Effects of transportation on cattle health and production: a review

Metabolic profile of Charolais young bulls transported over long-distance

Long-distance transport can cause stress to beef cattle impairing health and growth performances. This study aimed to deepen the knowledge of the effects of long-distance transport on young bulls' metabolic profile to identify reliable blood parameters for monitoring their health and welfare. Eighty Charolais young bulls, transported for 12 hours to the final fattening unit, were weighed and blood sampled at three time intervals: before leaving the commingling centre (day -1), upon arrival at the fattening unit (day 0), and 7 days post-arrival (day 7). These bulls were part of a larger study aimed at testing whether the animals have some benefit from the supplementation of live yeast and selenium through slow-release rumen boluses that were administered to half of them before departure from France ('Yeast' vs 'Control' group). The effect of the supplementation on the parameters considered in this study was included in the statistical analysis to account for the structure of the experimental design. Transport affected the initial body weight of the animals, which dropped on day 0 and it was not fully recovered on day 7. Most plasma traits of protein, energy, hepato-muscle, and mineral profiles were affected by transport. Cortisol was also assessed and peaked at day 0. The footprint of the long-distance transport on bulls' metabolic profile indicated a combination of stress, energy deficit, and muscle damage, with a certain degree of dehydration and liver impairment. Plasma traits measured on day -1 highlighted that stressful conditions and physiological responses of the bulls to recover homeostasis already started during the commingling phase before departure. No effect of supplementation was detected, except for higher selenium plasma level in Yeast bulls at day 7. Among blood parameters, non-esterified fatty acids, total protein, cortisol, glucose, and iron were those responsible for most of the variation in metabolic profile of bulls undergoing long journey. Therefore, these traits might be used as major biomarkers to assess stress in transported beef cattle, helping to identify critical situations for which proper mitigating actions should be taken. The outcomes of this study suggested that preventive measures against transport stress in beef cattle should start at the commingling of the animals in the collection centers, thus before departure.

Cattle transporters' attitudes, indigenous knowledge, and current practices towards animal welfare, occupational well-being, and operational challenges: A survey of five regions in Ghana

Ghana is a significant cattle producer in Africa with an estimated cattle population of 3 million in 2020 [1]. The role of transporters in linking farms to markets and slaughterhouses is crucial in the livestock value chain. However, cattle transportation subjects the animals to high levels of stress, compromising their welfare, and transporters face challenges such as long working hours and harsh conditions. The objective of this study was to explore current practices, indigenous knowledge, and operational risks pertaining to animal welfare among transporters. The study was conducted in five regions connected by the N16, N10, and N6 Highway, the primary route for cattle transportation from the Ghana-Burkina Faso border to the coastal capital of Accra. A total of 78 transporters participated in the study. Out of the 78 participants in this study, the majority of transporters were young adults (56.5%) with secondary school education (45.9%) and 0-5 years of experience (37.2%). The average distance and time for transporting cattle was 528 km and 18 h, respectively. The transporters highlighted significant challenges encountered during cattle transport, including feed and water shortage, particularly prominent during the dry season (32.1%), as well as the occurrence of diseases and mortality, particularly high during the rainy season (41%). Furthermore, vehicular breakdowns were a common issue reported by transporters, with a substantial majority (88.5%) experiencing breakdowns during their last 10 trips. The results showed that most transporters (84.7%) had limited knowledge of animal welfare and had not received any formal education on livestock transportation. Instead, they gained experience as assistants on other trucks before becoming drivers. The findings of this study highlight the need for improved welfare standards for cattle during transportation and formal training programs for transporters in animal welfare and livestock transportation.

Effects of vaccination timing and target pathogens on performances and antimicrobial use in long-transported Charolais beef cattle from France to Italy - A retrospective study

Antimicrobial use (AMU) in the livestock sector is a major driver of antimicrobial resistance. Italian beef industry strongly relies on the import of young cattle from France, which are commingled in sorting facilities before transportation to Italy. Both commingling and transportation are stressors for animals and lead to higher risk of bovine respiratory disease (BRD), which in turn increases the risk of AMU. This study aimed to investigate how the timing of first BRD vaccination and the different vaccination target pathogens affect AMU and performance of young Charolais beef cattle imported from France to Italy. Information on animal performance, antimicrobial treatments, and vaccinations was available for 60,726 Charolais cattle belonging to 1449 batches in 33 Italian specialised fattening farms between January 2016 and December 2021. Antimicrobial use was estimated using the treatment incidence 100 adapted for Italy (TI100it). A mixed linear model was used to quantify the effects of the vaccination and the time of first administration on slaughter age, carcase weight, and average daily carcase gain. Similarly, a generalised linear mixed model was used to analyse the TI100it. The vaccination programme was usually applied the first day after the animals' arrival to the Italian fattening farms. Most animals were vaccinated with a polyvalent vaccine against infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), bovine parainfluenza type 3 virus (PI-3), bovine viral diarrhoea virus type 1 and 2 (BVDV), and bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV). The most used class of antimicrobials to treat BRD were the macrolides, followed by aminoglycosides, amphenicols, tetracyclines, aminopenicillins, and fluoroquinolones. Animals that got vaccinated against any of the considered BRD pathogens upon arrival had significantly lower TI100it, greater average daily carcase gain, and reached slaughter age earlier than animals that got vaccinated later. Animals that received the vaccination against BVDV had lower TI100it and greater average daily carcase gain, and animals that received the vaccination against BRSV were younger at slaughter than unvaccinated animals. The vaccination against Mannheimia haemolytica significantly decreased the slaughter age and increased the carcase weight and average daily carcase gain, and the vaccination against PI-3 and Histophilus somni significantly increased the slaughter age. Thus, even if the vaccination programme is essential to tackle BRD, this practice is questionable if applied at arrival to the Italian fattening farms and it is advisable that the vaccination programme is planned before the commingling procedure in France.

Non-Invasive Biomarkers in Saliva and Eye Infrared Thermography to Assess the Stress Response of Calves during Transport

Animal transport is currently a stressful procedure. Therefore, animal-based indicators are needed for reliable and non-invasive welfare assessment. Saliva is a biospecimen with potential validity for the determination of cortisol and oxidative stress, although its use to assess calf welfare during transport has never been tested. Similarly, the applicability and reliability of infrared thermography to assess temperature change during calves' transport have never been evaluated. These objectives were outlined following the known and growing need to identify non-invasive methodologies for stress assessment in bovines. This study was conducted on 20 calves of the Arouquesa autochthone breed, at about nine months of age, during their transport to slaughter. For each animal, saliva samples and thermographic images of the eye were collected at three time points: before transport, after transport, and at slaughter. The saliva was then processed to measure cortisol levels and oxidative stress parameters (reactive oxygen species, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance, carbonyls, and advanced oxidation protein products), and the images were analyzed using FLIR Tools+ software. There was an increase in cortisol concentration and oxidative stress parameters (reactive oxygen species, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance, carbonyls, and advanced oxidation protein products) in saliva after transport. An increase in eye temperature triggered by transport was also observed. The cortisol and eye temperature results at slaughter were returned to values similar to those before transport; however, the values of oxidative stress remained increased (mainly TBARS values). These non-invasive techniques seem to be reliable indicators of stress in bovine transport, and oxidative stress parameters in saliva may be a persistent marker for welfare assessment.

Graduate Student Literature Review: Reducing mortality and morbidity in transported preweaning dairy calves: Colostrum management and pretransport nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug administration

Currently, mortality and morbidity rates for preweaning calves in the US dairy industry are high, with the major cause being digestive disorders and respiratory diseases. One of the most important management practices that can reduce calf mortalities and morbidities is the feeding of colostrum, provided its quantity, quality, and cleanliness, and timing of feeding are according to recommendations. However, other management practices similar to transportation, can also compromise calf health and production performance. When preweaning calves are transported, stressors similar to physical restraint, commingling, dehydration, bruising, and pain may lead to an inflammatory response and immunosuppression, which has been seen in older cattle, and could increase susceptibility to digestive disorders and respiratory diseases. One strategy that could potentially reduce transport-related negative outcomes is the pretransport administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as meloxicam. This review provides a brief background on preweaning mortality and morbidity, colostrum management, transport-related stress, use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in transported calves, and highlights some of the current knowledge gaps.

Evaluation of the Immune Response to Transport Stress in the Aosta Valley Breed

Transportation is a recurring event in a farm animal's life, and it is considered one of the main stressors with possible negative repercussions for both the health and welfare of farm animals. The objective of the present study was to examine the effect of transportation on some blood variables of 45 young bulls moved from their original farms to a livestock collection centre. Transportation took no more than 8 h and was carried out between January and March 2021. Blood samples were taken before transportation (T0), upon arrival at the collection centre (T1), and 7 days after arrival (T2). Samples were processed for blood cell count, clinical chemistry analyses, serum protein electrophoresis, and the evaluation of innate immunity parameters. The results showed a typical stress leukogram with neutrophilia and changes in the neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio. No significant alterations were observed in either serum proteins or pro-inflammatory cytokines. Significant, albeit transient, alterations were observed in some clinical chemistry parameters after transportation, which could be accounted for by stressful conditions such as the transportation itself and handling and mixing with other animals. Our results indicated that the adopted transportation conditions only slightly affected the blood variables under study with no significant impact on animal welfare.

Assessment of thermal changes in water buffalo mobilized from the paddock and transported by short journeys

Evaluating the welfare of buffaloes during transport is key to obtaining and commercializing high-quality meat products; however, effective assessments require recognizing several stressors that activate physiological mechanisms that can have repercussions on the health and productive performance of species. The aim of this study was to evaluate the surface temperatures of different body and head regions in this species during events prior, and posterior, to transport for short periods; that is, from paddock to loading. The second goal was to determine the level of correlation between thermal windows. This study used infrared thermography (IRT) to evaluate the surface temperature of 624 water buffaloes (Buffalypso breed) during 12 short trips (average duration = 2 h ± 20 min) by focusing on 11 regions of the body (Regio corporis), in the head regions (Regiones capitis) the face regions (Regiones faciei), Orbital region (Regio orbitalis) with special attention to structures such as the lacrimal caruncle, periocular area and lower eyelid (Regio palpebralis inferior); nasal region (Regio nasalis) with special attention to nostril thermal window; and regions of the skull (Regiones cranii) such as auricular region (Regio auricularis) with special attention to auditory canal and frontal-parietal region (Regio frontalis-parietalis) and trunk region (Truncus regionis) such as thoracic and abdominal regions, regions of the vertebral column (Columna vertebralis) with the thoracic vertebral region (Regio vertebralis thoracis) and lumbar region (Regio lumbalis); and regions of the pelvis limb (Regiones membri pelvini). Recordings were made during seven phases: paddock (P1), herding (P2), corral (P3), chute handling (P4), shipping (P5), pre- (P6), and post-transport (P7). A total of 48,048 readings were obtained from 11 thermal windows. The results showed that the surface temperatures of the windows increased by as much as 5°C during P2, P3, P5, P6, and P7 compared to P1 and P4 (p < 0.0001). Differences of at least 1°C were also observed between thermal windows in the craniofacial, lateral corporal, and peripheral zones (p < 0.0001). Finally, a strong positive correlation (r = 0.9, p < 0.0001) was found between the thermal windows. These findings lead to the conclusion that the surface temperature of the craniofacial and corporal regions of buffaloes transported for short periods varied in relation to the phase of mobilization (from paddock to post-transport), likely as a response to stressful factors, since herding and loading increased the thermal values in each window. The second conclusion is that there are strong positive correlations between central and peripheral thermal windows.

RAGE-TLR4 Crosstalk Is the Key Mechanism by Which High Glucose Enhances the Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Response in Primary Bovine Alveolar Macrophages

The receptor of advanced glycation end products (RAGE) and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) are important receptors for inflammatory responses induced by high glucose (HG) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and show crosstalk phenomena in inflammatory responses. However, it is unknown whether RAGE and TLR4 can influence each other's expression through a crosstalk mechanism and whether the RAGE-TLR4 crosstalk related to the molecular mechanism of HG enhances the LPS-induced inflammatory response. In this study, the implications of LPS with multiple concentrations (0, 1, 5, and 10 μg/mL) at various treatment times (0, 3, 6, 12, and 24 h) in primary bovine alveolar macrophages (BAMs) were explored. The results showed that a 5 μg/mL LPS treatment at 12 h had the most significant increment on the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α levels in BAMs (p < 0.05) and that the levels of TLR4, RAGE, MyD88, and NF-κB p65 mRNA and protein expression were upregulated (p < 0.05). Then, the effect of LPS (5 μg/mL) and HG (25.5 mM) co-treatment in BAMs was explored. The results further showed that HG significantly enhanced the release of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α caused by LPS in the supernatant (p < 0.01) and significantly increased the levels of RAGE, TLR4, MyD88, and NF-κB p65 mRNA and protein expression (p < 0.01). Pretreatment with FPS-ZM1 and TAK-242, the inhibitors of RAGE and TLR4, significantly alleviated the HG + LPS-induced increment of RAGE, TLR4, MyD88, and NF-κB p65 mRNA and protein expression in the presence of HG and LPS (p < 0.01). This study showed that RAGE and TLR4 affect each other's expression through crosstalk during the combined usage of HG and LPS and synergistically activate the MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway to promote the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines in BAMs.

Acute phase proteins in cattle and swine: A review

The major acute phase proteins (APPs) in cattle are haptoglobin (Hp) and serum amyloid A (SAA), and in swine, are Hp, SAA, C-reactive protein (CRP), and Pig major acute phase protein (Pig-MAP). Many methodologic assays are presently available to measure these parameters, which are still being improved to increase their specificity, sensitivity, user-friendliness, and economic availability. In cattle, the main applications are the diagnosis and monitoring of frequent diseases such as mastitis and metritis in dairy cows and respiratory problems in young calves. In pigs, APPs are useful in the control of bacterial and viral infections, and they may be used at the slaughterhouse to monitor subclinical pathologies and improve food safety. The utility of APP in animal production must not be forgotten; optimization of protocols to improve performance, welfare, and nutrition may benefit from the use of APPs. Other sample types besides serum or plasma have potential uses; APP determination in milk is a powerful tool in the control of mastitis, saliva is a non-invasive sample type, and meat juice is easily obtained at the slaughterhouse. Increasing our knowledge of reference intervals and the influence of variables such as age, breed, sex, and the season is important. Finally, worldwide harmonization and standardization of analytical procedures will help to expand the use of APPs.

Zoonotic Disease Risks of Live Export of Cattle and Sheep, with a Focus on Australian Shipments to Asia and the Middle East

The growing human and livestock populations in the world today and increased international transport of livestock is increasing the risk of both emerging and endemic zoonotic diseases. This review focuses on the potential for the live export trade to transmit zoonotic diseases. Both cattle and sheep are exposed to major stresses during the transport process, which are described, together with the impact of these stresses on the immune function of transported animals. Heat stress, overcrowding, inanition, ship and vehicle motion and accumulation of noxious gases are analysed for their ability to potentiate infectious diseases. The major zoonoses are described: pustular dermatitis, pneumonia, salmonellosis, as well as some common conditions, such as conjunctivitis, with specific reference to stressors associated with each disorder. Historical precedents exist for restriction of the trade based on disease risks. Finally, the economic and regulatory frameworks are considered to evaluate ways in which the spread of zoonotic diseases can be controlled.

Transmission of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) during animal transport

The transmission of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) between food-producing animals (poultry, cattle and pigs) during short journeys (< 8 h) and long journeys (> 8 h) directed to other farms or to the slaughterhouse lairage (directly or with intermediate stops at assembly centres or control posts, mainly transported by road) was assessed. Among the identified risk factors contributing to the probability of transmission of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (ARB) and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs), the ones considered more important are the resistance status (presence of ARB/ARGs) of the animals pre-transport, increased faecal shedding, hygiene of the areas and vehicles, exposure to other animals carrying and/or shedding ARB/ARGs (especially between animals of different AMR loads and/or ARB/ARG types), exposure to contaminated lairage areas and duration of transport. There are nevertheless no data whereby differences between journeys shorter or longer than 8 h can be assessed. Strategies that would reduce the probability of AMR transmission, for all animal categories include minimising the duration of transport, proper cleaning and disinfection, appropriate transport planning, organising the transport in relation to AMR criteria (transport logistics), improving animal health and welfare and/or biosecurity immediately prior to and during transport, ensuring the thermal comfort of the animals and animal segregation. Most of the aforementioned measures have similar validity if applied at lairage, assembly centres and control posts. Data gaps relating to the risk factors and the effectiveness of mitigation measures have been identified, with consequent research needs in both the short and longer term listed. Quantification of the impact of animal transportation compared to the contribution of other stages of the food-production chain, and the interplay of duration with all risk factors on the transmission of ARB/ARGs during transport and journey breaks, were identified as urgent research needs.

The combination of high glucose and LPS induces autophagy in bovine kidney epithelial cells via the Notch3/mTOR signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Aside respiratory diseases, beef cattle may also suffer from serious kidney diseases after transportation. Hyperglycemia and gram-negative bacterial infection may be the main reasons why bovine is prone to severe kidney disease during transportation stress, however, the precise mechanism is still unclear. The purpose of the current study is to explore whether the combined treatment of high glucose (HG) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) could induce madin-darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cells injury and autophagy, as well as investigate the potential molecular mechanisms involved.

RESULTS

As we discovered, the combined effect of HG and LPS decreased MDBK cells viability. And, HG and LPS combination also induced autophagy in MDBK cells, which was characterized by increasing the expression of LC3-II/I and Beclin1 and decreasing p62 expression. LC3 fluorescence signal formation was also significantly increased by HG and LPS combination treatment. Furthermore, we measured whether the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and the Notch3 signaling pathways were involved in HG and LPS-induced autophagy. The results showed that the combination of HG and LPS significantly increased the protein expression of Notch3 and decreased protein expression of p-mTOR, indicating that Notch3 and mTOR signaling pathways were activated. However, co-treatment with the Notch3 inhibitor (DAPT) could reverse the induction of autophagy, and increased the protein expression of p-mTOR.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that the combination effect of HG and LPS could induce autophagy in MDBK cells, and the Notch3/mTOR signaling pathway was involved in HG and LPS-induced autophagy.

Astragalus polysaccharide mitigates transport stress-induced hepatic metabolic stress via improving hepatic glucolipid metabolism in chicks

In the modern poultry industry, newly hatched chicks are unavoidably transported from the hatching to the rearing foster. Stress caused by multiple physical and psychological stressors during transportation is particularly harmful to the liver. Astragalus polysaccharide (APS) possesses multiple benefits against hepatic metabolic disorders. Given that transport stress could disturb hepatic glucolipid metabolism and the role of APS in metabolic regulation, we speculated that APS could antagonize transport stress-induced disorder of hepatic glucolipid metabolism. Firstly, newly hatched chicks were transported for 0, 2, 4, 8 h, respectively. Subsequently, to further investigated the effects of APS on transport stress-induced hepatic glucolipid metabolism disturbance, chicks were pretreated with water or APS and then subjected to transport treatment. Our study suggested that APS could relieve transport stress induced lipid deposition in liver. Meanwhile, transport stress also induced disturbances in glucose metabolism, reflected by augmented mRNA expression of key molecules in gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. Surprisingly, APS could simultaneously alleviate these alterations via PGC1α/SIRT1/AMPK pathway. Moreover, APS treatment regulated the level of PPARα and PPARγ, thereby alleviating transport stress-induced alterations of VLDL synthesis, cholesterol metabolism, lipid oxidation, synthesis and transport-related molecules. These findings indicated that APS could prevent the potential against transport stress-induced hepatic glucolipid metabolism disorders via PGC1α/ SIRT1/ AMPK/ PPARα/ PPARγ signaling system.

Impacts of a post-transport/pre-processing rest period on the growth performance, anthelmintic efficacy, and serum metabolite changes in cattle entering a feed yard

A total of 80 crossbred, high-risk heifers (initially 250 ± 4.2 kg BW), were transported from an Oklahoma City, Oklahoma sale barn to the Kansas State University Beef Cattle Research Center. Cattle were unloaded and randomly placed into one of four receiving pens and provided ad libitum hay and water. Each pen was randomly assigned to one of the four rest times before processing: (1) immediately upon arrival (0); (2) after a 6-h rest period (6); (3) after a 24-h rest period (24); and (4) after a 48-h rest period (48). After all cattle were processed, heifers were allotted into individual pens with ad libitum access to a receiving ration and water. Heifers were weighed individually on d 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35 to calculate average daily gain (ADG). Feed added and refusals were measured daily to determine dry matter intake (DMI). A fecal egg count reduction test and analysis of blood serum metabolites were also conducted. All data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS (v. 9.4, Cary, NC) with individual animal as the experimental unit. Processing time did not impact (P > 0.05) heifer BW or ADG. From d 0 to 35, DMI decreased linearly (P = 0.027) as rest time increased. The number of days for heifers to reach a DMI of 2.5% BW was linearly increased (P = 0.023) as rest time increased. There was no evidence of differences (P ≥ 0.703) among rest times for feed efficiency. While morbidity did not differ between treatments (P > 0.10), mortality increased linearly (P = 0.026) as the time of rest increased. A significant processing time × day interaction (P < 0.0001) was observed for the prevalence of fecal parasites, where the percentage of positive samples was significantly lower 14-d after anthelmintic treatment, regardless of the processing time. Serum IBR titer for heifers processed at either 0 or 6-h upon arrival was significantly higher (P < 0.01) on d 35 compared to d 0. Heifers processed after a 48-h rest period had significantly higher glucose values (P < 0.01) on d 0 compared to heifers processed at 0, 6, or 24-h. In summary, rest time prior to processing did not impact receiving calf growth performance. A 6-h rest period upon arrival appeared to be most beneficial to DMI. Anthelmintic treatment at processing reduced the parasitic load in heifers processed at all times. Vaccine titer did not increase after initial processing in heifers processed 24- or 48-h after arrival, indicating the seroconversion of IBR antibodies during the longer rest period.

Long-distance transit alters liver and skeletal muscle physiology of beef cattle

Transportation of cattle is necessary but negatively impacts animal health and production efficiency. To gain a better understanding of the physiological responses to long-distance road transit, 36 crossbred beef steers (324 ± 36 kg) were randomly assigned to treatments (n = 12 steers/treatment): no transit and ad libitum access to feed and water (CON), no transit but deprived of feed and water for 18 h (DEPR), or road transit and no access to feed or water for 18 h (1 790 km; TRANS). Blood, liver, and muscle (longissimus dorsi) samples were collected pre- and post-treatment for analysis of blood metabolites, blood leukocyte profiles, blood markers of oxidative stress, and tissue antioxidant enzyme activity. Additionally, discovery-based metabolomics and proteomics analyses were performed on tissue samples collected immediately post-treatment (d 1). Data (except for omics) were analyzed using ProcMixed of SAS 9.4 with the fixed effect of treatment and steer as the experimental unit. Omics data were analyzed using MetaboAnalyst; metabolites and proteins of interest were identified based on a fold change threshold of 1.20 and t-test P-value of 0.10. On d 1, percent of pretreatment BW and DM intake were least for TRANS steers (P ≤ 0.06). Percent of pretreatment BW remained lesser for TRANS steers on d 8 (P = 0.05). Serum haptoglobin was greatest for TRANS steers immediately post-treatment (P = 0.02). Additionally, TRANS steers exhibited the greatest increase in the neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio and serum non-esterified fatty acids during the treatment period (P < 0.01), indicating TRANS steers experienced a more robust inflammatory and neuroendocrine response. Immediately post-treatment, liver superoxide dismutase activity tended to be greatest for both DEPR and TRANS (P = 0.07) while muscle superoxide dismutase activity was only greatest for TRANS (P = 0.02), suggesting TRANS steers may have experienced more oxidative stress due to the additional physical effort required to stand and maintain balance during transit. The abundance of several proteins (alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein) and metabolites (lactate, citrate, tri-hydroxybutyric acid, and leucine) associated with energy metabolism were altered in the liver and muscle of TRANS. The differential responses for DEPR versus TRANS steers indicate muscle plays an important role in how cattle respond to and recover from transportation stress.

Short term feeding of industrial hemp with a high cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) content increases lying behavior and reduces biomarkers of stress and inflammation in Holstein steers

Industrial hemp (IH) is defined as Cannabis sativa containing < 0.3% delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and was legalized in the 2018 Farm Bill. The impact of cannabinoids in IH fed to livestock, especially after repeat exposure, has not been thoroughly investigated. Sixteen male castrated Holstein cattle weighting (± SD) 447 ± 68 kg were enrolled onto the study. Cattle were allocated into two treatment groups either receiving IH (HEMP, n = 8) or a control (CNTL, n = 8). Cattle in the HEMP group were fed 25 g IH mixed in 200 g of grain once a day for 14 days to target a daily dose of 5.5 mg/kg of cannabidiolic acid (CBDA). Behavior was continuously monitored with accelerometers and blood samples were collected at predetermined time points for plasma cannabinoid, serum cortisol, serum haptoglobin, liver enzymes, serum amyloid A, and prostaglandin E₂ concentrations. The HEMP group spent a mean 14.1 h/d (95% CI 13.6–14.6 h/d) lying compared to the 13.4 h/d (95% CI 12.9–13.8 h/d) for the CNTL cattle (P = 0.03). Cortisol concentrations in the HEMP group were lower than the CNTL group (P = 0.001). Cattle in the HEMP group demonstrated an 8.8% reduction in prostaglandin E₂ concentrations from baseline compared to a 10.2% increase from baseline observed in the CNTL group. No differences for haptoglobin or serum amyloid A were observed. These results suggest that feeding IH with a high CBDA content for 14 days increases lying behavior and decreases biomarkers of stress and inflammation in cattle.

Promoting Judicious Antimicrobial Use in Beef Production: The Role of Quarantine

Judicious antimicrobial stewardship in livestock industry is needed to reduce the use of antimicrobials (AMU) and the associated risk of antimicrobial resistance. Biosecurity measures are acknowledged for their role against the spread of diseases and the importance in reducing AMU in different species. However, their effectiveness in beef production has been scarcely considered. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the quarantine strategy on AMU in beef cattle. A total of 1206 Charolaise animals in five farms were included in the trial. Roughly half of the animals followed the standard procedure of the fattening cycle (no-quarantine; NO-QUA group) and half followed a 30-day period of quarantine (QUA group) since their arrival. Performance and antimicrobial data were recorded and a treatment incidence 100 (TI100it) per animal was calculated. Penicillins was the most used class of antimicrobials. Differences between groups were significant for males only, with NO-QUA group having greater TI100it (3.76 vs. 3.24; p < 0.05) and lower body weight at slaughter (713.4 vs. 723.7 kg; p < 0.05) than QUA group. Results suggest that quarantine strategy can reduce AMU in males without compromising their performance, whereas further investigation is needed for females.

Effect of bupivacaine liposome suspension administered as a local anesthetic block on indicators of pain and distress during and after surgical castration in dairy calves

Castration is a routine procedure performed on beef and dairy operations in the United States. All methods of castration cause behavioral, physiologic, and neuroendocrine changes associated with pain. The American Veterinary Medical Association and the American Association of Bovine Practitioners recommend that anesthesia and analgesia be administered during castration. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of bupivacaine liposome suspension, a novel, long-acting, local anesthetic formulation administered as a nerve block at castration. The authors chose to investigate this novel formulation as an alternative to the current industry standards using lidocaine nerve blocks alone or in combination with meloxicam. Thirty male Holstein calves, 16 to 20 wk of age, were enrolled and randomly assigned to one of the four treatment groups prior to surgical castration: 1) bupivacaine liposome suspension block + oral placebo (BUP), 2) lidocaine block + oral placebo (LID), 3) lidocaine block + oral meloxicam (1 mg/kg) (LID + MEL), and 4) saline block + oral placebo (CON). Biomarkers were collected at −24 h and from 0 to 120 h post-castration and included infrared thermography, pressure mat gait analysis, chute defense and behavior scoring (pain and activity), and blood sampling for serum cortisol and prostaglandin E₂ metabolites (PGEMs). Responses were analyzed using repeated measures, with calf nested in treatment as a random effect, and treatment, time, and their interaction designated as fixed effects. The results from pressure mat gait analysis show that the CON had a shorter front limb stance time from baseline (−8.73%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: −24.84% to 7.37%) compared with BUP and LID + MEL (>5.70%; 95% CI: −22.91% to 23.79%) (P < 0.03). The CON tended to have an increase in front limb force from baseline (6.31%; 95% CI: −1.79% to 14.41%) compared with BUP, LID, and LID + MEL (<−5.06%; 95% CI: −14.22% to 0.95%) (P < 0.04). The CON displayed higher counts of hunched standing (2.00; 95% CI: 1.68 to 2.32) compared with LID + MEL (1.43; 95% CI: 1.13 to 1.72) (P = 0.05). The CON had higher cortisol concentrations at 24 h (7.70 ng/mL; 95% CI: 1.52 to 13.87 ng/mL) relative to BUP (3.11 ng/mL; 95% CI: −2.56 to 8.79 ng/mL) (P = 0.002). At 4 and 24 h, LID + MEL had lower PGEM concentrations from baseline (−32.42% and −47.84%; 95% CI: −78.45% to −1.80%) compared with CON (27.86% and 47.63%; 95% CI: 7.49% to 82.98%) (P < 0.02). The administration of bupivacaine liposome suspension as a local anesthetic block at the time of castration was as effective at controlling pain as a multimodal approach of lidocaine and meloxicam.

Castration is a routine procedure performed on beef and dairy operations in the United States. All methods of castration cause pain. The American Veterinary Medical Association and the American Association of Bovine Practitioners recommend that anesthesia and analgesia be administered during castration. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of bupivacaine liposome suspension, a novel, long-acting, local anesthetic formulation administered as a nerve block at castration, as an alternative to current industry standards using lidocaine nerve blocks alone or in combination with meloxicam. Evidence provided in the current study demonstrates that pain from surgical castration can last up to 120 h post-castration, indicated by changes in ocular temperature, gait analysis, and prostaglandin metabolite concentrations. These data show that the administration of bupivacaine liposome suspension as a local anesthetic block at the time of castration was as effective at controlling pain as a multimodal approach of lidocaine and meloxicam. A single injection that alleviates both perioperative and postoperative pain would be an attractive option for livestock producers to alleviate pain at the time of castration. Further research is needed to discover effective ways of managing pain for extended durations following painful husbandry procedures.

The effect of injectable vitamin C and road transit duration on inflammation, muscle fatigue, and performance in pre-conditioned beef steer calves

This study examined the effects of injectable vitamin C (VC) before transport and duration of transit on feedlot performance, inflammation, and muscle fatigue in cattle. One hundred thirty-two Angus-cross steers (393 ± 4 kg) were stratified by body weight (BW) to a 2 × 2 factorial of intramuscular injection (INJ; 20 mL/steer): VC (250 mg sodium ascorbate/mL) or saline (SAL) and road transit duration (DUR): 18 h (18-h; 1,770 km) or 8 h (8-h; 727 km). On day 0, steers were weighed and given INJ of VC or SAL immediately before transport. Upon return (day 1), BW and blood were collected before steers returned to pens equipped with GrowSafe bunks. Steers were weighed on days 0, 1, 7, 15, 30, 31, 54, and 55. Data were analyzed via ProcMixed of SAS (experimental unit = steer; 32 to 34 steers/treatment) with fixed effects of INJ, DUR, and the interaction. Blood was collected on days −5, 1, 2, 3, and 7 (n = 9 steers/treatment); blood parameters were analyzed as repeated measures with the repeated effect of day. Area under the curve (AUC) for plasma ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) was calculated using R. Final BW was greater for 8 h compared to 18 h (P = 0.05) with no effect of INJ or interaction (P ≥ 0.51). Dry matter intake (DMI) from days 1 to 7 was greater for VC-8, intermediate for VC-18 and SAL-18, and least for SAL-8 (P = 0.02). Overall, DMI tended to be greatest for SAL-18, intermediate for VC-18 and VC-8, and least for SAL-8 (P = 0.08). Days 7 to 31 gain:feed (G:F) was greatest for VC-18 compared to other treatments (INJ × DUR, P = 0.05), and there was no effect of treatment on overall G:F (P ≥ 0. 19). There was no INJ or INJ × DAY (P ≥ 0.17) effect on serum lactate, haptoglobin, or non-esterified fatty acid. However, these blood parameters were greater on day 1 for 18 h compared to 8 h, and both treatments returned to near baseline by day 3 (DUR × DAY, P < 0.01). Plasma ascorbate concentrations on day 1 were greater for VC compared to SAL and returned to baseline by day 2 (INJ × DAY, P < 0.01). Plasma FRAP AUC from days −5 to 3 was greatest for VC-18, intermediate for VC-8 and SAL-8, and least for SAL-18 (INJ × DAY, P = 0.02). This suggests an antioxidant prior to long-haul transit positively influenced antioxidant capacity; however, VC did not improve overall post-transit performance. Although longer transit duration increased indicators of muscle fatigue and inflammation, post-transit performance was not appreciably different between transit durations.

Effect of bupivacaine liposome suspension administered as a cornual nerve block on indicators of pain and distress during and after cautery dehorning in dairy calves

Dehorning is performed on a high percentage of dairies worldwide. Concern about the negative effect of dehorning on animal welfare has contributed to the development of new guidelines that require the use of pain management at the time of disbudding in the United States. However, livestock producers are limited in how to address this requirement due to a lack of (1) approved analgesic drugs, (2) analgesic options that control pain for an extended duration, and (3) analgesic formulations that are practical for producers to administer. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of bupivacaine liposome suspension, a novel, long-acting, local anesthetic formulation administered as a nerve block at dehorning, compared with current industry standard analgesic approaches using lidocaine nerve blocks alone or in combination with the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug meloxicam. Fifty male Holstein calves, 10 to 14 wk of age, were enrolled and randomly assigned to 1 of 5 treatment groups before cautery dehorning as follows: (1) bupivacaine liposome suspension block, oral placebo (BUP); (2) lidocaine block, oral placebo (LID); (3) lidocaine block, oral meloxicam (1 mg/kg of body weight; LID + MEL); (4) saline block, oral placebo (CON); and (5) saline block, oral placebo, sham dehorn (SHAM). Biomarkers were collected from 0 to 120 h postdehorning and included infrared thermography, mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT), pressure mat gait analysis, chute defense and behavior scoring, and blood sampling for serum cortisol and prostaglandin E₂ metabolites. Responses were analyzed using repeated measures with calf nested in treatment designated as a random effect, and treatment, time, and their interaction designated as fixed effects. At 2 h postdehorning, the BUP group had a higher MNT compared with the CON group. Furthermore, at 24 h postdehorning, the BUP group had a higher MNT compared with the LID group. Gait distance differed significantly between treatment groups; the CON, LID, and LID + MEL groups had an increased gait distance relative to the SHAM group. The CON group exhibited a higher chute defense behavior score during the dehorning procedure compared with all other treatments. Furthermore, the CON group exhibited more ear flicks than the BUP and LID + MEL groups postdehorning. At 4 h and 24 h after dehorning, the LID + MEL group had a lower average prostaglandin E₂ metabolites concentration compared with all other treatment groups. These data showed that administration of bupivacaine liposome suspension as a cornual nerve block at the time of dehorning was as effective at controlling pain as a multimodal approach of lidocaine and meloxicam.

Metagenomics Reveals That Proper Placement After Long-Distance Transportation Significantly Affects Calf Nasopharyngeal Microbiota and Is Critical for the Prevention of Respiratory Diseases

Transportation is an inevitable phase for the cattle industry, and its effect on the respiratory system of transported cattle remains controversial. To reveal cattle’s nasopharyngeal microbiota dynamics, we tracked a batch of beef calves purchased from an auction market, transported to a farm by vehicle within 3 days, and adaptively fed for 7 days. Before and after the transport and after the placement, a total of 18 nasopharyngeal mucosal samples were collected, and microbial profiles were obtained using a metagenomic shotgun sequencing approach. The diversity, composition, structure, and function of the microbiota were collected at each time point, and their difference was analyzed. The results showed that, before the transportation, there were a great abundance of potential bovine respiratory disease (BRD)-related pathogens, and the transportation did not significantly change their abundance. After the transportation, 7 days of placement significantly decreased the risk of BRD by decreasing the abundance of potential BRD-related pathogens even if the diversity was decreased. We also discussed the controversial results of transportation’s effect in previous works and the decrease in diversity induced by placement. Our work provided more accurate information about the effect of transportation and the followed placement on the calf nasopharyngeal microbial community, indicated the importance of adaptive placement after long-distance transport, and is helpful to prevent BRD induced by transportation stress.

Small RNA-Seq Analysis Reveals miRNA Expression of Short Distance Transportation Stress in Beef Cattle Blood

Simple Summary

In this study, three miRNA modules were identified in a cattle short-distance transportation stress model, and the turquoise module showed key miRNA sets according to their correlation with hub genes. Further, hub miRNAs were identified based on their targeting relationship with hub genes in our previous study. This finding provides the potential utility for predicting and treatment of short-distance transportation stress in beef cattle.

Abstract

Transportation is a crucial phase in the beef cattle industry, and the annual losses caused by beef cattle transport stress are substantial. Because of its huge economic losses, such as lower growth rate and even death, long-distance transportation stress has attracted more attention from beef production practitioners because of its huge economic losses. Compared with the long-distance transportation stress, the short-distance transportation stress was ignored for the reason of no obvious symptoms in cattle. Our previous study showed that the disorder of B cell function could be a potential health risk after short-distance transportation. However, the transcriptome details of the changes in the cattle blood after short-distance transportation and the molecular mechanisms for the regulation of the developmental process are not clearly known. In this study, a total of 10 Qinchuan cattle were used to compare the molecular characteristics of blood before and after short-distance transportation. The miRNA-seq showed that 114 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) were found (40 upregulated and 74 downregulated) between two groups before and after transportation. Furthermore, more than 90% of the miRNAs with counts of more than 10 were used to construct a co-expression network by weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA), and four independent modules were identified. According to their relationship with 30 hub genes, the turquoise module was the key module in this study. The regulator network of hub genes and miRNAs in the turquoise module was constructed by miRNAs targeting genes predicting, and the miRNAs had targeting sites within hub genes that could be identified as hub-miRNAs. Further, it showed that CD40 and ITPKB had the same targeting miRNAs (miR-339a/b), and the newly discovered hub miRNAs filled the gaps in our previous study about the relationship between hub genes in short-distance transportation stress and provided the potential utility for predicting and treatment of short-distance transportation stress in beef cattle.

Factors Affecting the Welfare of Unweaned Dairy Calves Destined for Early Slaughter and Abattoir Animal-Based Indicators Reflecting Their Welfare On-Farm

In many dairy industries, but particularly those that are pasture-based and have seasonal calving, "surplus calves," which are mostly male, are killed at a young age because they are of low value and it is not economically viable to raise them. Such calves are either killed on farm soon after birth or sent for slaughter at an abattoir. In countries where calves are sent for slaughter the age ranges from 3-4 days (New Zealand and Australia; "bobby calves") to 3-4 weeks (e.g., Ireland); they are not weaned. All calves are at the greatest risk of death in the 1st month of life but when combined with their low value, this makes surplus calves destined for early slaughter (i.e., <1 month of age) particularly vulnerable to poor welfare while on-farm. The welfare of these calves may also be compromised during transport and transit through markets and at the abattoir. There is growing recognition that feedback to farmers of results from animal-based indicators (ABI) of welfare (including health) collected prior to and after slaughter can protect animal welfare. Hence, the risk factors for poor on-farm, in-transit and at-abattoir calf welfare combined with an ante and post mortem (AM/PM) welfare assessment scheme specific to calves <1 month of age are outlined. This scheme would also provide an evidence base with which to identify farms on which such animals are more at risk of poor welfare. The following ABIs, at individual or batch level, are proposed: AM indicators include assessment of age (umbilical maturity), nutritional status (body condition, dehydration), behavioral status (general demeanor, posture, able to and stability while standing and moving, shivering, vocalizations, oral behaviors/cross-sucking, fearfulness, playing), and evidence of disease processes (locomotory ability [lameness], cleanliness/fecal soiling [scour], injuries hairless patches, swellings, wounds], dyspnoea/coughing, nasal/ocular discharge, navel swelling/discharge); PM measures include assessment of feeding adequacy (abomasal contents, milk in rumen, visceral fat reserves) and evidence of disease processes (omphalitis, GIT disorders, peritonitis, abscesses [internal and external], arthritis, septicaemia, and pneumonia). Based on similar models in other species, this information can be used in a positive feedback loop not only to protect and improve calf welfare but also to inform on-farm calf welfare management plans, support industry claims regarding animal welfare and benchmark welfare performance nationally and internationally.

Transcriptome Characterization of Short Distance Transport Stress in Beef Cattle Blood

The transportation is a crucial phase in beef cattle industry, and the annual losses caused by beef cattle transport stress are substantial. Several studies have described the effect of long distance transportation stress on animal health, such as disorder in nervous, endocrine, immune, and metabolic system. However, molecular mechanisms underlying short distance transportation stress is still poorly understood. Present study aims to investigate the effect of short distance transportation by measuring the hematological indices and transcriptomic analysis. In this study, a total 10 Qinchuan cattle were used to compare the molecular characteristics of blood before and after transportation. We have found that a stress-related marker "white blood cell count (WBC)" increased significantly after transportation. The decrease in triglyceride (TG), cholestenone (CHO), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) showed that energy expenditure was increased after transportation, but not enough to activate fatty decomposition. Intriguingly, the decrease of malondialdehyde (MDA) showed that cattle were more resilience to oxidative stress. The RNA-seq showed that 1,092 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were found (329 up-regulated and 763 down-regulated) between group before and group after. The GO and KEGG enrichment showed that the metabolic pathway and B cell function related pathways were enriched. Furthermore, median absolute deviation (MAD) top 5,000 genes were used to construct a co-expression network by weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA), and 11 independent modules were identified. Combing with protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis, the verification of quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and the correlation of B cell function, structural maintenance of chromosomes 3 (SMC3), jun proto-oncogene (JUN), and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) were suggested as potential molecular markers in identification of short distance transportation. Collectively, the blood RNA-seq analysis and WGCNA indicated that the disorder of B cell differentiation, proliferation, survival, and apoptosis were the potential molecular mechanism in short distance transportation stress. In conclusion, our results provide the novel insight about potential biomarkers for short distance transportation stress, which may serve as for diagnosing and preventing this condition in beef industry.

Selecting sorting centres to avoid long distance transport of weaned beef calves

The transport of weaned calves from cow–calf producers to fatteners is a general concern for the young bull industry due to its documented negative impact on the welfare, health and performance of the animals. These transfers are often managed by intermediaries who transport weaned calves to sorting centres, where they are grouped into batches before being sent to fattening units. In this study, we present an algorithm to limiting these transfer distances by appropriately selecting the sorting centre through which they must go. We tested the effectiveness of this algorithm on historical data from a French beef producer organization managing 136,892 transfers using 13 sorting centres. The results show a decrease in the transfer distances compared to the historical record, especially for the calves travelling over long distances (− 76 km, i.e. 18% on average for the 33% longest transfers). Moreover, the distribution of calves between the sorting centres proposed by the algorithm reveals differences in their efficiency in minimizing transfer distances. In addition to its usefulness as a management tool for the daily transport of cattle, this algorithm provides prospects for improving the management of the sorting centres themselves.

Minimizing the number of origins in batches of weaned calves to reduce their risks of developing bovine respiratory diseases

Bovine respiratory diseases (BRD) are a major concern for the beef cattle industry, as beef calves overwhelmingly develop BRD symptoms during the first weeks after their arrival at fattening units. These cases occur after weaned calves from various cow-calf producers are grouped into batches to be sold to fatteners. Cross-contaminations between calves from different origins (potentially carrying different pathogens), together with increased stress because of the process of batch creation, can increase their risks of developing BRD symptoms. This study investigated whether reducing the number of different origins per batch is a strategy to reduce the risk of BRD cases. We developed an algorithm aimed at creating batches with as few origins as possible, while respecting constraints on the number and breed of the calves. We tested this algorithm on a dataset of 137,726 weaned calves grouped into 9701 batches by a French organization. We also computed an index assessing the risks of developing BRD because of the batch composition by considering four pathogens involved in the BRD system. While increasing the heterogeneity of batches in calf bodyweight, which is not expected to strongly impact the performance, our algorithm successfully decreased the average number of origins in the same batch and their risk index. Both this algorithm and the risk index can be used as part of decision tool to assess and possibly minimize BRD risk at batch creation, but they are generic enough to assess health risk for other production animals, and optimize the homogeneity of selected characteristics.

Effect of bioactive proteins on gait kinematics and systemic inflammatory markers in mature horses

Twenty-seven mature Quarter horses were used in a randomized design to determine the effects of bioactive protein supplementation on gait kinematics and systemic inflammatory markers in a 34-d trial. Treatments consisted of oral doses of 230 g/d of pelleted supplements containing 0 g (CON; n = 9), 40 g of bioactive protein (40BP; n = 9; LIFELINE, APC, LLC, Ankeny, IA), and 80 g of bioactive protein (80BP; n = 9) daily. Horses were fed a commercial concentrate at 0.5% BW (as-fed) and received ad libitum coastal bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) hay daily. On day 33, horses consistent in exercise (CON, n = 6; 40BP, n = 8; 80BP, n = 7) participated in a trailering and riding challenge. Kinematic gait analysis was performed on day 0 for use as a covariate, and on day 14, 28, and 34 to allow for the determination of potential time and dosage effects. Video footage was collected and analyzed using gait analysis software (EquineTec, Monroe, GA) for the determination of stride length (SL) and range of motion (ROM). Blood was collected via jugular venipuncture on days 0, 14, 28, and 34 for determination of systemic expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and IL-1β. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED of SAS. A trend towards treatment × time interaction was observed in ROM of the knee at the walk (P = 0.10), due to the increasing ROM for 40BP and 80BP as time increased and decreasing ROM for CON. A treatment × time interaction was observed (P < 0.01) for hock ROM at a walk resulting from CON and 80BP decreasing from day 14 to 28 with 40BP increasing, while from day 28 to 34 ROM at a walk decreased for 40BP and increased for 80BP. The main effect of treatment on hock ROM at the walk was quadratic (P < 0.01) and characterized by higher ROM values for 40BP compared to CON or 80BP. Dietary treatment lengthened (P = 0.04) SL of the hind limb at the walk for 40BP and 80BP compared to CON on both days 14 and 28. A significant treatment × time interaction was observed in the expression of IL-1β (P < 0.01) and can be explained by lower concentrations of IL-1β for 80BP on day 34 compared to the other treatments, with 40BP being intermediate and CON being the highest. Increased articular ROM with decreased expression of IL-1β may indicate potential anti-inflammatory effects of 80 g/d of bioactive proteins.

Short communication: Associations of serum biomarkers of stress and inflammation measured at arrival with health, mortality, and growth of calves transported within the first 4 days of life

The objective of this study was to assess the association between serum concentrations of haptoglobin (Hp), cortisol, and l-lactate following transport of dairy heifer calves within their first week of life with health, mortality, and growth during the preweaning period. Blood samples were collected at arrival and included a cohort of 168 Jersey and Jersey-cross calves from 8 different sources located in Minnesota. All calves were raised at a single facility in New Mexico. Incidence of respiratory disease (BRD) and mortality during the preweaning period (60 d of life) were extracted from the farm's software database. Individual body weight was measured at birth and at weaning to estimate average daily gain. No simple linear correlations were found between the biomarkers. The incidence of BRD during the preweaning period was 7.7%. While cortisol and l-lactate serum concentrations were not associated with BRD, Hp was negatively associated with BRD. Receiving operating characteristic curve analysis was performed to determine the optimal threshold value for Hp [threshold ≤0.63 μmol/L (63 μg/mL), area under the curve = 0.65]. A Cox's proportional hazards model revealed that calves with Hp concentration ≤0.63 μmol/L were more likely to be diagnosed with BRD (hazard ratio = 5.0, 95% confidence interval = 1.3-19.0). A mixed linear model showed that calves with Hp concentration ≤0.63 μmol/L tended to have lower average daily gain (454.4 vs. 479.9 g/d) during the preweaning period than calves with Hp >0.63 μmol/L at arrival. Overall mortality of the cohort was 3.5%, and Hp was not associated with mortality. Although circulating concentrations of l-lactate and cortisol measured at arrival were not associated with BRD incidence during the preweaning period of heifer calves transported within the first 4 d of life, calves with serum Hp concentration >0.63 μmol/L were less likely to be diagnosed with BRD and tended to grow more than calves with Hp ≤0.63 μmol/L. Further research is needed to replicate these results in a larger cohort and to better understand the possible influence of greater inflammatory status at arrival on health and growth of calves transported to a calf-raising facility.

First expert elicitation of knowledge on drivers of emergence of influenza D in Europe

The influenza D virus (IDV) was first identified and characterized in 2011. Considering the virus' zoonotic potential, its genome nature (segmented RNA virus), its worldwide circulation in livestock and its role in bovine respiratory disease, an increased interest is given to IDV. However, few data are available on drivers of emergence of IDV. We first listed fifty possible drivers of emergence of IDV in ruminants and swine. As recently carried out for COVID-19 in pets (Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 2020), a scoring system was developed per driver and scientific experts (N = 28) were elicited to (a) allocate a score to each driver, (b) weight the drivers' scores within each domain and (c) weight the different domains among themselves. An overall weighted score was calculated per driver, and drivers were ranked in decreasing order. Drivers with comparable likelihoods to play a role in the emergence of IDV in ruminants and swine in Europe were grouped using a regression tree analysis. Finally, the robustness of the expert elicitation was verified. Eight drivers were ranked with the highest probability to play a key role in the emergence of IDV: current species specificity of the causing agent of the disease; influence of (il)legal movements of live animals (ruminants, swine) from neighbouring/European Union member states and from third countries for the disease to (re-)emerge in a given country; detection of emergence; current knowledge of the pathogen; vaccine availability; animal density; and transport vehicles of live animals. As there is still limited scientific knowledge on the topic, expert elicitation of knowledge and multi-criteria decision analysis, in addition to clustering and sensitivity analyses, are very important to prioritize future studies, starting from the top eight drivers. The present methodology could be applied to other emerging animal diseases.

Strategies for Feeding Unweaned Dairy Beef Cattle to Improve Their Health

In order to answer the question of whether nutritional interventions may help to reduce the incidence of respiratory disease in dairy beef calves at arrival, the present review is divided in three sections. In the first section, the nutrition of calves previous to the arrival from the origin farm to the final rearing farm is reviewed. In the second section, the possible consequences of this previous nutrition on gut health and immune status upon arrival to the rearing farm are described. The main consequences of previous nutrition and management that these unweaned calves suffer at arrival are the negative energy balance, the increased intestinal permeability, the oxidative stress, the anemia, and the recovery feed consumption. Finally, in the third section, some considerations to advance in future nutritional strategies are suggested, which are focused on the prevention of the negative consequences of previous nutrition and the recovery of the gut and immune status. Moreover, additional suggestions are formulated that will be also helpful to reduce the incidence of bovine respiratory disease (BRD) that are not directly linked to nutrition like having a control golden standard in the studies or designing risk categories in order to classify calves as suitable or not to be transported.

Effects of the Administration of a Non-specific Immune Stimulant Around Transportation on Health and Performance of Jersey and Jersey-Cross Heifer Calves During the Rearing Period: Randomized Clinical Trial

Our objective was to evaluate the effects of a non-specific immune stimulant (IS) administered around transportation on health scores (HS), average daily gain (ADG), disease treatment and mortality of Jersey and Jersey-cross calves during the rearing period. Newborn calves (4 d ± 1) were randomly allocated to receive either 1 mL of saline (CON; n = 438), 1 mL of IS before transport (BTIS; n = 431), or 1 mL of IS immediately after transport (ATIS; n = 436). Calves were health scored weekly for 3 weeks after transport. The data were analyzed using multivariable linear mixed models and multivariable logistic regression models. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was performed for time to event analysis. Treatment, birth weight, breed, site of birth, serum total solids, dam parity, season of enrollment, and metaphylaxis were offered to models. Differences in respiratory and fecal HS, and ADG between treatment groups were not statistically significant. A total of 196 (15.0%) calves were treated at least once for any disease and 52 calves were treated multiple times. The proportion of calves treated for respiratory disease and/or diarrhea were 14.4, 14.4, and 16.2% for BTIS, ATIS and CON groups, respectively. Although the differences in the likelihood of treatment for both respiratory disease and/or diarrhea during the first 9 weeks of life was not statistically different between groups, we observed that more calves in the control group received disease treatments around 15 days of age compared with calves that received IS. The likelihood of treatment for respiratory diseases alone during the first 30 days of life was smaller in the calves that received IS before transportation when compared to the control group. Only 18 (1.4%) calves died within the study period. The calf mortality likelihood was not statistically different between study groups; however, fewer calves in the IS groups died when compared to CON. In conclusion, the use of IS around transportation did not influence weekly HS, ADG, and the number of disease treatments during the rearing period, but administering IS before transportation resulted in fewer treatments of respiratory diseases during the first 30 days post-transport and marginally lower mortality rates during the rearing period.

Pre-transit vitamin C injection improves post-transit performance of beef steers

Although cattle can synthesize vitamin C (VC) endogenously, stress may increase VC requirements above the biosynthetic threshold and warrant supplementation. This study investigated the effects of a VC injection delivered before or after a long-distance transit event on blood parameters and feedlot performance of beef steers. Fifty-two days prior to trial initiation, 90 newly weaned, Angus-based steers from a single source were transported to Ames, IA, USA. On day 0, 72 steers (356 ± 17 kg) were blocked by BW and randomly assigned to intramuscular injection treatments (24 steers/treatment): saline injection pre- and post-transit (CON), VC (Vet One, Boise, ID, USA; 5 g sodium ascorbate/steer) injection pre-transit and saline injection post-transit (PRE) or saline injection pre-transit and VC injection post-transit (POST). Following pre-transit treatment injections, steers were transported on a commercial livestock trailer for approximately 18 h (1675 km). Post-transit (day 1), steers were sorted into pens with one GrowSafe bunk/pen (4 pens/treatment; 6 steers/pen). Steers were weighed on day 0, 1, 7, 30, 31, 56 and 57. Blood was collected from 3 steers/pen on day 0, 1, 2 and 7; liver biopsies were performed on the same 3 steers/pen on day 2. Data were analyzed as a randomized complete block design (experimental unit = steer; fixed effects = treatment and block) and blood parameters were analyzed as repeated measures. A pre-transit VC injection improved steer average daily gain from day 7 to 31 (P = 0.05) and overall (day 1 to 57; P = 0.02), resulting in greater BW for PRE-steers on day 30/31 (P = 0.03) and a tendency for greater final BW (day 56/57; P = 0.07). Steers that received VC pre- or post-transit had greater DM intake from day 31 to 57 (P = 0.01) and overall (P = 0.02) v. CON-steers. Plasma ascorbate concentrations were greatest for PRE-steers on day 1 and POST-steers on day 2 (treatment × day; P < 0.01). No interaction or treatment effects were observed for other blood parameters (P ≥ 0.21). Plasma ferric-reducing antioxidant potential and malondialdehyde concentrations decreased post-transit (day; P < 0.01), while serum non-esterified fatty acids and haptoglobin concentrations increased post-transit (day; P < 0.01). In general, blood parameters returned to pre-transit values by day 7. Pre-transit administration of injectable VC to beef steers mitigated the decline in plasma ascorbate concentrations and resulted in superior feedlot performance compared to post-transit administration.

Emerging Influenza D virus infection in European livestock as determined in serology studies: Are we underestimating its spread over the continent?

Influenza D virus (IDV) is a novel orthomyxovirus that was first isolated in 2011 in the United States from a swine exhibiting influenza-like disease. To date, its detection is extended to all continents and in a broad host range: IDV is circulating in cattle, swine, feral swine, camelids, small ruminants and horses. Evidence also suggests a possible species jump to humans, underlining the issue of zoonotic potential. In Europe, serological investigations in cattle have partially allowed the understanding of the virus diffusion in different countries such as Italy, France, Luxembourg and Ireland. The infection is widespread in cattle but limited in other investigated species, consolidating the assumption of cattle as IDV primary host. We hypothesize that commercial livestock trade could play a role in the observed differences in IDV seroprevalence among these areas. Indeed, the overall level of exposure in cattle and swine in destination countries (e.g. Italy) is higher than in origin countries (e.g. France), leading to the hypothesis of a viral shedding following the transportation of young cattle abroad and thus contributing to larger diffusion at countries of destination. IDV large geographic circulation in cattle from Northern to more Southern European countries also supports the hypothesis of a viral spread through livestock trade. This review summarizes available data on IDV seroprevalence in Europe collected so far and integrates unpublished data from IDV European surveillance framework of the last decade. In addition, the possible role of livestock trade and biosecurity measures in this pathogen's spread is discussed.

Some pathological observations on the naturally infected dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) with the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in Saudi Arabia 2018-2019

Background

The natural MERS-CoV infection in dromedary camels is understudied. Recent experimental studies showed no obvious clinical signs in the infected dromedary camels.

Aim

To study the pathological changes associated with natural MERS-CoV infection in dromedary camels.

Methods

Tissues from three MERS-CoV positive animals as well as two negative animals were collected and examined for the presence of pathological changes. The screening of the animals was carried out first by the rapid agglutination test and then confirmed by the RT-PCR. The selected animals ranged from six to twelve months in age. The sensitivity of the latter technique was much higher in the detection of MERS-CoV than the Rapid test (14 out of 75 animals positive or 18% versus 31 out of 75 positive or 41%).

Results

MERS-CoV induced marked desquamation of the respiratory epithelium accompanied by lamina propria and submucosal mononuclear cells infiltration, epithelial hyperplasia in the respiratory tract, and interstitial pneumonia. Ciliary cell loss was seen in the trachea and turbinate. In addition, degeneration of glomerular capillaries with the complete destruction of glomerular tufts that were replaced with fibrinous exudate in renal corpuscles in the renal cortex were noticed. Expression of the MERS-CoV-S1 and MERS-CoV-N proteins was revealed in respiratory tract, and kidneys.

Conclusion

To our knowledge, this is the first study describing the pathological changes of MERS-CoV infection in dromedary camels under natural conditions. In contrast to experimental infection in case of spontaneous infection interstitial pneumonea is evident at least in some affected animals.

Effects of transport stress on pathological injury and main heat shock protein expression in the respiratory system of goats

The aim of the present study was to investigate the pathological injury and the expression of heat shock proteins in the caprine lung, trachea and bronchus under transport stress. 12 healthy male goats were selected and randomly divided into three groups. The control group (non-transported group), 2 hr transport-treated group and 6 hr transport-treated group. Morphological changes as well as the expression of heat shock proteins (HSPs, mainly HSP27, HSP70 and HSP90) in three parts of the respiratory tract were examined. Our results showed swollen mucosa and congestive blood vessels in mucous layer and submucosa, inflammatory cell infiltration as well as degeneration and necrosis of mucosal epithelial cells in trachea and bronchus of the transport-treated groups. The epithelial cells were degenerated, and the exfoliated cells and debris could be seen in the alveolar cavity. The results of immunohistochemistry showed that HSP27 and HSP70 were strongly expressed in tracheal and bronchial epithelium, glandular epithelium, vascular endothelium and bronchiole epithelium. And the amount of positive inflammatory cells was increased in transport-treated groups. Western blot results indicated that the expression of all three proteins had no obvious difference among the three groups in bronchi (p > .05). In trachea, there was no significant difference in the expression of heat shock proteins among the three groups except that the expression of HSP70 which was obviously higher in the two transported groups than the control group (p < .05). The expression level of HSP70 in the 2 hr transport-treated group was significantly higher than the 6 hr group (p < .05) and control groups (p < .05). However, there was no significant difference in the expression level of HSP27 and HSP90 in three groups (p > .05). In conclusion, our data showed that transport stress could damage the caprine respiratory system.

Non-specific protection from respiratory tract infections in cattle generated by intranasal administration of an innate immune stimulant

Alternatives to antibiotics for prevention of respiratory tract infections in cattle are urgently needed given the increasing public and regulatory pressure to reduce overall antibiotic usage. Activation of local innate immune defenses in the upper respiratory tract is one strategy to induce non-specific protection against infection with the diverse array of viral and bacterial pathogens associated with bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC), while avoiding the use of antibiotics. Our prior studies in rodent models demonstrated that intranasal administration of liposome-TLR complexes (LTC) as a non-specific immune stimulant generated high levels of protection against lethal bacterial and viral pathogens. Therefore, we conducted studies to assess LTC induction of local immune responses and protective immunity to BRDC in cattle. In vitro, LTC were shown to activate peripheral blood mononuclear cells in cattle, which was associated with secretion of INFγ and IL-6. Macrophage activation with LTC triggered intracellular killing of Mannheimia hemolytica and several other bacterial pathogens. In studies in cattle, intranasal administration of LTC demonstrated dose-dependent activation of local innate immune responses in the nasopharynx, including recruitment of monocytes and prolonged upregulation (at least 2 weeks) of innate immune cytokine gene expression by nasopharyngeal mucosal cells. In a BRDC challenge study, intranasal administration of LTC prior to pathogen exposure resulted in significant reduction in both clinical signs of infection and disease-associated euthanasia rates. These findings indicate that intranasal administration of a non-specific innate immune stimulant can be an effective method of rapidly generating generalized protection from mixed viral and bacterial respiratory tract infections in cattle.

To what extent does the composition of batches formed at the sorting facility influence the subsequent growth performance of young beef bulls? A French observational study

To meet the demands of the beef cattle sector in France, weaned beef calves are transported to sorting facilities and sorted into batches composed of animals of similar body weight (BW) before the beginning of the fattening period. This procedure aims to facilitate animal management. However, it leads to practices that affect animal welfare, health and performance, such as transporting weaned beef calves over long distances and mixing animals originating from different cow/calf farms. In contrast, other potentially beneficial practices, such as pre-weaning vaccination against bovine respiratory diseases (BRD), are seldom taken into consideration when batches are formed. This observational study, based on field data from 15,735 Charolais bulls, aimed to investigate which criteria should be favored for batch constitution by quantifying the effect of batch characteristics on the growth performance of young bulls during the fattening period. Clustering analysis was used to group young bulls exhibiting similar batch characteristics and define batch types. Associations between batch characteristics/batch types and individual growth performance/homogeneity of growth performance (mean and standard deviation (SD) of average daily gain (ADG) and fattening period duration) were studied using linear mixed models. The mean BW and the percentage of animals vaccinated against BRD before weaning were positively associated with ADG (+35 g/d for each additional 50 kg and +28 g/d for a high percentage of vaccinated animals, P < 0.05). In contrast, transportation distance was negatively associated with ADG (-12 g/d for each additional 120 km travelled). Mixing animals and BW homogeneity did not affect growth performance (P > 0.05). Only the mean BW and mixing animals negatively influenced the homogeneity of ADG (P < 0.01). The clustering analysis revealed that batches with the most BW heterogeneity, the least mixing, the shortest transportation distance and a high percentage of pre-weaning animals vaccinated against BRD had better growth performance compared to batches with the opposite characteristics (+61 g/d, P < 0.001). Our results suggest that major improvements of growth performance of fattening young bulls could be obtained by minimizing transportation distance, providing vaccination programs against BRD before weaning, and maintaining groups from the same cow/calf farm instead of constituting groups of animals with similar BW at the beginning of fattening.

Comparison of the effect of tildipirosin administered alone or in combination with transdermal flunixin on the performance, health, activity, and well-being of transported feedlot calves on arrival at the feedlot

Long distance transportation can be a significant source of stress to cattle and is associated with increased risk of bovine respiratory disease (BRD). The administration of a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) has been shown to reduce stress following long distance transport. The objective of this study was to compare performance, health, accelerometer activity, and well-being between calves receiving either tildipirosin (Zuprevo 18%; Merck Animal Health, Madison, NJ) alone or in combination with transdermal flunixin (BANAMINE Transdermal Pour-on Solution; Merck Animal Health, Madison, NJ) on arrival at the feedlot. Three hundred eighty-four polled, Continental × English, and English crossbred bulls (n = 199) and steers (n = 185) were enrolled into one of two treatments: 1) tildipirosin administered in the neck as a single dose of 4 mg/kg only (PLBO) 2) tildipirosin in combination with transdermal flunixin applied to the dorsal midline at a dose of 3.3 mg/kg (FTD). Outcomes measured were average daily gain (ADG), dry mater intake (DMI), gain to feed, morbidity, mortality, accelerometer activity data, and a daily visual analog scale (VAS) assessment of well-being. Body weight (BW) was determined by weighing individual animals; ADG was calculated as initial BW-final BW / total days on feed; DMI was calculated as daily pen feed allocation-feed remaining at next feeding / number of calves in the pen; and gain to feed was calculated as pen level ADG / pen level DMI. The VAS used was a 100 mm line anchored at each end by descriptors of "no pain" or "severe pain". Statistical analysis was performed using JMP 13 computer software using pen as the experimental unit, lot number as a random variable, and treatment as a fixed variable. There was no treatment effect on DMI (P = 0.51). During the first 14 d on feed, FTD calves had a lower ADG of 0.90 kg/d compared with 1.33 kg/d in the PLBO group (P = 0.05). There were no differences observed in morbidity and mortality between groups (P = 0.29). There were no treatment differences from activity data (P = 0.19). The VAS assessment showed a significant time × treatment interaction (P < 0.001). During the first 36 h after treatment administration, the FTD-treated calves had lower VAS scores [6.23 (95% CI: 5.27-7.20) compared with 7.28 (95% CI: 6.32-8.24)] than PLBO (P < 0.05). Results suggest that FTD-treated calves showed less signs of pain the first 36 h postdrug application relative to PLBO calves.