intentional communicative abilities, the latter being assessed by both parent report and direct observation. In all series of hierarchical regression analyses, chronological age and nonverbal mental age were included as covariates.

RESULTS

Parents commonly reported withdrawal, emotionally reactive behavior, attention problems, and aggressive behavior. Parent-rated intentional communication was the most important predictor of internalizing problem behavior and played an important role in the prediction of aggressive behavior as well. However, chronological age and/or nonverbal mental age also predicted parent-rated levels of externalizing problem behavior, especially attention problems.

CONCLUSIONS

The relation between language difficulties and problem behavior may be influenced by maturation and children's ability to communicate intentionally.Implications: Language proficiency should, therefore, be independently assessed from children's intentional communicative abilities which, in turn, may differ across contexts.

The Interaction of Social, Physical and Nutritive Factors in Triggering Early Developmental Language Delay in a Sample of Egyptian Children

BACKGROUND

Language acquisition and child development during the early years of life depend on multiple interacting factors.

AIM

To explore potential factors that can impact language development in 2 groups of Egyptian children, one with normal language development and the second with delayed development. Also, to explore to what extent can the involvement of impaired motor development potentiate the risk of developmental language delay.

METHODS

This cross-sectional case-control study involved Egyptian children belonging to the middle socioeconomic class between 18 and 36 months of age. Children were classified according to their performance on language domain of Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (Bayley-III) into two groups, infants with the average or above score (control group) and those having below-average scores (cases). Motor development was assessed on the same scale. Factors affecting language development were tested, including socio-demographic, obstetric, and maternal medical factors in addition to Infant Feeding Practices.

RESULTS

The independent factors lowering the language scores were early introduction of complementary food, low family income, history of delivery problems, pregnancy-related diseases of the mother, and maternal education. Impaired motor development appears as a further highly significant risk factor to the previously mentioned factors.

CONCLUSION

In Egyptian children, delayed language development is severely affected by the interaction of medical, social and nutritional factors. Providing adequate maternal health care during pregnancy and childbirth, regular developmental monitoring at each child visit, and screening for such risk factors, can reduce size of the problem and promote child's social and psychological development.

Terrible Twos or Early Signs of Psychopathology? Developmental Patterns in Early Identified Preschoolers With Cochlear Implants Compared With Hearing Controls

OBJECTIVE

Cochlear implants (CIs) have dramatically improved the lives of children who are deaf or hard of hearing; however, little is known about its implications for preventing the development of psychiatric symptoms in this at-risk population. This is the first longitudinal study to examine the early manifestation of emotional and behavioral disorders and associated risk and protective factors in early identified preschoolers with CIs compared with hearing peers.

DESIGN

Participants were 74 children with CIs and 190 hearing controls between ages 1 and 5 years (mean age, 3.8 years). Hearing loss was detected using the Newborn Hearing Screening in The Netherlands and Flanders. Parents completed the Early Childhood Inventory-4, a well-validated measure, to evaluate the symptoms of DSM-IV-defined psychiatric disorders, during three consecutive years. Language scores were derived from each child's medical notes.

RESULTS

Children with CIs and hearing controls evidenced comparable levels of disruptive behavior and anxiety/depression (which increased with age in both groups). Greater proficiency in language skills was associated with lower levels of psychopathology. Early CI and longer duration of CI use resulted in better language development. In turn, higher early language skills served as a protective factor against the development of disruptive behavior symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

This longitudinal study uniquely shows that improvement in language skills mitigates the development of early signs of psychopathology. Early identification of hearing loss and CIs help children improve their language skills.

Language Skills, Behaviour Problems, and Classroom Emotional Support among Preschool Children from Low-income Families

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between language skills and behavioural problems and the potential moderating role of the quality of classroom emotional support in this relationship among 242 preschool children from low-income families. The Preschool Language Scale-5 was administered individually to each child. The quality of classroom emotional support was measured using the Emotional Support domain of the Classroom Assessment Scoring System for Pre-Kindergarten. Teachers and parents completed the Child Behaviour Checklist for Ages 1½-5. Results indicated the inverse relationship between language skills and behaviour problems varied by the level of classroom emotional support provided by teachers. Specifically, children with lower language skills exhibited higher levels of behaviour problems in classrooms where teachers provided lower levels of emotional support. Findings from this study have important implications for enhancing teachers' emotional support aimed at children with lower language skills and for future research.