1
|
Zeng M, Wilson KR. Evaluating Possible Formation Mechanisms of Criegee Intermediates during the Heterogeneous Autoxidation of Squalene. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:11587-11595. [PMID: 38900151 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c02590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Organic molecules in the environment oxidatively degrade by a variety of free radical, microbial, and biogeochemical pathways. A significant pathway is heterogeneous autoxidation, in which degradation occurs via a network of carbon and oxygen centered free radicals. Recently, we found evidence for a new heterogeneous autoxidation mechanism of squalene that is initiated by hydroxyl (OH) radical addition to a carbon-carbon double bond and apparently propagated through pathways involving Criegee Intermediates (CI) produced from β-hydroxy peroxy radicals (β-OH-RO2•). It remains unclear, however, exactly how CI are formed from β-OH-RO2•, which could occur by a unimolecular or bimolecular pathway. Combining kinetic models and multiphase OH oxidation measurements of squalene, we evaluate the kinetic viability of three mechanistic scenarios. Scenario 1 assumes that CI are formed by the unimolecular bond scission of β-OH-RO2•, whereas Scenarios 2 and 3 test bimolecular pathways of β-OH-RO2• to yield CI. Scenario 1 best replicates the entire experimental data set, which includes effective uptake coefficients vs [OH] as well as the formation kinetics of the major products (i.e., aldehydes and secondary ozonides). Although the unimolecular pathway appears to be kinetically viable, future high-level theory is needed to fully explain the mechanistic relationship between CI and β-OH-RO2• in the condensed phase.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meirong Zeng
- College of Smart Energy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China
| | - Kevin R Wilson
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Deng H, Qiu J, Zhang R, Xu J, Qu Y, Wang J, Liu Y, Gligorovski S. Ozone Chemistry on Greasy Glass Surfaces Affects the Levels of Volatile Organic Compounds in Indoor Environments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:8393-8403. [PMID: 38691770 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c08196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
The chemistry of ozone (O3) on indoor surfaces leads to secondary pollution, aggravating the air quality in indoor environments. Here, we assess the heterogeneous chemistry of gaseous O3 with glass plates after being 1 month in two different kitchens where Chinese and Western styles of cooking were applied, respectively. The uptake coefficients of O3 on the authentic glass plates were measured in the dark and under UV light irradiation typical for indoor environments (320 nm < λ < 400 nm) at different relative humidities. The gas-phase product compounds formed upon reactions of O3 with the glass plates were evaluated in real time by a proton-transfer-reaction quadrupole-interface time-of-flight mass spectrometer. We observed typical aldehydes formed by the O3 reactions with the unsaturated fatty acid constituents of cooking oils. The formation of decanal, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one (6-MHO), and 4-oxopentanal (4-OPA) was also observed. The employed dynamic mass balance model shows that the estimated mixing ratios of hexanal, octanal, nonanal, decanal, undecanal, 6-MHO, and 4-OPA due to O3 chemistry with authentic grime-coated kitchen glass surfaces are higher in the kitchen where Chinese food was cooked compared to that where Western food was cooked. These results show that O3 chemistry on greasy glass surfaces leads to enhanced VOC levels in indoor environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huifan Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Chinese Academy of Science, Center for Excellence in Deep Earth Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jia Qiu
- Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering and Center for Environment and Health, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Runqi Zhang
- Department of Materials Environmental Engineering, Shanxi Polytechnic College, Shanxi 237016, China
| | - Jinli Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Chinese Academy of Science, Center for Excellence in Deep Earth Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yuekun Qu
- Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering and Center for Environment and Health, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Jixuan Wang
- Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering and Center for Environment and Health, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yingjun Liu
- Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering and Center for Environment and Health, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Sasho Gligorovski
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Chinese Academy of Science, Center for Excellence in Deep Earth Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Fahy WD, Wania F, Abbatt JPD. When Does Multiphase Chemistry Influence Indoor Chemical Fate? ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:4257-4267. [PMID: 38380897 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c08751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Human chemical exposure often occurs indoors, where large variability in contaminant concentrations and indoor chemical dynamics make assessments of these exposures challenging. A major source of uncertainty lies in the rates of chemical transformations which, due to high surface-to-volume ratios and rapid air change rates relative to rates of gas-phase reactions indoors, are largely gas-surface multiphase processes. It remains unclear how important such chemistry is in controlling indoor chemical lifetimes and, therefore, human exposure to both parent compounds and transformation products. We present a multimedia steady-state fugacity-based model to assess the importance of multiphase chemistry relative to cleaning and mass transfer losses, examine how the physicochemical properties of compounds and features of the indoor environment affect these processes, and investigate uncertainties pertaining to indoor multiphase chemistry and chemical lifetimes. We find that multiphase reactions can play an important role in chemical fate indoors for reactive compounds with low volatility, i.e., octanol-air equilibrium partitioning ratios (Koa) above 108, with the impact of this chemistry dependent on chemical identity, oxidant type and concentration, and other parameters. This work highlights the need for further research into indoor chemical dynamics and multiphase chemistry to constrain human exposure to chemicals in the built environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William D Fahy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Frank Wania
- Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto at Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario M1C 1A4, Canada
| | - Jonathan P D Abbatt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Kutarna S, Chen W, Xiong Y, Liu R, Gong Y, Peng H. Screening of Indoor Transformation Products of Organophosphates and Organophosphites with an in Silico Spectral Database. ACS MEASUREMENT SCIENCE AU 2023; 3:469-478. [PMID: 38145028 PMCID: PMC10740125 DOI: 10.1021/acsmeasuresciau.3c00039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
Numerous transformation products are formed indoors, but they are outside the scope of current chemical databases. In this study, an in silico spectral database was established to screen previously unknown indoor transformation products of organophosphorus compounds (OPCs). An R package was developed that incorporated four indoor reactions to predict the transformation products of 712 seed OPCs. By further predicting MS2 fragments, an in silico spectral database was established consisting of 3509 OPCs and 28,812 MS2 fragments. With this database, 40 OPCs were tentatively detected in 23 indoor dust samples. This is the greatest number of OPCs reported to date indoors, among which two novel phosphonates were validated using standards. Twenty-four of the detected OPCs were predicted transformation products in which oxidation from organophosphites plays a major role. To confirm this, the in silico spectral database was expanded to include organophosphites for suspect screening in five types of preproduction plastics. A broad spectrum of 14 organophosphites was detected, with a particularly high abundance in polyvinyl chloride plastics and indoor end-user goods. This demonstrated the significant contribution of organophosphites to indoor organophosphates via oxidation, highlighting the strength of in silico spectral databases for the screening of unknown indoor transformation products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steven Kutarna
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Wanzhen Chen
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Ying Xiong
- School
of the Environment, University of Toronto, 80 St George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Runzeng Liu
- Shandong
Key Laboratory of Environmental Processes and Health, School of Environmental
Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Yufeng Gong
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Hui Peng
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
- School
of the Environment, University of Toronto, 80 St George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Deeleepojananan C, Grassian VH. Gas-Phase and Surface-Initiated Reactions of Household Bleach and Terpene-Containing Cleaning Products Yield Chlorination and Oxidation Products Adsorbed onto Indoor Relevant Surfaces. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:20699-20707. [PMID: 38010858 PMCID: PMC10720375 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c06656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
The use of household bleach cleaning products results in emissions of highly oxidative gaseous species, such as hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and chlorine (Cl2). These species readily react with volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as limonene, one of the most abundant compounds found in indoor enviroments. In this study, reactions of HOCl/Cl2 with limonene in the gas phase and on indoor relevant surfaces were investigated. Using an environmental Teflon chamber, we show that silica (SiO2), a proxy for window glass, and rutile (TiO2), a component of paint and self-cleaning surfaces, act as a reservoir for adsorption of gas-phase products formed between HOCl/Cl2 and limonene. Furthermore, high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) shows that the gas-phase reaction products of HOCl/Cl2 and limonene readily adsorb on both SiO2 and TiO2. Surface-mediated reactions can also occur, leading to the formation of new chlorine- and oxygen-containing products. Transmission Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy of adsorption and desorption of bleach and terpene oxidation products indicates that these chlorine- and oxygen-containing products strongly adsorb on both SiO2 and TiO2 surfaces for days, providing potential sources of human exposure and sinks for additional heterogeneous reactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cholaphan Deeleepojananan
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of California San
Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Vicki H. Grassian
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of California San
Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Xiang Y, Xu H. Occurrence, formation, and proteins perturbation of disinfection byproducts in indoor air resulting from chlorine disinfection. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 343:140182. [PMID: 37716567 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/18/2023]
Abstract
Increased amounts of chlorine disinfectant have been sprayed to inactivate viruses in the environment since the COVID-19 pandemic, and the health risk from chemicals, especially disinfection byproducts (DBPs), has unintentionally increased. In this study, we characterized the occurrence of haloacetic acids (HAAs) and trihalomethanes (THMs) in indoor air and evaluated their formation potential from typical indoor ingredients. Subsequently, the adverse effect of chloroacetic acid on A549 cells was depicted at the proteomic, transcriptional and silico levels. The results revealed that the total concentrations of HAAs and THMs ranged from 1.46 to 4.20 μg/m3 in ten indoor environments. Both classes of DBPs could be generated during the chlorination of prevalent terpenes by competing reactions, which are associated with the volatile state of indoor ingredients after disinfection. The C-type lectin receptor signaling pathway and cellular senescence were significantly perturbed pathways, which interfered with the development of lung fibrosis. The negative effect was further investigated by molecular docking and transcription, which showed that HAAs can interact with four C-type lectin receptor proteins by hydrogen bonds and inhibit the mRNA expression of related proteins. This study highlights the potential secondary biological risk caused by intensive DBPs generated from chlorination and draws our attention to the potential environmental factors leading to chronic respiratory disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yangwei Xiang
- Department of Lung Transplantation and Thoracic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No.79 Qingchun Road, Hangzhou, 310003, Zhejiang Province, China.
| | - Huan Xu
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen, 518132, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Jorga SD, Liu T, Wang Y, Hassan S, Huynh H, Abbatt JPD. Kinetics of hypochlorous acid reactions with organic and chloride-containing tropospheric aerosol. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2023; 25:1645-1656. [PMID: 37721367 DOI: 10.1039/d3em00292f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine plays an important role in tropospheric oxidation processes, in both marine and continental environments. Although modeling studies have explored the importance of halogen chemistry, uncertainty remains in associated chemical mechanisms and fundamental kinetics parameters. Prior kinetics measurements of multiphase halogen recycling reactions have been largely performed with dilute, bulk solutions, leaving unexplored more realistic chemical systems which have high solute concentrations and are internally mixed with both halide and organic components. Here, we address the multiphase kinetics of gaseous HOCl using an aerosol flow tube and aerosol mass spectrometer to study its reactions with particulate chloride, using atmospherically relevant particle acidity, solute concentrations, and ionic strength. We also investigate the chemistry that results when biomass burning (BB) aerosol components and chloride are internally mixed. Using pH-buffered deliquesced particles, we show that the rate constant for reaction of dissolved HOCl with H+ and Cl- at high relative humidity (RH) (80-85%) is within a factor of two of the literature value for bulk phase conditions. However, at lower RH values (60-70%) where the particles are considerably more concentrated, the rate constant for chloride loss from the particles is an order of magnitude higher. For pure organic compounds commonly found in biomass burning (BB) aerosol, such as coniferaldehyde, salicylic acid and furfural, an increase in the aerosol chlorine content occurs with HOCl exposure, indicating the formation of organochlorine species. Together, these independent findings explain results for internally mixed aerosol particles with both chloride and BB components present where we observed behavior consistent with both chloride loss and organochlorine formation occurring simultaneously upon HOCl exposure. Our results indicate that chlorine recycling via HOCl uptake by chloride-containing particles will occur in the atmosphere efficiently over a wide range of RH conditions, even when reactive organic compounds are present in the same particles as chloride. Simultaneously, formation of organochlorine compounds, which are commonly toxic, is likely occurring when reactive organic components are present.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Spiro D Jorga
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S 3H6, ON, Canada.
| | - Tengyu Liu
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Atmospheric and Earth System Sciences, School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Yutong Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S 3H6, ON, Canada.
| | - Sumaiya Hassan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S 3H6, ON, Canada.
| | - Han Huynh
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S 3H6, ON, Canada.
| | - Jonathan P D Abbatt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S 3H6, ON, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Wang L, Zhou Y, Liu YD, Zhong R. Computational Investigations of Reaction Mechanisms and Transformation Products of Olefins with Hypochlorous Acid. J Phys Chem A 2023. [PMID: 37303114 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.3c01244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) as the main component in chlorination and also as the innate immune factor relevant to immune defense has attracted considerable attention. Electrophilic addition reaction of olefins with HOCl, one of the most important prototype of chemical reactions, has been intensively studied for a long time; however, it has not been fully understood yet. In this study, addition reaction mechanisms and transformation products of model olefins with HOCl were systematically investigated by the density functional theory method. The results indicate that the traditionally believed stepwise mechanism with a chloronium-ion intermediate is only suitable for olefins substituted with electron-donating groups (EDGs) and weak electron-withdrawing groups (EWGs) but it is a carbon-cation intermediate that is favorable for EDGs featuring p-π or π-π conjugation with the C═C moiety. Moreover, olefins substituted with moderate or/and strong EWGs prefer the concerted and nucleophilic addition mechanisms, respectively. Epoxide and truncated aldehyde as the main transformation products can be generated from chlorohydrin through a series of reactions involving hypochlorite; however, their generation is kinetically not as feasible as the formation of chlorohydrin. The reactivity of three chlorinating agents (HOCl, Cl2O, and Cl2) and the case study of chlorination and degradation of cinnamic acid were also explored. Additionally, APT charge on the double-bond moiety in olefin and energy gap (ΔE) between the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) energy of olefin and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy of HOCl were found to be good parameters to distinguish the regioselectivity of chlorohydrin and reactivity of olefin, respectively. The findings of this work are helpful in further understanding the chlorination reactions of unsaturated compounds and identifying complicated transformation products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luhong Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Yingying Zhou
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Yong Dong Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Rugang Zhong
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Souza PAF, Zhou S, Kahan TF. Hydrogen peroxide emissions from surface cleaning in a single-family residence. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2023; 25:781-790. [PMID: 37005869 DOI: 10.1039/d2em00434h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
High levels of reactive chemicals may be emitted to the indoor air during household surface cleaning, leading to poorer air quality and potential health hazards. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-based cleaners have gained popularity in recent years, especially in times of COVID-19. Still, little is known regarding the effects of H2O2 cleaning on indoor air composition. In this work we monitored time-resolved H2O2 concentrations during a cleaning campaign in an occupied single-family residence using a cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS) H2O2 analyzer. During the cleaning experiments, we investigated how unconstrained (i.e., "real-life") surface cleaning with a hydrogen peroxide solution influenced the indoor air quality of the house, and performed controlled experiments to investigate factors that could influence H2O2 levels including surface area and surface material, ventilation, and dwell time of the cleaning solution. Mean peak H2O2 concentrations observed following all surface cleaning events were 135 ppbv. The factors with the greatest effect on H2O2 levels were distance of the cleaned surface from the detector inlet, type of surface cleaned, and solution dwell time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pedro A F Souza
- Department of Chemistry, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
| | - Shan Zhou
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Tara F Kahan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Bhattacharyya N, Tang M, Blomdahl DC, Jahn LG, Abue P, Allen DT, Corsi RL, Novoselac A, Misztal PK, Hildebrandt Ruiz L. Bleach Emissions Interact Substantially with Surgical and KN95 Mask Surfaces. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:6589-6598. [PMID: 37061949 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c07937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Mask wearing and bleach disinfectants became commonplace during the COVID-19 pandemic. Bleach generates toxic species including hypochlorous acid (HOCl), chlorine (Cl2), and chloramines. Their reaction with organic species can generate additional toxic compounds. To understand interactions between masks and bleach disinfection, bleach was injected into a ventilated chamber containing a manikin with a breathing system and wearing a surgical or KN95 mask. Concentrations inside the chamber and behind the mask were measured by a chemical ionization mass spectrometer (CIMS) and a Vocus proton transfer reaction mass spectrometer (Vocus PTRMS). HOCl, Cl2, and chloramines were observed during disinfection and concentrations inside the chamber are 2-20 times greater than those behind the mask, driven by losses to the mask surface. After bleach injection, many species decay more slowly behind the mask by a factor of 0.5-0.7 as they desorb or form on the mask. Mass transfer modeling confirms the transition of the mask from a sink during disinfection to a source persisting >4 h after disinfection. Humidifying the mask increases reactive formation of chloramines, likely related to uptake of ammonia and HOCl. These experiments indicate that masks are a source of chemical exposure after cleaning events occur.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nirvan Bhattacharyya
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Mengjia Tang
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Daniel C Blomdahl
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Leif G Jahn
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Pearl Abue
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - David T Allen
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Richard L Corsi
- College of Engineering, University of California at Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Atila Novoselac
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Pawel K Misztal
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Lea Hildebrandt Ruiz
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Stubbs AD, Lao M, Wang C, Abbatt JPD, Hoffnagle J, VandenBoer TC, Kahan TF. Near-source hypochlorous acid emissions from indoor bleach cleaning. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2023; 25:56-65. [PMID: 36602445 DOI: 10.1039/d2em00405d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Cleaning surfaces with sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) bleach can lead to high levels of gaseous chlorine (Cl2) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl); these have high oxidative capacities and are linked to respiratory issues. We developed a novel spectral analysis procedure for a cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS) hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) analyzer to enable time-resolved (3 s) HOCl quantification. We measured HOCl levels in a residential bathroom while disinfecting a bathtub and sink, with a focus on spatial and temporal trends to improve our understanding of exposure risks during bleach use. Very high (>10 ppmv) HOCl levels were detected near the bathtub, with lower levels detected further away. Hypochlorous acid concentrations plateaued in the room at a level that depended on distance from the bathtub. This steady-state concentration was maintained until the product was removed by rinsing. Mobile experiments with the analyzer inlet secured to the researcher's face were conducted to mimic potential human exposure to bleach emissions. The findings from mobile experiments were consistent with the spatial and temporal trends observed in the experiments with fixed inlet locations. This work provides insight on effective strategies to reduce exposure risk to emissions from bleach and other cleaning products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Annastacia D Stubbs
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5C9, Canada.
| | - Melodie Lao
- Dept. of Chemistry, York University, Toronto, Ontario, M3J 1P3, Canada.
| | - Chen Wang
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Jonathan P D Abbatt
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3H6, Canada
| | | | | | - Tara F Kahan
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5C9, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Jorga SD, Wang Y, Abbatt JPD. Reaction of HOCl with Wood Smoke Aerosol: Impacts on Indoor Air Quality and Outdoor Reactive Chlorine. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:1292-1299. [PMID: 36607741 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c07577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
High loadings of biomass burning (BB) aerosol particles from wildfire or residential heating sources can be present in both outdoor and indoor environments, where they deposit onto surfaces such as walls and furniture. These pollutants can interact with oxidants in both the aerosol and deposited forms. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), a strong oxidant emitted during cleaning with chlorine-cleaning agents such as bleach, can attain mixing ratios of hundreds of ppbv indoors; moreover, lower mixing ratios are naturally present outdoors. Here, we report the heterogeneous reactivity of HOCl with wood smoke aerosol particles. After exposure to gas-phase HOCl, the particle chlorine content increased reaching chlorine-to-organic mass ratios of 0.07 with the chlorine covalently bound as organochlorine species, many of which are aromatic. Investigating individual potential BB components, we observed that unsaturated species such as coniferaldehyde and furfural react efficiently with HOCl. These observations indicate that organochlorine pollutants will form indoors when bleach cleaning a wildfire impacted space. The chlorine component of particles internally mixed with BB material and chloride initially increased, upon HOCl exposure, indicating that active chlorine recycling in the outdoor environment will be suppressed in the presence of BB emissions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Spiro D Jorga
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S 3H6Ontario, Canada
| | - Yutong Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S 3H6Ontario, Canada
| | - Jonathan P D Abbatt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S 3H6Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Moravek A, VandenBoer TC, Finewax Z, Pagonis D, Nault BA, Brown WL, Day DA, Handschy AV, Stark H, Ziemann P, Jimenez JL, de Gouw JA, Young CJ. Reactive Chlorine Emissions from Cleaning and Reactive Nitrogen Chemistry in an Indoor Athletic Facility. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:15408-15416. [PMID: 36326040 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c04622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Indoor gas-phase radical sources are poorly understood but expected to be much different from outdoors. Several potential radical sources were measured in a windowless, light-emitting diode (LED)-lit room in a college athletic facility over a 2 week period. Alternating measurements between the room air and the supply air of the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning system allowed an assessment of sources. Use of a chlorine-based cleaner was a source of several photolabile reactive chlorine compounds, including ClNO2 and Cl2. During cleaning events, photolysis rates for these two compounds were up to 0.0023 pptv min-1, acting as a source of chlorine atoms even in this low-light indoor environment. Unrelated to cleaning events, elevated ClNO2 was often observed during daytime and lost to ventilation. The nitrate radical (NO3), which is rapidly photolyzed outdoors during daytime, may persist in low-light indoor environments. With negligible photolysis, loss rates of NO3 indoors were dominated by bimolecular reactions. At times with high NO2 and O3 ventilated from outdoors, N2O5 was observed. Elevated ClNO2 measured concurrently suggests the formation through heterogeneous reactions, acting as an additional source of reactive chlorine within the athletic facility and outdoors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Moravek
- Department of Chemistry, York University, Toronto, OntarioM3J 1P3, Canada
| | | | - Zachary Finewax
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
| | - Demetrios Pagonis
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
| | - Benjamin A Nault
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
| | - Wyatt L Brown
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
| | - Douglas A Day
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
| | - Anne V Handschy
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
| | - Harald Stark
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
- Aerodyne Research, Inc., Billerica, Massachusetts01821, United States
| | - Paul Ziemann
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
| | - Jose L Jimenez
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
| | - Joost A de Gouw
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309, United States
| | - Cora J Young
- Department of Chemistry, York University, Toronto, OntarioM3J 1P3, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Wang DS, Masoud CG, Modi M, Hildebrandt Ruiz L. Isoprene-Chlorine Oxidation in the Presence of NO x and Implications for Urban Atmospheric Chemistry. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:9251-9264. [PMID: 35700480 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c07048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is a key indicator of urban air quality. Secondary organic aerosol (SOA) contributes substantially to the PM2.5 concentration. Discrepancies between modeling and field measurements of SOA indicate missing sources and formation mechanisms. Recent studies report elevated concentrations of reactive chlorine species in inland and urban regions, which increase the oxidative capacity of the atmosphere and serve as sources for SOA and particulate chlorides. Chlorine-initiated oxidation of isoprene, the most abundant nonmethane hydrocarbon, is known to produce SOA under pristine conditions, but the effects of anthropogenic influences in the form of nitrogen oxides (NOx) remain unexplored. Here, we investigate chlorine-isoprene reactions under low- and high-NOx conditions inside an environmental chamber. Organic chlorides including C5H11ClO3, C5H9ClO3, and C5H9ClO4 are observed as major gas- and particle-phase products. Modeling and experimental results show that the secondary OH-isoprene chemistry is significantly enhanced under high-NOx conditions, accounting for up to 40% of all isoprene oxidized and leading to the suppression of organic chloride formation. Chlorine-initiated oxidation of isoprene could serve as a source for multifunctional (chlorinated) organic oxidation products and SOA in both pristine and anthropogenically influenced environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dongyu S Wang
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Catherine G Masoud
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Mrinali Modi
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Lea Hildebrandt Ruiz
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Or VW, Alves MR, Wade M, Schwab S, Corsi RL, Grassian VH. Nanoscopic Study of Water Uptake on Glass Surfaces with Organic Thin Films and Particles from Exposure to Indoor Cooking Activities: Comparison to Model Systems. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:1594-1604. [PMID: 35061386 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c06260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Water uptake by thin organic films and organic particles on glass substrates at 80% relative humidity was investigated using atomic force microscopy-infrared (AFM-IR) spectroscopy. Glass surfaces exposed to kitchen cooking activities show a wide variability of coverages from organic particles and organic thin films. Water uptake, as measured by changes in the volume of the films and particles, was also quite variable. A comparison of glass surfaces exposed to kitchen activities to model systems shows that they can be largely represented by oxidized oleic acid and carboxylate groups on long and medium hydrocarbon chains (i.e., fatty acids). Overall, we demonstrate that organic particles and thin films that cover glass surfaces can take up water under indoor-relevant conditions but that the water content is not uniform. The spatial heterogeneity of the changes in these aged glass surfaces under dry (5%) and wet (80%) conditions is quite marked, highlighting the need for studies at the nano- and microscale.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victor W Or
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Michael R Alves
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Michael Wade
- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Cockrell School of Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Sarah Schwab
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Richard L Corsi
- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Cockrell School of Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
- College of Engineering, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Vicki H Grassian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Sun J, Yin Y, Li W, Jin O, Na N. CHEMICAL REACTION MONITORING BY AMBIENT MASS SPECTROMETRY. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2022; 41:70-99. [PMID: 33259644 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Revised: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Chemical reactions conducted in different media (liquid phase, gas phase, or surface) drive developments of versatile techniques for the detection of intermediates and prediction of reasonable reaction pathways. Without sample pretreatment, ambient mass spectrometry (AMS) has been applied to obtain structural information of reactive molecules that differ in polarity and molecular weight. Commercial ion sources (e.g., electrospray ionization, atmospheric pressure chemical ionization, and direct analysis in real-time) have been reported to monitor substrates and products by offline reaction examination. While the interception or characterization of reactive intermediates with short lifetime are still limited by the offline modes. Notably, online ionization technologies, with high tolerance to salt, buffer, and pH, can achieve direct sampling and ionization of on-going reactions conducted in different media (e.g., liquid phase, gas phase, or surface). Therefore, short-lived intermediates could be captured at unprecedented timescales, and the reaction dynamics could be studied for mechanism examinations without sample pretreatments. In this review, via various AMS methods, chemical reaction monitoring and mechanism elucidation for different classifications of reactions have been reviewed. The developments and advances of common ionization methods for offline reaction monitoring will also be highlighted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jianghui Sun
- Key Laboratory of Radiopharmaceuticals Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiyan Yin
- Key Laboratory of Radiopharmaceuticals Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Weixiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Radiopharmaceuticals Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Ouyang Jin
- Key Laboratory of Radiopharmaceuticals Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Na Na
- Key Laboratory of Radiopharmaceuticals Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Guo C, Yang M, He J, Kan G, Yu K, Liu Z, Lin S, Jiang J, Zhang H. Hypochlorous acid initiated lipid chlorination at air-water interface. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 798:149320. [PMID: 34340067 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
There has been a surge of interest in interfacial hypochlorous acid (HOCl) chemistry for indoor air quality and public health. Here we combined nanoelectrospray mass spectrometry (nESI-MS) and acoustic levitation (AL) techniques to study the chlorination chemistry of three model lipids (DPPE, POPG, DOPG) mediated by HOCl at the air-water interface of levitated water droplet. For DPPE with no CC double bonds, HOCl was insensitive to the alkane chains, and showed considerable delay directing to head amino groups compared to that in aqueous environment. Chlorination chemistry, for POPG and DOPG with CC double bonds, preferentially reacted with double bonds of one chain. The mechanism was discussed in light of these observations, and it is concluded that the increased hydrophilicity of the chlorinated chain disturbed the lipid packing and attracted it toward the water phase. In addition, the reaction rate constant and reactive uptake coefficient suggested that the chlorination of lipids exposed to HOCl at the air-water interface is likely to occur rapidly. These results gain the knowledge of HOCl mediated lipid interface reaction at the molecule level, and would better understand the adverse health effects associated with elevated indoor pollutants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Changlu Guo
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology at Weihai, Weihai, Shandong 264209, China
| | - Miao Yang
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology at Weihai, Weihai, Shandong 264209, China
| | - Jing He
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology at Weihai, Weihai, Shandong 264209, China
| | - Guangfeng Kan
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology at Weihai, Weihai, Shandong 264209, China
| | - Kai Yu
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology at Weihai, Weihai, Shandong 264209, China
| | - Zhuo Liu
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology at Weihai, Weihai, Shandong 264209, China
| | - Sifan Lin
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology at Weihai, Weihai, Shandong 264209, China
| | - Jie Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150090, China.
| | - Hong Zhang
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology at Weihai, Weihai, Shandong 264209, China.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Lou J, Wang W, Lu H, Wang L, Zhu L. Increased disinfection byproducts in the air resulting from intensified disinfection during the COVID-19 pandemic. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 418:126249. [PMID: 34119971 PMCID: PMC8158349 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Intensified use of disinfectants to control COVID-19 could unintentionally increase the disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in the environment. In indoor spaces, it is critical to determine the optimal disinfection practice to prevent the spread of the virus while keeping DBPs at relatively low levels in the air. The formation of DBPs exceed 0.1 μg/mg while hypochlorite dosed at >10 mg/m3. The total DBP concentrations in highly disinfected places (100-200 mg/m3 hypochlorite) were as high as 66.8 μg/m3, and the Hazard Index (HI) was up to 0.84, and both values were much higher than those in less disinfected places (<10 mg/m3 hypochlorite). Taking into account the HI, formation yields and the origin of the DBPs, we recommended 10 mg/m3 as the suggested hypochlorite dose to minimize DBPs generation during routine disinfection for controlling the coronavirus. DBPs in indoor air could be eliminated by ventilation, reducing the usage of personal care products, and wiping the solid surface with water before or after disinfection. These results highlighted the necessity to control air-borne DBPs and their associated health risks arising from intensified disinfection, and will guide the further development of evidence-based regulation on DBP exposure during disinfection and improve public health protection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jinxiu Lou
- Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Huijie Lu
- Key Laboratory of Environment Remediation and Ecological Health, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Lin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Lizhong Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Spatial and temporal scales of variability for indoor air constituents. Commun Chem 2021; 4:110. [PMID: 36697551 PMCID: PMC9814873 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-021-00548-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Historically air constituents have been assumed to be well mixed in indoor environments, with single point measurements and box modeling representing a room or a house. Here we demonstrate that this fundamental assumption needs to be revisited through advanced model simulations and extensive measurements of bleach cleaning. We show that inorganic chlorinated products, such as hypochlorous acid and chloramines generated via multiphase reactions, exhibit spatial and vertical concentration gradients in a room, with short-lived ⋅OH radicals confined to sunlit zones, close to windows. Spatial and temporal scales of indoor constituents are modulated by rates of chemical reactions, surface interactions and building ventilation, providing critical insights for better assessments of human exposure to hazardous pollutants, as well as the transport of indoor chemicals outdoors.
Collapse
|
20
|
Zeng M, Wilson KR. Experimental evidence that halogen bonding catalyzes the heterogeneous chlorination of alkenes in submicron liquid droplets. Chem Sci 2021; 12:10455-10466. [PMID: 34447538 PMCID: PMC8356749 DOI: 10.1039/d1sc02662c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A key challenge in predicting the multiphase chemistry of aerosols and droplets is connecting reaction probabilities, observed in an experiment, with the kinetics of individual elementary steps that control the chemistry that occurs across a gas/liquid interface. Here we report evidence that oxygenated molecules accelerate the heterogeneous reaction rate of chlorine gas with an alkene (squalene, Sqe) in submicron droplets. The effective reaction probability for Sqe is sensitive to both the aerosol composition and gas phase environment. In binary aerosol mixtures with 2-decyl-1-tetradecanol, linoleic acid and oleic acid, Sqe reacts 12-23× more rapidly than in a pure aerosol. In contrast, the reactivity of Sqe is diminished by 3× when mixed with an alkane. Additionally, small oxygenated molecules in the gas phase (water, ethanol, acetone, and acetic acid) accelerate (up to 10×) the heterogeneous chlorination rate of Sqe. The overall reaction mechanism is not altered by the presence of these aerosol and gas phase additives, suggesting instead that they act as catalysts. Since the largest rate acceleration occurs in the presence of oxygenated molecules, we conclude that halogen bonding enhances reactivity by slowing the desorption kinetics of Cl2 at the interface, in a way that is analogous to decreasing temperature. These results highlight the importance of relatively weak interactions in controlling the speed of multiphase reactions important for atmospheric and indoor environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meirong Zeng
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Berkeley CA 94720 USA
| | - Kevin R Wilson
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Berkeley CA 94720 USA
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Deng H, Liu J, Wang Y, Song W, Wang X, Li X, Vione D, Gligorovski S. Effect of Inorganic Salts on N-Containing Organic Compounds Formed by Heterogeneous Reaction of NO 2 with Oleic Acid. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:7831-7840. [PMID: 34086442 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c01043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Fatty acids are ubiquitous constituents of grime on urban and indoor surfaces and they represent important surfactants on organic aerosol particles in the atmosphere. Here, we assess the heterogeneous processing of NO2 on films consisting of pure oleic acid (OA) or a mixture of OA and representative salts for urban grime and aerosol particles, namely Na2SO4 and NaNO3. The uptake coefficients of NO2 on OA under light irradiation (300 nm < λ < 400 nm) decreased with increasing relative humidity (RH), from (1.4 ± 0.1) × 10-6 at 0% RH to (7.1 ± 1.6) × 10-7 at 90% RH. The uptake process of NO2 on OA gives HONO as a reaction product, and the highest HONO production was observed upon the heterogeneous reaction of NO2 with OA in the presence of nitrate (NO3-) ions. The formation of gaseous nitroaromatic compounds was also enhanced in the presence of NO3- ions upon light-induced heterogeneous processing of NO2 with OA, as revealed by membrane inlet single-photon ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MI-SPI-TOFMS). These results suggest that inorganic salts can affect the heterogeneous conversion of gaseous NO2 on fatty acids and enhance the formation of HONO and other N-containing organic compounds in the atmosphere.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huifan Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jiangping Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yiqun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Wei Song
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Excellence in Deep Earth Science, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Xinming Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Excellence in Deep Earth Science, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Xue Li
- Institute of Mass Spectrometry and Atmospheric Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Davide Vione
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via Pietro Giuria 5, 10125 Torino, Italy
| | - Sasho Gligorovski
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Excellence in Deep Earth Science, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Ault AP, Grassian VH, Carslaw N, Collins DB, Destaillats H, Donaldson DJ, Farmer DK, Jimenez JL, McNeill VF, Morrison GC, O'Brien RE, Shiraiwa M, Vance ME, Wells JR, Xiong W. Indoor Surface Chemistry: Developing a Molecular Picture of Reactions on Indoor Interfaces. Chem 2020; 6:3203-3218. [PMID: 32984643 PMCID: PMC7501779 DOI: 10.1016/j.chempr.2020.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Chemical reactions on indoor surfaces play an important role in air quality in indoor environments, where humans spend 90% of their time. We focus on the challenges of understanding the complex chemistry that takes place on indoor surfaces and identify crucial steps necessary to gain a molecular-level understanding of environmental indoor surface chemistry: (1) elucidate key surface reaction mechanisms and kinetics important to indoor air chemistry, (2) define a range of relevant and representative surfaces to probe, and (3) define the drivers of surface reactivity, particularly with respect to the surface composition, light, and temperature. Within the drivers of surface composition are the roles of adsorbed/absorbed water associated with indoor surfaces and the prevalence, inhomogeneity, and properties of secondary organic films that can impact surface reactivity. By combining laboratory studies, field measurements, and modeling we can gain insights into the molecular processes necessary to further our understanding of the indoor environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P Ault
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Vicki H Grassian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.,Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.,Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Nicola Carslaw
- Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, York, North Yorkshire YO10 5NG, UK
| | - Douglas B Collins
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada.,Department of Chemistry, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA 17837, USA
| | - Hugo Destaillats
- Indoor Environment Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - D James Donaldson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada.,Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M1C 1A4, Canada
| | - Delphine K Farmer
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Jose L Jimenez
- Department of Chemistry and Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - V Faye McNeill
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Glenn C Morrison
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Rachel E O'Brien
- Department of Chemistry, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA 23185, USA
| | - Manabu Shiraiwa
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Marina E Vance
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - J R Wells
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
| | - Wei Xiong
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.,Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Or VW, Wade M, Patel S, Alves MR, Kim D, Schwab S, Przelomski H, O'Brien R, Rim D, Corsi RL, Vance ME, Farmer DK, Grassian VH. Glass surface evolution following gas adsorption and particle deposition from indoor cooking events as probed by microspectroscopic analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2020; 22:1698-1709. [PMID: 32661531 DOI: 10.1039/d0em00156b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Indoor surfaces are extremely diverse and their interactions with airborne compounds and aerosols influence the lifetime and reactivity of indoor emissions. Direct measurements of the physical and chemical state of these surfaces provide insights into the underlying physical and chemical processes involving surface adsorption, surface partitioning and particle deposition. Window glass, a ubiquitous indoor surface, was placed vertically during indoor activities throughout the House Observations of Microbial and Environmental Chemistry (HOMEChem) campaign and then analyzed to measure changes in surface morphology and surface composition. Atomic force microscopy-infrared (AFM-IR) spectroscopic analyses reveal that deposition of submicron particles from cooking events is a contributor to modifying the chemical and physical state of glass surfaces. These results demonstrate that the deposition of glass surfaces can be an important sink for organic rich particles material indoors. These findings also show that particle deposition contributes enough organic matter from a single day of exposure equivalent to a uniform film up to two nanometers in thickness, and that the chemical distinctness of different indoor activities is reflective of the chemical and morphological changes seen in these indoor surfaces. Comparison of the experimental results to physical deposition models shows variable agreement, suggesting that processes not captured in physical deposition models may play a role in the sticking of particles on indoor surfaces.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victor W Or
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA.
| | - Michael Wade
- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Cockrell School of Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
| | - Sameer Patel
- Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Michael R Alves
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA.
| | - Deborah Kim
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA.
| | - Sarah Schwab
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA.
| | - Hannah Przelomski
- Department of Chemistry, William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia 23185, USA
| | - Rachel O'Brien
- Department of Chemistry, William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia 23185, USA
| | - Donghyun Rim
- Department of Architectural Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Richard L Corsi
- Maseeh College of Engineering & Computer Science, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon 97021, USA
| | - Marina E Vance
- Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Delphine K Farmer
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA
| | - Vicki H Grassian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA. and Scripps Institution of Oceanography and Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Nazaroff WW, Weschler CJ. Indoor acids and bases. INDOOR AIR 2020; 30:559-644. [PMID: 32233033 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Revised: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Numerous acids and bases influence indoor air quality. The most abundant of these species are CO2 (acidic) and NH3 (basic), both emitted by building occupants. Other prominent inorganic acids are HNO3 , HONO, SO2 , H2 SO4 , HCl, and HOCl. Prominent organic acids include formic, acetic, and lactic; nicotine is a noteworthy organic base. Sources of N-, S-, and Cl-containing acids can include ventilation from outdoors, indoor combustion, consumer product use, and chemical reactions. Organic acids are commonly more abundant indoors than outdoors, with indoor sources including occupants, wood, and cooking. Beyond NH3 and nicotine, other noteworthy bases include inorganic and organic amines. Acids and bases partition indoors among the gas-phase, airborne particles, bulk water, and surfaces; relevant thermodynamic parameters governing the partitioning are the acid-dissociation constant (Ka ), Henry's law constant (KH ), and the octanol-air partition coefficient (Koa ). Condensed-phase water strongly influences the fate of indoor acids and bases and is also a medium for chemical interactions. Indoor surfaces can be large reservoirs of acids and bases. This extensive review of the state of knowledge establishes a foundation for future inquiry to better understand how acids and bases influence the suitability of indoor environments for occupants, cultural artifacts, and sensitive equipment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William W Nazaroff
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Charles J Weschler
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, USA
- International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Mattila JM, Lakey PSJ, Shiraiwa M, Wang C, Abbatt JPD, Arata C, Goldstein AH, Ampollini L, Katz EF, DeCarlo PF, Zhou S, Kahan TF, Cardoso-Saldaña FJ, Ruiz LH, Abeleira A, Boedicker EK, Vance ME, Farmer DK. Multiphase Chemistry Controls Inorganic Chlorinated and Nitrogenated Compounds in Indoor Air during Bleach Cleaning. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:1730-1739. [PMID: 31940195 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b05767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
We report elevated levels of gaseous inorganic chlorinated and nitrogenated compounds in indoor air while cleaning with a commercial bleach solution during the House Observations of Microbial and Environmental Chemistry field campaign in summer 2018. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), chlorine (Cl2), and nitryl chloride (ClNO2) reached part-per-billion by volume levels indoors during bleach cleaning-several orders of magnitude higher than typically measured in the outdoor atmosphere. Kinetic modeling revealed that multiphase chemistry plays a central role in controlling indoor chlorine and reactive nitrogen chemistry during these periods. Cl2 production occurred via heterogeneous reactions of HOCl on indoor surfaces. ClNO2 and chloramine (NH2Cl, NHCl2, NCl3) production occurred in the applied bleach via aqueous reactions involving nitrite (NO2-) and ammonia (NH3), respectively. Aqueous-phase and surface chemistry resulted in elevated levels of gas-phase nitrogen dioxide (NO2). We predict hydroxyl (OH) and chlorine (Cl) radical production during these periods (106 and 107 molecules cm-3 s-1, respectively) driven by HOCl and Cl2 photolysis. Ventilation and photolysis accounted for <50% and <0.1% total loss of bleach-related compounds from indoor air, respectively; we conclude that uptake to indoor surfaces is an important additional loss process. Indoor HOCl and nitrogen trichloride (NCl3) mixing ratios during bleach cleaning reported herein are likely detrimental to human health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James M Mattila
- Department of Chemistry , Colorado State University , Fort Collins , Colorado 80523 , United States
| | - Pascale S J Lakey
- Department of Chemistry , University of California , Irvine , California 92697 , United States
| | - Manabu Shiraiwa
- Department of Chemistry , University of California , Irvine , California 92697 , United States
| | - Chen Wang
- Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3H6 , Canada
| | - Jonathan P D Abbatt
- Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3H6 , Canada
| | - Caleb Arata
- Department of Chemistry , University of California , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management , University of California , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
| | - Allen H Goldstein
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management , University of California , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of California , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
| | - Laura Ampollini
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19104 , United States
| | - Erin F Katz
- Department of Chemistry , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19104 , United States
| | - Peter F DeCarlo
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19104 , United States
- Department of Chemistry , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19104 , United States
| | - Shan Zhou
- Department of Chemistry , Syracuse University , Syracuse , New York 13244 , United States
| | - Tara F Kahan
- Department of Chemistry , Syracuse University , Syracuse , New York 13244 , United States
- Department of Chemistry , University of Saskatchewan , Saskatoon , Saskatchewan S7N 5C9 , Canada
| | - Felipe J Cardoso-Saldaña
- Center for Energy and Environmental Resources , The University of Texas at Austin , Austin , Texas 78758 , United States
| | - Lea Hildebrandt Ruiz
- Center for Energy and Environmental Resources , The University of Texas at Austin , Austin , Texas 78758 , United States
| | - Andrew Abeleira
- Department of Chemistry , Colorado State University , Fort Collins , Colorado 80523 , United States
| | - Erin K Boedicker
- Department of Chemistry , Colorado State University , Fort Collins , Colorado 80523 , United States
| | - Marina E Vance
- Department of Mechanical Engineering , University of Colorado Boulder , Boulder , Colorado 80309 , United States
| | - Delphine K Farmer
- Department of Chemistry , Colorado State University , Fort Collins , Colorado 80523 , United States
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Abbatt JPD, Wang C. The atmospheric chemistry of indoor environments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2020; 22:25-48. [PMID: 31712796 DOI: 10.1039/c9em00386j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Through air inhalation, dust ingestion and dermal exposure, the indoor environment plays an important role in controlling human chemical exposure. Indoor emissions and chemistry can also have direct impacts on the quality of outdoor air. And so, it is important to have a strong fundamental knowledge of the chemical processes that occur in indoor environments. This review article summarizes our understanding of the indoor chemistry field. Using a molecular perspective, it addresses primarily the new advances that have occurred in the past decade or so and upon developments in our understanding of multiphase partitioning and reactions. A primary goal of the article is to contrast indoor chemistry to that which occurs outdoors, which we know to be a strongly gas-phase, oxidant-driven system in which substantial oxidative aging of gases and aerosol particles occurs. By contrast, indoor environments are dark, gas-phase oxidant concentrations are relatively low, and due to air exchange, only short times are available for reactive processing of gaseous and particle constituents. However, important gas-surface partitioning and reactive multiphase chemistry occur in the large surface reservoirs that prevail in all indoor environments. These interactions not only play a crucial role in controlling the composition of indoor surfaces but also the surrounding gases and aerosol particles, thus affecting human chemical exposure. There are rich research opportunities available if the advanced measurement and modeling tools of the outdoor atmospheric chemistry community continue to be brought indoors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan P D Abbatt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George St., Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada.
| | - Chen Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George St., Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Wang C, Collins DB, Abbatt JPD. Indoor Illumination of Terpenes and Bleach Emissions Leads to Particle Formation and Growth. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:11792-11800. [PMID: 31576741 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b04261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Application of chlorine bleach solution (major component sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl) in indoor environments leads to the emission of gaseous hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and chlorine (Cl2), both of which are strong oxidants. In contrast to the outdoor atmosphere, where mixing ratios of HOCl and Cl2 tend to be low (10s-100s of ppt), indoor HOCl and Cl2 can reach high levels during cleaning activities (100s of ppb or higher). HOCl and Cl2 may react with unsaturated organic compounds on indoor surfaces and in indoor air. In this study, we studied the reaction of limonene, one of the most common indoor volatile organic compounds (VOCs) arising from use of cleaning products, fragrance, and air fresheners, with HOCl and Cl2 in an environmental chamber. A dark reaction was observed between limonene and HOCl/Cl2 leading to gas-phase reaction products that were investigated using proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS). With subsequent exposure to indoor fluorescent lights or diffuse sunlight through a nearby window, a substantial mass loading of secondary particles were formed with an averaged mass yield of 40% relative to the amount of limonene consumed. Aerosol mass spectrometry (AMS) measurements indicate a large contribution of particulate chlorine species. Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) analysis of filter-collected particles indicates the formation of high molecular weight products. This is the first study of the oxidation of limonene with HOCl and Cl2, and it illustrates the potential for particle formation to occur with indoor lighting during the use of common cleaning products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chen Wang
- Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , M5S 3H6 , Canada
| | - Douglas B Collins
- Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , M5S 3H6 , Canada
- Department of Chemistry , Bucknell University , Lewisburg , Pennsylvania 17837 , United States
| | - Jonathan P D Abbatt
- Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , M5S 3H6 , Canada
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
He M, Kou D, Zhou W, Zhou Z, Meng Y, Wu S. Se-Assisted Performance Enhancement of Cu 2ZnSn(S,Se) 4 Quantum-Dot Sensitized Solar Cells via a Simple Yet Versatile Synthesis. Inorg Chem 2019; 58:13285-13292. [PMID: 31538482 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.9b02154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The earth-abundant Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) quantum dots (QDs) have emerged as one potential substitute to toxic cadmium or rare indium QDs, but their application in quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSSCs) is still limited by the improper particle size and the rigorous synthesis and ligand exchange conditions. Herein, we developed a one-pot hot injection method by using Tri-n-octylphosphine oxide (TOPO) as the solvent and oleylamine as the capping agent to synthesize Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4 (CZTSSe) QDs with adjustable size and narrow size distribution. The key feature of this approach is that we can take advantage of the high-temperature nucleation, low-temperature growth, and strong reducibility of NaHB4 to prepare small-sized CZTSSe QDs without using 1-dodecanethiol (DDT) and to extend the light harvesting range through Se incorporation. After Se incorporation, it turns out that the conduction band (CB) level of CZTSSe QDs decreases, implying that the injection driving force of the electron to the CB of TiO2 films becomes weaker and a larger recombination would be induced at the TiO2/QDs/electrolyte interface. Benefiting from the broadened optoelectronic response range, the induced higher Jsc (16.80 vs 14.13 mA/cm2) finally leads to the increase of the conversion efficiency of CZTSSe QDSSC from 3.17% to 3.54% without further modification. Despite the fact that the efficiency is still far behind those of literature reported values through use of other chalcogenide sensitizers, this DDT-free approach solves the main hindrance for the application of CZTSSe QDs in QDSSCs and holds a more convenient way for ligand exchange, light absorption improvement, and particle size control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mengping He
- Key Lab for Special Functional Materials, Ministry of Education, National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center for High-Efficiency Display and Lighting Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Nano Functional Materials and Applications , Henan University , Kaifeng 475004 , China
| | - Dongxing Kou
- Key Lab for Special Functional Materials, Ministry of Education, National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center for High-Efficiency Display and Lighting Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Nano Functional Materials and Applications , Henan University , Kaifeng 475004 , China
| | - Wenhui Zhou
- Key Lab for Special Functional Materials, Ministry of Education, National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center for High-Efficiency Display and Lighting Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Nano Functional Materials and Applications , Henan University , Kaifeng 475004 , China
| | - Zhengji Zhou
- Key Lab for Special Functional Materials, Ministry of Education, National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center for High-Efficiency Display and Lighting Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Nano Functional Materials and Applications , Henan University , Kaifeng 475004 , China
| | - Yuena Meng
- Key Lab for Special Functional Materials, Ministry of Education, National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center for High-Efficiency Display and Lighting Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Nano Functional Materials and Applications , Henan University , Kaifeng 475004 , China
| | - Sixin Wu
- Key Lab for Special Functional Materials, Ministry of Education, National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center for High-Efficiency Display and Lighting Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Nano Functional Materials and Applications , Henan University , Kaifeng 475004 , China
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Liu J, Li S, Zeng J, Mekic M, Yu Z, Zhou W, Loisel G, Gandolfo A, Song W, Wang X, Zhou Z, Herrmann H, Li X, Gligorovski S. Assessing indoor gas phase oxidation capacity through real-time measurements of HONO and NO x in Guangzhou, China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2019; 21:1393-1402. [PMID: 31322150 DOI: 10.1039/c9em00194h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The hydroxyl radical (OH) is one of the most important oxidants controlling the oxidation capacity of the indoor atmosphere. One of the main OH sources indoors is the photolysis of nitrous acid (HONO). In this study, real-time measurements of HONO, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ozone (O3) in an indoor environment in Guangzhou, China, were performed under two different conditions: (1) in the absence of any human activity and (2) in the presence of cooking. The maximum NOx and HONO levels drastically increased from 15 and 4 ppb in the absence of human activity to 135 and 40 ppb during the cooking event, respectively. The photon flux was determined for the sunlit room, which has a closed south-east oriented window. The photon flux was used to estimate the photolysis rate constants of NO2, J(NO2), and HONO, J(HONO), which span the range between 8 × 10-5 and 1.5 × 10-5 s-1 in the morning from 9:30 to 11:45, and 8.5 × 10-4 and 1.5 × 10-4 s-1 at noon, respectively. The OH concentrations calculated by photostationary state (PSS) approach, observed around noon, are very similar, i.e., 2.4 × 106 and 3.1 × 106 cm-3 in the absence of human activity and during cooking, respectively. These results suggest that under "high NOx" conditions (NOx higher than a few ppb) and with direct sunlight in the room, the NOx and HONO chemistry would be similar, independent of the geographic location of the indoor environment, which facilitates future modeling studies focused on indoor gas phase oxidation capacity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiangping Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510 640, China.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Shiraiwa M, Carslaw N, Tobias DJ, Waring MS, Rim D, Morrison G, Lakey PSJ, Kruza M, von Domaros M, Cummings BE, Won Y. Modelling consortium for chemistry of indoor environments (MOCCIE): integrating chemical processes from molecular to room scales. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2019; 21:1240-1254. [PMID: 31070639 DOI: 10.1039/c9em00123a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
We report on the development of a modelling consortium for chemistry in indoor environments that connects models over a range of spatial and temporal scales, from molecular to room scales and from sub-nanosecond to days, respectively. Our modeling approaches include molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, kinetic process modeling, gas-phase chemistry modeling, organic aerosol modeling, and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. These models are applied to investigate ozone reactions with skin and clothing, oxidation of volatile organic compounds and formation of secondary organic aerosols, and mass transport and partitioning of indoor species to surfaces. MD simulations provide molecular pictures of limonene adsorption on SiO2 and ozone interactions with the skin lipid squalene, providing kinetic parameters such as surface accommodation coefficient, desorption lifetime, and bulk diffusivity. These parameters then constrain kinetic process models, which resolve mass transport and chemical reactions in gas and condensed phases for analysis of experimental data. A detailed indoor chemical box model is applied to simulate α-pinene ozonolysis with improved representation of gas-particle partitioning. Application of 2D-volatility basis set reveals that OH-induced aging sometimes drives increases in indoor organic aerosol concentrations, due to organic mass functionalization and enhanced partitioning. CFD simulations show that concentrations of ozone and primary product change near the human surface rapidly, indicating non-uniform spatial distributions from the occupant surface to ambient air, while secondary ozone product is relatively well-mixed throughout the room. This development establishes a framework to integrate different modeling tools and experimental measurements, opening up an avenue for development of comprehensive and integrated models with representations of various chemistry in indoor environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manabu Shiraiwa
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Young CJ, Zhou S, Siegel JA, Kahan TF. Illuminating the dark side of indoor oxidants. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2019; 21:1229-1239. [PMID: 31173015 DOI: 10.1039/c9em00111e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The chemistry of oxidants and their precursors (oxidants*) plays a central role in outdoor environments but its importance in indoor air remains poorly understood. Ozone (O3) chemistry is important in some indoor environments and, until recently, ozone was thought to be the dominant oxidant indoors. There is now evidence that formation of the hydroxyl radical by photolysis of nitrous acid (HONO) and formaldehyde (HCHO) may be important indoors. In the past few years, high time-resolution measurements of oxidants* indoors have become more common and the importance of event-based release of oxidants* during activities such as cleaning has been proposed. Here we review the current understanding of oxidants* indoors, including drivers of the formation and loss of oxidants*, levels of oxidants* in indoor environments, and important directions for future research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cora J Young
- Department of Chemistry, York University, Canada.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Licina D, Morrison GC, Bekö G, Weschler CJ, Nazaroff WW. Clothing-Mediated Exposures to Chemicals and Particles. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:5559-5575. [PMID: 31034216 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b00272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A growing body of evidence identifies clothing as an important mediator of human exposure to chemicals and particles, which may have public health significance. This paper reviews and critically assesses the state of knowledge regarding how clothing, during wear, influences exposure to molecular chemicals, abiotic particles, and biotic particles, including microbes and allergens. The underlying processes that govern the acquisition, retention, and transmission of clothing-associated contaminants and the consequences of these for subsequent exposures are explored. Chemicals of concern have been identified in clothing, including byproducts of their manufacture and chemicals that adhere to clothing during use and care. Analogously, clothing acts as a reservoir for biotic and abiotic particles acquired from occupational and environmental sources. Evidence suggests that while clothing can be protective by acting as a physical or chemical barrier, clothing-mediated exposures can be substantial in certain circumstances and may have adverse health consequences. This complex process is influenced by the type and history of the clothing; the nature of the contaminant; and by wear, care, and storage practices. Future research efforts are warranted to better quantify, predict, and control clothing-related exposures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dusan Licina
- Human-Oriented Built Environment Lab, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering , École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , CH-1015 Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Glenn C Morrison
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health , The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill , North Carolina 27599 , United States
| | - Gabriel Bekö
- International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Department of Civil Engineering , Technical University of Denmark , Lyngby 2800 , Denmark
| | - Charles J Weschler
- International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Department of Civil Engineering , Technical University of Denmark , Lyngby 2800 , Denmark
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute , Rutgers University , Piscataway , New Jersey 08901 , United States
| | - William W Nazaroff
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of California , Berkeley , California 94720-1710 , United States
| |
Collapse
|