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Mora García S, Gutierrez I, Nguyen JV, Navea JG, Grassian VH. Enhanced HONO Formation from Aqueous Nitrate Photochemistry in the Presence of Marine Relevant Organics: Impact of Marine-Dissolved Organic Matter (m-DOM) Concentration on HONO Yields and Potential Synergistic Effects of Compounds within m-DOM. ACS ES&T AIR 2024; 1:525-535. [PMID: 38898933 PMCID: PMC11184552 DOI: 10.1021/acsestair.4c00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Nitrous acid (HONO) is a key molecule in the reactive nitrogen cycle. However, sources and sinks for HONO are not fully understood. Particulate nitrate photochemistry has been suggested to play a role in the formation of HONO in the marine boundary layer (MBL). Here we investigate the impact of marine relevant organic compounds on HONO formation from aqueous nitrate photochemistry. In particular, steady-state, gas-phase HONO yields were measured from irradiated nitrate solutions at low pH containing marine-dissolved organic matter (m-DOM). m-DOM induces a nonlinear increase in HONO yield across all concentrations compared to that for pure nitrate solutions, with rates of HONO formation increasing by up to 3-fold when m-DOM is present. Furthermore, to understand the potential synergistic effects that may occur within complex samples such as m-DOM, mixtures of chromophoric (light-absorbing) and aliphatic (non-light-absorbing) molecular proxies were utilized. In particular, mixtures of 4-benzoylbenzoic acid (4-BBA) and ethylene glycol (EG) in acidic aqueous solutions containing nitrate showed more HONO upon irradiation compared to solutions containing only one of the molecular proxies. This suggests that synergistic effects in the HONO formation can occur in complex organic samples. Atmospheric implications of the results presented here are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie
L. Mora García
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California San Diego, La Jolla 92037, California, United States
| | - Israel Gutierrez
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California San Diego, La Jolla 92037, California, United States
| | - Jillian V. Nguyen
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California San Diego, La Jolla 92037, California, United States
| | - Juan G. Navea
- Department
of Chemistry, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs 12866, New York, United States
| | - Vicki H. Grassian
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California San Diego, La Jolla 92037, California, United States
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2
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Gen M, Zheng H, Sun Y, Xu W, Ma N, Su H, Cheng Y, Wang S, Xing J, Zhang S, Xue L, Xue C, Mu Y, Tian X, Matsuki A, Song S. Rapid hydrolysis of NO 2 at High Ionic Strengths of Deliquesced Aerosol Particles. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:7904-7915. [PMID: 38661303 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c08810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) hydrolysis in deliquesced aerosol particles forms nitrous acid and nitrate and thus impacts air quality, climate, and the nitrogen cycle. Traditionally, it is considered to proceed far too slowly in the atmosphere. However, the significance of this process is highly uncertain because kinetic studies have only been made in dilute aqueous solutions but not under high ionic strength conditions of the aerosol particles. Here, we use laboratory experiments, air quality models, and field measurements to examine the effect of the ionic strength on the reaction kinetics of NO2 hydrolysis. We find that high ionic strengths (I) enhance the reaction rate constants (kI) by more than an order of magnitude compared to that at infinite dilution (kI=0), yielding log10(kI/kI=0) = 0.04I or rate enhancement factor = 100.04I. A state-of-the-art air quality model shows that the enhanced NO2 hydrolysis reduces the negative bias in the simulated concentrations of nitrous acid by 28% on average when compared to field observations over the North China Plain. Rapid NO2 hydrolysis also enhances the levels of nitrous acid in other polluted regions such as North India and further promotes atmospheric oxidation capacity. This study highlights the need to evaluate various reaction kinetics of atmospheric aerosols with high ionic strengths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masao Gen
- Faculty of Frontier Engineering, Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Haotian Zheng
- School of Environment, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Sources and Control of Air Pollution Complex, Beijing 100084, China
- CMA-NKU Cooperative Laboratory for Atmospheric Environment Health Research, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Yele Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Boundary Layer Physics and Atmospheric Chemistry, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Wanyun Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Key Laboratory for Atmospheric Chemistry, Institute of Atmospheric Composition and Environmental Meteorology, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Nan Ma
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research (ECI), Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Hang Su
- Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz 55128, Germany
| | - Yafang Cheng
- Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz 55128, Germany
| | - Shuxiao Wang
- School of Environment, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Sources and Control of Air Pollution Complex, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jia Xing
- School of Environment, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Sources and Control of Air Pollution Complex, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shuping Zhang
- School of Environment, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Sources and Control of Air Pollution Complex, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Likun Xue
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Chaoyang Xue
- Laboratoire de Physique et Chimie de l'Environnement et de l'Espace (LPC2E), CNRS - Université Orléans - CNES, Orléans Cedex 2 45071, France
| | - Yujing Mu
- Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Xiao Tian
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control & Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Atsushi Matsuki
- Institute of Nature and Environmental Technology, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Shaojie Song
- CMA-NKU Cooperative Laboratory for Atmospheric Environment Health Research, Tianjin 300350, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control & Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
- Harvard-China on Energy, Economy, and Environment, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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3
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Li Q, Ma S, Liu Y, Wu X, Fu H, Tu X, Yan S, Zhang L, George C, Chen J. Phase State Regulates Photochemical HONO Production from NaNO 3/Dicarboxylic Acid Mixtures. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:7516-7528. [PMID: 38629947 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c10980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
Field observations of daytime HONO source strengths have not been well explained by laboratory measurements and model predictions up until now. More efforts are urgently needed to fill the knowledge gaps concerning how environmental factors, especially relative humidity (RH), affect particulate nitrate photolysis. In this work, two critical attributes for atmospheric particles, i.e., phase state and bulk-phase acidity, both influenced by ambient RH, were focused to illuminate the key regulators for reactive nitrogen production from typical internally mixed systems, i.e., NaNO3 and dicarboxylic acid (DCA) mixtures. The dissolution of only few oxalic acid (OA) crystals resulted in a remarkable 50-fold increase in HONO production compared to pure nitrate photolysis at 85% RH. Furthermore, the HONO production rates (PHONO) increased by about 1 order of magnitude as RH rose from <5% to 95%, initially exhibiting an almost linear dependence on the amount of surface absorbed water and subsequently showing a substantial increase in PHONO once nitrate deliquescence occurred at approximately 75% RH. NaNO3/malonic acid (MA) and NaNO3/succinic acid (SA) mixtures exhibited similar phase state effects on the photochemical HONO production. These results offer a new perspective on how aerosol physicochemical properties influence particulate nitrate photolysis in the atmosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, PR China
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology (CICAEET), Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, PR China
| | - Shuaishuai Ma
- College of Chemical and Material Engineering, Quzhou University, Quzhou 324000, PR China
| | - Yu Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, PR China
| | - Xinyuan Wu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, PR China
| | - Hongbo Fu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, PR China
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology (CICAEET), Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, PR China
- Institute of Eco-Chongming (SIEC), 20 Cuiniao Road, Shanghai 202162, PR China
| | - Xiang Tu
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control, Jiangxi Academy of Eco-Environmental Sciences and Planning, Nanchang 330000, PR China
| | - Shuwen Yan
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, PR China
| | - Liwu Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, PR China
| | - Christian George
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, IRCELYON, Villeurbanne F-69626, France
| | - Jianmin Chen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, PR China
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4
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Zhang S, Li G, Ma N, He Y, Zhu S, Pan X, Dong W, Zhang Y, Luo Q, Ditas J, Kuhn U, Zhang Y, Yuan B, Wang Z, Cheng P, Hong J, Tao J, Xu W, Kuang Y, Wang Q, Sun Y, Zhou G, Cheng Y, Su H. Exploring HONO formation and its role in driving secondary pollutants formation during winter in the North China Plain. J Environ Sci (China) 2023; 132:83-97. [PMID: 37336612 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.09.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 09/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Daytime HONO photolysis is an important source of atmospheric hydroxyl radicals (OH). Knowledge of HONO formation chemistry under typical haze conditions, however, is still limited. In the Multiphase chemistry experiment in Fogs and Aerosols in the North China Plain in 2018, we investigated the wintertime HONO formation and its atmospheric implications at a rural site Gucheng. Three different episodes based on atmospheric aerosol loading levels were classified: clean periods (CPs), moderately polluted periods (MPPs) and severely polluted periods (SPPs). Correlation analysis revealed that HONO formation via heterogeneous conversion of NO2 was more efficient on aerosol surfaces than on ground, highlighting the important role of aerosols in promoting HONO formation. Daytime HONO budget analysis indicated a large missing source (with an average production rate of 0.66 ± 0.26, 0.97 ± 0.47 and 1.45 ± 0.55 ppbV/hr for CPs, MPPs and SPPs, respectively), which strongly correlated with photo-enhanced reactions (NO2 heterogeneous reaction and particulate nitrate photolysis). Average OH formation derived from HONO photolysis reached up to (0.92 ± 0.71), (1.75 ± 1.26) and (1.82 ± 1.47) ppbV/hr in CPs, MPPs and SPPs respectively, much higher than that from O3 photolysis (i.e., (0.004 ± 0.004), (0.006 ± 0.007) and (0.0035 ± 0.0034) ppbV/hr). Such high OH production rates could markedly regulate the atmospheric oxidation capacity and hence promote the formation of secondary aerosols and pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaobin Zhang
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Guo Li
- Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz 55128, Germany.
| | - Nan Ma
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou 511443, China.
| | - Yao He
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Shaowen Zhu
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Xihao Pan
- Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz 55128, Germany
| | - Wenlin Dong
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Yanyan Zhang
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Qingwei Luo
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Jeannine Ditas
- Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz 55128, Germany
| | - Uwe Kuhn
- Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz 55128, Germany
| | - Yuxuan Zhang
- School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Bin Yuan
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Zelong Wang
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Peng Cheng
- Institute of Mass Spectrometry and Atmospheric Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Juan Hong
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Jiangchuan Tao
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Wanyun Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather & Key Laboratory for Atmospheric Chemistry, Institute of Atmospheric Composition, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Ye Kuang
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Qiaoqiao Wang
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Yele Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Boundary Layer Physics and Atmospheric Chemistry, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Guangsheng Zhou
- Gucheng Experimental Station of Ecological and Agricultural Meteorology, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yafang Cheng
- Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz 55128, Germany
| | - Hang Su
- Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz 55128, Germany
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5
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Jiang H, Bao F, Wang J, Chen J, Zhu Y, Huang D, Chen C, Zhao J. Direct Formation of Electronic Excited NO 2 Contributes to the High Yield of HONO during Photosensitized Renoxification. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:11144-11151. [PMID: 37462617 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c01342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Photosensitized renoxification of HNO3 is found to produce HONO in an unexpectedly high yield, which has been considered an important source for atmospheric HONO. Conventionally, the production of HONO is ascribed to the secondary photolysis of the primarily formed NO2. In this study, by using humic acid (HA) as a model environmental photosensitizer, we provide evidence of the direct formation of NO2 in its electronic excited state (NO2*) as a key intermediate during the photosensitizing renoxification of HNO3. Moreover, the high HONO yield originates from the heterogeneous reaction of the primarily formed NO2* with the co-adsorbed water molecules on HA. Such a mechanism is supported by the increase of the product selectivity of HONO with relative humidity. Further luminescence measurements demonstrate clearly the occurrence of an electronic excited state (NO2*) from photolysis of adsorbed HNO3 on HA. This work deepens our understanding of the formation of atmospheric HONO and gives insight into the transformation of RNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyu Jiang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Fengxia Bao
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
- Now at: Max Plank Institute for Chemistry, Mainz 55128, Germany
| | - Jinzhao Wang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Jianhua Chen
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Yifan Zhu
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Di Huang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Chuncheng Chen
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Jincai Zhao
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
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6
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Cao Q, Chu B, Zhang P, Ma Q, Ma J, Liu Y, Liu J, Zhao Y, Zhang H, Wang Y, He H. Effects of SO 2 on NH 4NO 3 Photolysis: The Role of Reducibility and Acidic Products. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023. [PMID: 37235870 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c01082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Nitrate photolysis is a vital process in secondary NOx release into the atmosphere. The heterogeneous oxidation of SO2 due to nitrate photolysis has been widely reported, while the influence of SO2 on nitrate photolysis has rarely been investigated. In this study, the photolysis of nitrate on different substrates was investigated in the absence and presence of SO2. In the photolysis of NH4NO3 on the membrane without mineral oxides, NO, NO2, HONO, and NH3 decreased by 17.1, 6.0, 12.6, and 57.1% due to the presence of SO2, respectively. In the photolysis of NH4NO3 on the surface of mineral oxides, SO2 also exhibited an inhibitory effect on the production of NOx, HONO, and NH3 due to its reducibility and acidic products, while the increase in surface acidity due to the accumulation of abundant sulfate on TiO2 and MgO promoted the release of HONO. On the photoactive oxide TiO2, HSO3-, generated by the uptake of SO2, could compete for holes with nitrate to block nitrate photolysis. This study highlights the interaction between the heterogeneous oxidation of SO2 and nitrate photolysis and provides a new perspective on how SO2 affects the photolysis of nitrate absorbed on the photoactive oxides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Cao
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Biwu Chu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Peng Zhang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Qingxin Ma
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Jinzhu Ma
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Yuan Liu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jun Liu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Yaqi Zhao
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- Beijing Key Lab for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yonghong Wang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Hong He
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
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7
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Ricker H, Leonardi A, Navea JG. Reduction and Photoreduction of NO 2 in Humic Acid Films as a Source of HONO, ClNO, N 2O, NO X , and Organic Nitrogen. ACS EARTH & SPACE CHEMISTRY 2022; 6:3066-3077. [PMID: 36561196 PMCID: PMC9762234 DOI: 10.1021/acsearthspacechem.2c00282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Atmospheric nitrous acid (HONO), a trace atmospheric gas, is often underestimated in global atmospheric models due to the poor understanding of its daytime sources and sinks. HONO is known to accumulate during nighttime and undergo rapid photodissociation during the day to form NO and highly reactive OH radical, making it important to have accurate atmospheric HONO estimations. Despite its rapid photolysis, recent field observations have found quasi-steady-state concentrations of HONO at midday, suggesting photolytic HONO formation pathways to replenish daytime atmospheric HONO. Recent studies suggest that the presence of complex organic photosensitizers in atmospheric aerosols converts atmospheric NO2 into HONO. To better understand the effect of environmental photosensitizers in daytime mechanisms of HONO formation, we present here laboratory studies on the heterogeneous photolytic reduction of NO2 by humic acid films, a proxy for organic chromophoric compounds. The effect of pH and Cl- in the photosensitized formation of HONO and other nitrogen-containing gases is also investigated. A dual Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) system is utilized to simultaneously perform in situ analysis of condensed-phase reactants and gas-phase products. We find that the rate of HONO formation is faster at lower pHs. Nitrogen incorporation in the complex organic chromophore is observed, suggesting a competing pathway that results in suppressed daytime formation of nitrogenous gases. Significantly, the presence of chloride ions also leads to the organic-mediated photolytic formation of nitrosyl chloride (ClNO), a known precursor of HONO. Overall, this work shows that organic acid photosensitizers can reduce adsorbed NO2 to form HONO, ClNO, and NO while simultaneously incorporating nitrogen into the organic chromophores present in aerosol.
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8
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Wang H, Sun Y, Dong F. Insight into the Overlooked Photochemical Decomposition of Atmospheric Surface Nitrates Triggered by Visible Light. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202209201. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.202209201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hong Wang
- Research Center for Environmental and Energy Catalysis Institute of Fundamental and Frontier Sciences University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Chengdu 611731 P. R. China
| | - Yanjuan Sun
- School of Resources and Environmental University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Chengdu 611731 P. R. China
| | - Fan Dong
- Research Center for Environmental and Energy Catalysis Institute of Fundamental and Frontier Sciences University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Chengdu 611731 P. R. China
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9
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Wang H, Sun Y, Dong F. Insight into the Overlooked Photochemical Decomposition of Atmospheric Surface Nitrates Triggered by Visible Light. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202209201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hong Wang
- University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Institute of Fundamental and Frontier Sciences CHINA
| | - Yanjuan Sun
- University of Electronic Science and Technology of China School of Resources and Environmental CHINA
| | - Fan Dong
- University of Electronic Science and Technology of China State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices Chengdu, China 610054 Chengdu CHINA
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10
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Langhammer D, Kullgren J, Österlund L. Adsorption and Oxidation of NO 2 on Anatase TiO 2: Concerted Nitrate Interaction and Photon-Stimulated Reaction. ACS Catal 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.2c03334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David Langhammer
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Ångström Laboratory, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 35, SE-75103 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jolla Kullgren
- Department of Chemistry, The Ångström Laboratory, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 538, SE-75121 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lars Österlund
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Ångström Laboratory, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 35, SE-75103 Uppsala, Sweden
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11
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Gingerysty NJ, Odame-Ankrah CA, Jordan N, Osthoff HD. Interference from HONO in the measurement of ambient air NO 2 via photolytic conversion and quantification of NO. J Environ Sci (China) 2021; 107:184-193. [PMID: 34412781 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2020.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The reference method to quantify mixing ratios of the criteria air pollutant nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is NO-O3 chemiluminescence (CL), in which mixing ratios of nitric oxide (NO) are measured by sampling ambient air directly, and mixing ratios of NOx (= sum of NO and NO2) are measured by converting NO2 to NO using, for example, heated molybdenum catalyst or, more selectively, photolytic conversion (P-CL). In this work, the nitrous acid (HONO) interference in the measurement of NO2 by P-CL was investigated. Results with two photolytic NO2 converters are presented. The first used radiation centered at 395 nm, a wavelength region commonly utilized in P-CL. The second used light at 415 nm, where the overlap with the HONO absorption spectrum and hence its photolysis rate are less. Mixing ratios of NO2, NOx and HONO entering and exiting the converters were quantified by Thermal Dissociation Cavity Ring-down Spectroscopy (TD-CRDS). Both converters exhibited high NO2 conversion efficiency (CFNO2; > 90%) and partial conversion of HONO. Plots of CF against flow rate were consistent with photolysis frequencies of 4.2 s-1 and 2.9 s-1 for NO2 and 0.25 s-1 and 0.10 s-1 for HONO at 395 nm and 415 nm, respectively. CFHONO was larger than predicted from the overlap of the emission and HONO absorption spectra. The results imply that measurements of NO2 by P-CL marginally but systematically overestimate true NO2 concentrations, and that this interference should be considered in environments with high HONO:NO2 ratios such as the marine boundary layer or in biomass burning plumes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nick Jordan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Hans D Osthoff
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary AB T2N 1N4, Canada.
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12
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Ma Q, Zhong C, Ma J, Ye C, Zhao Y, Liu Y, Zhang P, Chen T, Liu C, Chu B, He H. Comprehensive Study about the Photolysis of Nitrates on Mineral Oxides. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:8604-8612. [PMID: 34132529 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c02182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Nitrates formed on mineral dust through heterogeneous reactions in high NOx areas can undergo photolysis to regenerate NOx and potentially interfere in the photochemistry in the downwind low NOx areas. However, little is known about such renoxification processes. In this study, photolysis of various nitrates on different mineral oxides was comprehensively investigated in a flow reactor and in situ diffuse reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (in situ DRIFTS). TiO2 was found much more reactive than Al2O3 and SiO2 with both NO2 and HONO as the two major photolysis products. The yields of NO2 and HONO depend on the cation basicity of the nitrate salts or the acidity of particles. As such, NH4NO3 is much more productive than other nitrates like Fe(NO3)3, Ca(NO3)2, and KNO3. SO2 and water vapor promote the photodegradation by increasing the surface acidity due to the photoinduced formation of H2SO4/sulfate and H+, respectively. O2 enables the photo-oxidation of NOx to regenerate nitrate and thus inhibits the NOx yield. Overall, our results demonstrated that the photolysis of nitrate can be accelerated under complex air pollution conditions, which are helpful for understanding the transformation of nitrate and the nitrogen cycle in the atmosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingxin Ma
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Cheng Zhong
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jinzhu Ma
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Chunxiang Ye
- Beijing Innovation Center for Engineering Science and Advanced Technology, State Key Joint Laboratory for Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Center for Environment and Health, and College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yaqi Zhao
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yuan Liu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Peng Zhang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Tianzeng Chen
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Chang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather & Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry of China Meteorological Administration, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Biwu Chu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hong He
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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13
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Xu W, Yang W, Han C, Yang H, Xue X. Significant influences of TiO 2 crystal structures on NO 2 and HONO emissions from the nitrates photolysis. J Environ Sci (China) 2021; 102:198-206. [PMID: 33637244 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2020.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The emissions of NO2 and HONO from the KNO3 photolysis in the presence of TiO2 were measured using a round-shape reactor coupled to a NOx analyzer. TiO2 played important roles in the emission flux density of NO2 (RNO2) and HONO (RHONO), depending on crystal structures and mass ratios of TiO2. RNO2 and RHONO significantly decreased with increasing the rutile and anatase mass ratios from 0 to 8 and 0.5 wt.%, respectively. Nevertheless, with further increasing the anatase mass ratio to 8 wt.%, there was an increase in RNO2 and RHONO. RNO2 on KNO3/TiO2/SiO2 had positive correlation with the KNO3 mass (1-20 wt.%), irradiation intensity (80-400 W/m2) and temperature (278-308 K), while it had the maximum value at the relative humidity (RH) of 55%. RHONO on KNO3/TiO2/SiO2 slightly varied with the KNO3 mass and temperature, whereas it increased with the irradiation intensity and RH. In addition, the mechanism for NO2 and HONO emissions from the nitrates photolysis and atmospheric implications were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenwen Xu
- School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Wangjin Yang
- School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Chong Han
- School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China.
| | - He Yang
- School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Xiangxin Xue
- School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
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14
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Abou-Ghanem M, Oliynyk AO, Chen Z, Matchett LC, McGrath DT, Katz MJ, Locock AJ, Styler SA. Significant Variability in the Photocatalytic Activity of Natural Titanium-Containing Minerals: Implications for Understanding and Predicting Atmospheric Mineral Dust Photochemistry. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:13509-13516. [PMID: 33058682 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c05861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The billions of tons of mineral dust released into the atmosphere each year provide an important surface for reaction with gas-phase pollutants. These reactions, which are often enhanced in the presence of light, can change both the gas-phase composition of the atmosphere and the composition and properties of the dust itself. Because dust contains titanium-rich grains, studies of dust photochemistry have largely employed commercial titanium dioxide as a proxy for its photochemically active fraction; to date, however, the validity of this model system has not been empirically determined. Here, for the first time, we directly investigate the photochemistry of the complement of natural titanium-containing minerals most relevant to mineral dust, including anatase, rutile, ilmenite, titanite, and several titanium-bearing species. Using ozone as a model gas-phase pollutant, we show that titanium-containing minerals other than titanium dioxide can also photocatalyze trace gas uptake, that samples of the same mineral phase can display very different reactivity, and that prediction of dust photoreactivity based on elemental/mineralogical analysis and/or light-absorbing properties is challenging. Together, these results show that the photochemistry of atmospheric dust is both richer and more complex than previously considered, and imply that a full understanding of the scope and impact of dust-mediated processes will require the community to engage with this complexity via the study of ambient mineral dust samples from diverse source regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Abou-Ghanem
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G2, Canada
| | - Anton O Oliynyk
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G2, Canada
- Now at Chemistry and Biochemistry Department, Manhattan College, Riverdale, New York, New York 10471, United States
| | - Zhihao Chen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G2, Canada
| | - Laura C Matchett
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G2, Canada
- Now at Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L8, Canada
| | - Devon T McGrath
- Department of Chemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador A1B 3X7, Canada
| | - Michael J Katz
- Department of Chemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador A1B 3X7, Canada
| | - Andrew J Locock
- Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G2, Canada
| | - Sarah A Styler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G2, Canada
- Now at Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
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15
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Abstract
Indoor surfaces provide a plentiful and varied substrate on which multiphase reactions can occur which can be important to the chemical makeup of the indoor environment. Here, we attempt to characterise real indoor surface films via water uptake behaviour and ionic composition. We show that water uptake by indoor films is different than that observed outdoors, and can vary according to room use, building characteristics, and season. Similarly, preliminary investigation into the ionic composition of the films showed that they varied according to the room in which they were collected. This study highlights the importance of different types of soiling to multiphase chemistry, especially those reactions controlled by relative humidity or adsorbed water.
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16
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Liu Q, Liggio J, Breznan D, Thomson EM, Kumarathasan P, Vincent R, Li K, Li SM. Oxidative and Toxicological Evolution of Engineered Nanoparticles with Atmospherically Relevant Coatings. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:3058-3066. [PMID: 30794751 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b06879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The health impacts associated with engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) released into the atmosphere have not been adequately assessed. Such impacts could potentially arise from the toxicity associated with condensable atmospheric secondary organic material (SOM), or changes in the SOM composition induced by ENPs. Here, these possibilities are evaluated by investigating the oxidative and toxicological evolution of TiO2 and SiO2 nanoparticles which have been coated with SOM from the O3 or OH initiated oxidation of α-pinene. It was found that pristine SiO2 particles were significantly more cytotoxic compared to pristine TiO2 particles. TiO2 in the dark or under UV irradiation catalytically reacted with the SOM, increasing its O/C by up to 55% over photochemically inert SiO2 while having negligible effects on the overall cytotoxicity. Conversely, the cytotoxicity associated with SiO2 coated with SOM was markedly suppressed (by a factor of 9, at the highest exposure dose) with both increased SOM coating thickness and increased photochemical aging. These suppressing effects (organic coating and photo-oxidation of organics) were attributed to a physical hindrance of SiO2-cell interactions by the SOM and enhanced SOM viscosity and hydrophilicity with continued photo-oxidation, respectively. These findings highlight the importance of atmospheric processes in altering the cytotoxicity of ENPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qifan Liu
- Atmospheric Science and Technology Directorate , Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada , 4905 Dufferin Street , Toronto , Ontario M3H 5T4 , Canada
| | - John Liggio
- Atmospheric Science and Technology Directorate , Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada , 4905 Dufferin Street , Toronto , Ontario M3H 5T4 , Canada
| | - Dalibor Breznan
- Inhalation Toxicology Laboratory , Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada , 0803C Tunney's Pasture , Ottawa , Ontario K1A 0K9 , Canada
| | - Errol M Thomson
- Inhalation Toxicology Laboratory , Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada , 0803C Tunney's Pasture , Ottawa , Ontario K1A 0K9 , Canada
| | - Premkumari Kumarathasan
- Analytical Biochemistry and Proteomics Laboratory , Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada , 0803C Tunney's Pasture , Ottawa , Ontario K1A 0K9 , Canada
| | - Renaud Vincent
- Inhalation Toxicology Laboratory , Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada , 0803C Tunney's Pasture , Ottawa , Ontario K1A 0K9 , Canada
| | - Kun Li
- Atmospheric Science and Technology Directorate , Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada , 4905 Dufferin Street , Toronto , Ontario M3H 5T4 , Canada
| | - Shao-Meng Li
- Atmospheric Science and Technology Directorate , Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada , 4905 Dufferin Street , Toronto , Ontario M3H 5T4 , Canada
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