1
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Madl CM, Wang YX, Holbrook CA, Su S, Shi X, Byfield FJ, Wicki G, Flaig IA, Blau HM. Hydrogel biomaterials that stiffen and soften on demand reveal that skeletal muscle stem cells harbor a mechanical memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2406787121. [PMID: 39163337 PMCID: PMC11363279 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2406787121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 07/21/2024] [Indexed: 08/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Muscle stem cells (MuSCs) are specialized cells that reside in adult skeletal muscle poised to repair muscle tissue. The ability of MuSCs to regenerate damaged tissues declines markedly with aging and in diseases such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy, but the underlying causes of MuSC dysfunction remain poorly understood. Both aging and disease result in dramatic increases in the stiffness of the muscle tissue microenvironment from fibrosis. MuSCs are known to lose their regenerative potential if cultured on stiff plastic substrates. We sought to determine whether MuSCs harbor a memory of their past microenvironment and if it can be overcome. We tested MuSCs in situ using dynamic hydrogel biomaterials that soften or stiffen on demand in response to light and found that freshly isolated MuSCs develop a persistent memory of substrate stiffness characterized by loss of proliferative progenitors within the first three days of culture on stiff substrates. MuSCs cultured on soft hydrogels had altered cytoskeletal organization and activity of Rho and Rac guanosine triphosphate hydrolase (GTPase) and Yes-associated protein mechanotransduction pathways compared to those on stiff hydrogels. Pharmacologic inhibition identified RhoA activation as responsible for the mechanical memory phenotype, and single-cell RNA sequencing revealed a molecular signature of the mechanical memory. These studies highlight that microenvironmental stiffness regulates MuSC fate and leads to MuSC dysfunction that is not readily reversed by changing stiffness. Our results suggest that stiffness can be circumvented by targeting downstream signaling pathways to overcome stem cell dysfunction in aged and disease states with aberrant fibrotic tissue mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher M. Madl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Baxter Laboratory for Stem Cell Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA19104
| | - Yu Xin Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Baxter Laboratory for Stem Cell Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Colin A. Holbrook
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Baxter Laboratory for Stem Cell Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Shiqi Su
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Baxter Laboratory for Stem Cell Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Xuechen Shi
- Department of Physiology, Perelman School of Medicine and Institute for Medicine and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA19104
| | - Fitzroy J. Byfield
- Department of Physiology, Perelman School of Medicine and Institute for Medicine and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA19104
| | - Gwendoline Wicki
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Baxter Laboratory for Stem Cell Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
- Institute of Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, LausanneCH-1015, Switzerland
| | - Iris A. Flaig
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Baxter Laboratory for Stem Cell Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
- Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, LausanneCH-1015, Switzerland
| | - Helen M. Blau
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Baxter Laboratory for Stem Cell Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
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2
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Levin M, Tang Y, Eisenbach CD, Valentine MT, Cohen N. Understanding the Response of Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) Hydrogel Networks: A Statistical Mechanics-Based Framework. Macromolecules 2024; 57:7074-7086. [PMID: 39156193 PMCID: PMC11325651 DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.3c02635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 08/20/2024]
Abstract
Thanks to many promising properties, including biocompatibility and the ability to experience large deformations, poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) hydrogels are excellent candidate materials for a wide range of applications. Interestingly, the polymerization of PEGDA leads to a network microstructure that is fundamentally different from that of the "classic" polymeric gels. Specifically, PEGDA hydrogels comprise PEG chains that are interconnected by multifunctional densely grafted rod-like polyacrylates (PAs), which serve as cross-linkers. In this work, we derive a microstructurally motivated model that captures the essential features which enable deformation in PEGDA hydrogels: (1) entropic elasticity of PEG chains, (2) deformation of PA rods, and (3) PA-PA interactions. Expressions for the energy-density functions and the stress associated with each of the three contributions are derived. The model demonstrates the microstructural evolution of the network during loading and reveals the role of key microscopic quantities. To validate the model, we fabricate and compress PEGDA hydrogel discs. The model is in excellent agreement with our experimental findings for a broad range of PEGDA compositions. Interestingly, we show that the response of PEGDA hydrogels with short PEG chains and long PA rods is governed by PA-PA interactions, whereas networks with longer PEG chains are dominated by entropy. To enable design, we employ the model to investigate the influence of key microstructural quantities, such as the length of the PEG and the PA chains, on the macroscopic properties and response. The findings from this work pave the way to the efficient design of PEGDA hydrogels with tunable properties and behaviors, which will enable the optimization of their performance in various applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Levin
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Technion
- Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Yongkui Tang
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, University of
California, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Materials
Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Claus D. Eisenbach
- Materials
Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Institut
for Polymerchemie, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart D-70569, Germany
| | - Megan T. Valentine
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, University of
California, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Materials
Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Noy Cohen
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Technion
- Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
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3
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López-Serrano C, Côté-Paradis Y, Habenstein B, Loquet A, Le Coz C, Ruel J, Laroche G, Durrieu MC. Integrating Mechanics and Bioactivity: A Detailed Assessment of Elasticity and Viscoelasticity at Different Scales in 2D Biofunctionalized PEGDA Hydrogels for Targeted Bone Regeneration. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:39165-39180. [PMID: 39041490 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c10755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/24/2024]
Abstract
Methods for promoting and controlling the differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) in vitro before in vivo transplantation are crucial for the advancement of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. In this study, we developed poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) hydrogels with tunable mechanical properties, including elasticity and viscoelasticity, coupled with bioactivity achieved through the immobilization of a mixture of RGD and a mimetic peptide of the BMP-2 protein. Despite the key relevance of hydrogel mechanical properties for cell culture, a standard for its characterization has not been proposed, and comparisons between studies are challenging due to the different techniques employed. Here, a comprehensive approach was employed to characterize the elasticity and viscoelasticity of these hydrogels, integrating compression testing, rheology, and atomic force microscopy (AFM) microindentation. Distinct mechanical behaviors were observed across different PEGDA compositions, and some consistent trends across multiple techniques were identified. Using a photoactivated cross-linker, we controlled the functionalization density independently of the mechanical properties. X-ray photoelectrin spectroscopy and fluorescence microscopy were employed to evaluate the functionalization density of the materials before the culturing of hMSCs on them. The cells cultured on all functionalized hydrogels expressed an early osteoblast marker (Runx2) after 2 weeks, even in the absence of a differentiation-inducing medium compared to our controls. Additionally, after only 1 week of culture with osteogenic differentiation medium, cells showed accelerated differentiation, with clear morphological differences observed among cells in the different conditions. Notably, cells on stiff but stress-relaxing hydrogels exhibited an overexpression of the osteocyte marker E11. This suggests that the combination of the functionalization procedure with the mechanical properties of the hydrogel provides a potent approach to promoting the osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina López-Serrano
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, CBMN, UMR 5248, Pessac 33600, France
- Laboratoire d'Ingénierie de Surface, Centre de Recherche sur les Matériaux Avancés, Département de Génie des Mines, de la Métallurgie et des Matériaux, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1 V 0A6, Canada
- Axe médecine régénératrice, Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec, Hôpital St-François d'Assise, Québec, QC G1L 3L5, Canada
| | - Yeva Côté-Paradis
- Laboratoire d'Ingénierie de Surface, Centre de Recherche sur les Matériaux Avancés, Département de Génie des Mines, de la Métallurgie et des Matériaux, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1 V 0A6, Canada
- Axe médecine régénératrice, Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec, Hôpital St-François d'Assise, Québec, QC G1L 3L5, Canada
| | - Birgit Habenstein
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, INSERM, IECB, US1, UAR 3033, F-33600 Pessac, France
| | - Antoine Loquet
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, INSERM, IECB, US1, UAR 3033, F-33600 Pessac, France
| | - Cédric Le Coz
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, LCPO, UMR 5629, F-33600 Pessac, France
| | - Jean Ruel
- Département de Génie Mécanique, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Gaétan Laroche
- Laboratoire d'Ingénierie de Surface, Centre de Recherche sur les Matériaux Avancés, Département de Génie des Mines, de la Métallurgie et des Matériaux, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1 V 0A6, Canada
- Axe médecine régénératrice, Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec, Hôpital St-François d'Assise, Québec, QC G1L 3L5, Canada
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4
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Eddine MA, Carvalho A, Schmutz M, Salez T, de Chateauneuf-Randon S, Bresson B, Pantoustier N, Monteux C, Belbekhouche S. Tuning the water intrinsic permeability of PEGDA hydrogel membranes by adding free PEG chains of varying molar masses. SOFT MATTER 2024; 20:5367-5376. [PMID: 38916101 DOI: 10.1039/d4sm00376d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/26/2024]
Abstract
We explore the effect of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) molar mass on the intrinsic permeability and structural characteristics of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate PEGDA/PEG composite hydrogel membranes. We observe that by varying the PEG content and molar mass, we can finely adjust the water intrinsic permeability by several orders of magnitude. Notably, we show the existence of maximum water intrinsic permeability, already identified in a previous study to be located at the critical overlap concentration C* of PEG chains, for the highest PEG molar mass studied. Furthermore, we note that the maximum intrinsic permeability follows a non-monotonic evolution with respect to the PEG molar mass and reaches its peak at 35 000 g mol-1. Besides, our results show that a significant fraction of PEG chains is irreversibly trapped within the PEGDA matrix even for the lowest molar masses down to 600 g mol-1. This observation suggests the possibility of covalent grafting of the PEG chains onto the PEGDA matrix. CryoSEM and AFM measurements demonstrate the presence of large micron-sized cavities separated by PEGDA-rich walls whose nanometric structures strongly depend on the PEG content. By combining our permeability and structural measurements, we suggest that the PEG chains trapped inside the PEGDA-rich walls induce nanoscale defects in the crosslinking density, resulting in increased permeability below C*. Conversely, above C*, we speculate that partially trapped PEG chains may form a brush-like arrangement on the surface of the PEGDA-rich walls, leading to a reduction in permeability. These two opposing effects are anticipated to exhibit molar-mass-dependent trends, contributing to the non-monotonic variation of the maximum intrinsic permeability at C*. Overall, our results demonstrate the potential to fine-tune the properties of hydrogel membranes, offering new opportunities for separation applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malak Alaa Eddine
- Laboratoire Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, 10 rue Vauquelin, Cedex 05 75231 Paris, France.
- Université Paris Est Creteil, CNRS, Institut Chimie et Matériaux Paris Est, UMR 7182, 2 Rue Henri Dunant, 94320 Thiais, France.
| | - Alain Carvalho
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron, 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg Cedex 02, France
| | - Marc Schmutz
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron, 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg Cedex 02, France
| | - Thomas Salez
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, LOMA, UMR 5798, F-33400 Talence, France
| | - Sixtine de Chateauneuf-Randon
- Laboratoire Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, 10 rue Vauquelin, Cedex 05 75231 Paris, France.
| | - Bruno Bresson
- Laboratoire Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, 10 rue Vauquelin, Cedex 05 75231 Paris, France.
| | - Nadège Pantoustier
- Laboratoire Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, 10 rue Vauquelin, Cedex 05 75231 Paris, France.
| | - Cécile Monteux
- Laboratoire Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, 10 rue Vauquelin, Cedex 05 75231 Paris, France.
| | - Sabrina Belbekhouche
- Université Paris Est Creteil, CNRS, Institut Chimie et Matériaux Paris Est, UMR 7182, 2 Rue Henri Dunant, 94320 Thiais, France.
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5
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Chen J, Luo Y. Disodium Cromoglycate Templates Anisotropic Short-Chain PEG Hydrogels. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:33223-33234. [PMID: 38885610 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c07181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
Anisotropic hydrogels have found widespread applications in biomedical engineering, particularly as scaffolds for tissue engineering. However, it remains a challenge to produce them using conventional fabrication methods, without specialized synthesis or equipment, such as 3D printing and unidirectional stretching. In this study, we explore the self-assembly behaviors of polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA), using disodium cromoglycate (DSCG), a lyotropic chromonic liquid crystal, as a removable template. The affinity between short-chain PEGDA (Mn = 250) and DSCG allows polymerization to take place at the DSCG surface, thereby forming anisotropic hydrogel networks with fibrin-like morphologies. This process requires considerable finesse as the phase behaviors of DSCG depend on a multitude of factors, including the weight percentage of PEGDA and DSCG, the chain length of PEGDA, and the concentration of ionic species. The key to modulating the microstructures of the all-PEG hydrogel networks is through precise control of the DSCG concentration, resulting in anisotropic mechanical properties. Using these anisotropic hydrogel networks, we demonstrate that human dermal fibroblasts are particularly sensitive to the alignment order. We find that cells exhibit a density-dependent activation pattern of a Yes-associated protein, a mechanotransducer, corroborating its role in enabling cells to translate external mechanical and morphological patterns to specific behaviors. The flexibility of modulating microstructure, along with PEG hydrogels' biocompatibility and biodegradability, underscores their potential use for tissue engineering to create functional structures with physiological morphologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Chen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
| | - Yimin Luo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
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6
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Jambon-Puillet E, Testa A, Lorenz C, Style RW, Rebane AA, Dufresne ER. Phase-separated droplets swim to their dissolution. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3919. [PMID: 38724503 PMCID: PMC11082165 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47889-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Biological macromolecules can condense into liquid domains. In cells, these condensates form membraneless organelles that can organize chemical reactions. However, little is known about the physical consequences of chemical activity in and around condensates. Working with model bovine serum albumin (BSA) condensates, we show that droplets swim along chemical gradients. Active BSA droplets loaded with urease swim toward each other. Passive BSA droplets show diverse responses to externally applied gradients of the enzyme's substrate and products. In all these cases, droplets swim toward solvent conditions that favor their dissolution. We call this behavior "dialytaxis", and expect it to be generic, as conditions which favor dissolution typically reduce interfacial tension, whose gradients are well-known to drive droplet motion through the Marangoni effect. These results could potentially suggest alternative physical mechanisms for active transport in living cells, and may enable the design of fluid micro-robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etienne Jambon-Puillet
- Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, Palaiseau, France
| | - Andrea Testa
- Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Charlotta Lorenz
- Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Department of Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Robert W Style
- Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Aleksander A Rebane
- Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Life Molecules and Materials Lab, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Eric R Dufresne
- Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Department of Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
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7
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Singh K, Wychowaniec JK, Edwards-Gayle CJC, Reynaud EG, Rodriguez BJ, Brougham DF. Structure-dynamics correlations in composite PF127-PEG-based hydrogels; cohesive/hydrophobic interactions determine phase and rheology and identify the role of micelle concentration in controlling 3D extrusion printability. J Colloid Interface Sci 2024; 660:302-313. [PMID: 38244497 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2023.12.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2024]
Abstract
A library of composite polymer networks (CPNs) were formed by combining Pluronic F127, as the primary gelator, with a range of di-acrylate functionalised PEG polymers, which tune the rheological properties and provide UV crosslinkability. A coarse-grained sol-gel room temperature phase diagram was constructed for the CPN library, which identifies PEG-dependent disruption of micelles as leading to liquefication. Small angle X-ray scattering and rheological measurements provide detailed insight into; (i) micelle-micelle ordering; (ii) micelle-micelle disruption, and; (iii) acrylate-micelle disruption; with contributions that depend on composition, including weak PEG chain length and end group effects. The influence of composition on 3D extrusion printability through modulation of the cohesive/hydrophobic interactions was assessed. It was found that only micelle content provides consistent changes in printing fidelity, controlled largely by printing conditions (pressure and feed rate). Finally, the hydrogels were shown to be UV photo-crosslinkable, which further improves fidelity and structural integrity, and usefully reduces the mesh size. Our results provide a guide for design of 3D-printable CPN inks for future biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krutika Singh
- School of Chemistry, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Jacek K Wychowaniec
- School of Chemistry, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland; AO Research Institute Davos, Clavadelerstrasse 8, 7270, Davos, Switzerland.
| | | | - Emmanuel G Reynaud
- Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Brian J Rodriguez
- Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland; School of Physics, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Dermot F Brougham
- School of Chemistry, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
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8
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Nam SK, Amstad E, Kim SH. Hydrogel-Encased Photonic Microspheres with Enhanced Color Saturation and High Suspension Stability. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:58761-58769. [PMID: 38084724 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c14364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2023]
Abstract
Regular arrays of colloidal particles can produce striking structural colors without the need for any chemical pigments. Regular arrays of colloidal particles can be processed into microparticles via emulsion templates for use as structural colorants. Photonic microparticles, however, suffer from intense incoherent scattering and lack of suspension stability. We propose a microfluidic technique to generate hydrogel-shelled photonic microspheres that display enhanced color saturation and suspension stability. We created these microspheres using oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O) double-emulsion droplets with well-defined dimensions with a capillary microfluidic device. The inner oil droplet contains silica particles in a photocurable monomer, while the middle water droplet carries the hydrogel precursor. Within the inner oil droplet, silica particles arrange into crystalline arrays due to solvation-layer-induced interparticle repulsion. UV irradiation solidifies the inner photonic core and the outer hydrogel shell. The hydrogel shell reduces white scattering and enhances the suspension stability in water. Notably, the hydrogel precursor in the water droplet aids in maintaining the solvation layer, resulting in enhanced crystallinity and richer colors compared with microspheres from O/W single-emulsion droplets. These hydrogel-encased photonic microspheres show promise as structural colorants in water-based inks and polymer composites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seong Kyeong Nam
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Esther Amstad
- Institute of Materials, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Shin-Hyun Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
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9
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Eddine MA, Carvalho A, Schmutz M, Salez T, de Chateauneuf-Randon S, Bresson B, Belbekhouche S, Monteux C. Sieving and Clogging in PEG-PEGDA Hydrogel Membranes. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2023; 39:15085-15094. [PMID: 37823796 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c02153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogels are promising systems for separation applications due to their structural characteristics (i.e., hydrophilicity and porosity). In our study, we investigate the permeation of suspensions of rigid latex particles of different sizes through free-standing hydrogel membranes prepared by photopolymerization of a mixture of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) and large poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) chains of 300,000 g·mol-1 in the presence of a photoinitiator. Atomic force microscopy and cryoscanning electron microscopy (cryoSEM) were employed to characterize the structures of the hydrogel membranes. We find that the 20 nm particle permeation depends on both the PEGDA/PEG composition and the pressure applied during filtration. In contrast, we do not measure a significant permeation of the 100 nm and 1 μm particles, despite the presence of large cavities of 1 μm evidenced by the cryoSEM images. We suggest that the PEG chains induce local nanoscale defects in the cross-linking of PEGDA-rich walls separating the micrometer-sized cavities, which control the permeation of particles and water. Moreover, we discuss the decline of the permeation flux observed in the presence of latex particles compared to that of pure water. We suggest that a thin layer of particles forms on the surface of the hydrogels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malak Alaa Eddine
- Laboratoire Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, 10 rue Vauquelin, 75231 Cedex 05 Paris, France
- Université Paris Est Creteil, CNRS, Institut Chimie et Matériaux Paris Est, UMR 7182, 2 Rue Henri Dunant, 94320 Thiais, France
| | - Alain Carvalho
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron, 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Cedex 02 Strasbourg, France
| | - Marc Schmutz
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron, 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Cedex 02 Strasbourg, France
| | - Thomas Salez
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, LOMA, UMR 5798, F-33400 Talence, France
| | | | - Bruno Bresson
- Laboratoire Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, 10 rue Vauquelin, 75231 Cedex 05 Paris, France
| | - Sabrina Belbekhouche
- Université Paris Est Creteil, CNRS, Institut Chimie et Matériaux Paris Est, UMR 7182, 2 Rue Henri Dunant, 94320 Thiais, France
| | - Cécile Monteux
- Laboratoire Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, 10 rue Vauquelin, 75231 Cedex 05 Paris, France
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10
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Chau A, Edwards CER, Helgeson ME, Pitenis AA. Designing Superlubricious Hydrogels from Spontaneous Peroxidation Gradients. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:43075-43086. [PMID: 37650860 PMCID: PMC10510045 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c04636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogels are hydrated three-dimensional networks of hydrophilic polymers that are commonly used in the biomedical industry due to their mechanical and structural tunability, biocompatibility, and similar water content to biological tissues. The surface structure of hydrogels polymerized through free-radical polymerization can be modified by controlling environmental oxygen concentrations, leading to the formation of a polymer concentration gradient. In this work, 17.5 wt % polyacrylamide hydrogels are polymerized in low (0.01 mol % O2) and high (20 mol % O2) oxygen environments, and their mechanical and tribological properties are characterized through microindentation, nanoindentation, and tribological sliding experiments. Without significantly reducing the elastic modulus of the hydrogel (E* ≈ 200 kPa), we demonstrate an order of magnitude reduction in friction coefficient (from μ = 0.021 ± 0.006 to μ = 0.002 ± 0.001) by adjusting polymerization conditions (e.g., oxygen concentration). A quantitative analytical model based on polyacrylamide chemistry and kinetics was developed to estimate the thickness and structure of the monomer conversion gradient, termed the "surface gel layer". We find that polymerizing hydrogels at high oxygen concentrations leads to the formation of a preswollen surface gel layer that is approximately five times thicker (t ≈ 50 μm) and four times less concentrated (≈ 6% monomer conversion) at the surface prior to swelling compared to low oxygen environments (t ≈ 10 μm, ≈ 20% monomer conversion). Our model could be readily modified to predict the preswollen concentration profile of the polyacrylamide gel surface layer for any reaction conditions─monomer and initiator concentration, oxygen concentration, reaction time, and reaction media depth─or used to select conditions that correspond to a certain desired surface gel layer profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison
L. Chau
- Materials
Department, University of California, Santa
Barbara, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Materials
Research Laboratory, University of California,
Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Chelsea E. R. Edwards
- Materials
Research Laboratory, University of California,
Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of California,
Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Matthew E. Helgeson
- Materials
Research Laboratory, University of California,
Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of California,
Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Angela A. Pitenis
- Materials
Department, University of California, Santa
Barbara, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Materials
Research Laboratory, University of California,
Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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11
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Hakim Khalili M, Zhang R, Wilson S, Goel S, Impey SA, Aria AI. Additive Manufacturing and Physicomechanical Characteristics of PEGDA Hydrogels: Recent Advances and Perspective for Tissue Engineering. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15102341. [PMID: 37242919 DOI: 10.3390/polym15102341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In this brief review, we discuss the recent advancements in using poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) hydrogels for tissue engineering applications. PEGDA hydrogels are highly attractive in biomedical and biotechnology fields due to their soft and hydrated properties that can replicate living tissues. These hydrogels can be manipulated using light, heat, and cross-linkers to achieve desirable functionalities. Unlike previous reviews that focused solely on material design and fabrication of bioactive hydrogels and their cell viability and interactions with the extracellular matrix (ECM), we compare the traditional bulk photo-crosslinking method with the latest three-dimensional (3D) printing of PEGDA hydrogels. We present detailed evidence combining the physical, chemical, bulk, and localized mechanical characteristics, including their composition, fabrication methods, experimental conditions, and reported mechanical properties of bulk and 3D printed PEGDA hydrogels. Furthermore, we highlight the current state of biomedical applications of 3D PEGDA hydrogels in tissue engineering and organ-on-chip devices over the last 20 years. Finally, we delve into the current obstacles and future possibilities in the field of engineering 3D layer-by-layer (LbL) PEGDA hydrogels for tissue engineering and organ-on-chip devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Hakim Khalili
- Surface Engineering and Precision Centre, School of Aerospace, Transport and Manufacturing, Cranfield University, Bedford MK43 0AL, UK
| | - Rujing Zhang
- Sophion Bioscience A/S, Baltorpvej 154, 2750 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sandra Wilson
- Sophion Bioscience A/S, Baltorpvej 154, 2750 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Saurav Goel
- School of Engineering, London South Bank University, 103 Borough Road, London SE1 0AA, UK
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun 248007, India
| | - Susan A Impey
- Surface Engineering and Precision Centre, School of Aerospace, Transport and Manufacturing, Cranfield University, Bedford MK43 0AL, UK
| | - Adrianus Indrat Aria
- Surface Engineering and Precision Centre, School of Aerospace, Transport and Manufacturing, Cranfield University, Bedford MK43 0AL, UK
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12
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Shannon DP, Moon JD, Barney CW, Sinha NJ, Yang KC, Jones SD, Garcia RV, Helgeson ME, Segalman RA, Valentine MT, Hawker CJ. Modular Synthesis and Patterning of High-Stiffness Networks by Postpolymerization Functionalization with Iron–Catechol Complexes. Macromolecules 2023; 56:2268-2276. [PMID: 37013083 PMCID: PMC10064740 DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c02561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
Abstract
Bioinspired iron-catechol cross-links have shown remarkable success in increasing the mechanical properties of polymer networks, in part due to clustering of Fe3+-catechol domains which act as secondary network reinforcing sites. We report a versatile synthetic procedure to prepare modular PEG-acrylate networks with independently tunable covalent bis(acrylate) and supramolecular Fe3+-catechol cross-linking. Initial control of network structure is achieved through radical polymerization and cross-linking, followed by postpolymerization incorporation of catechol units via quantitative active ester chemistry and subsequent complexation with iron salts. By tuning the ratio of each building block, dual cross-linked networks reinforced by clustered iron-catechol domains are prepared and exhibit a wide range of properties (Young's moduli up to ∼245 MPa), well beyond the values achieved through purely covalent cross-linking. This stepwise approach to mixed covalent and metal-ligand cross-linked networks also permits local patterning of PEG-based films through masking techniques forming distinct hard, soft, and gradient regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Declan P. Shannon
- Materials Department, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5050, United States
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5121, United States
| | - Joshua D. Moon
- Materials Department, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5050, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5080, United States
| | - Christopher W. Barney
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5080, United States
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5070, United States
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5121, United States
| | - Nairiti J. Sinha
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5080, United States
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5121, United States
| | - Kai-Chieh Yang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5080, United States
| | - Seamus D. Jones
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5080, United States
| | - Ronnie V. Garcia
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-9510, United States
| | - Matthew E. Helgeson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5080, United States
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5121, United States
| | - Rachel A. Segalman
- Materials Department, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5050, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5080, United States
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-9510, United States
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5121, United States
| | - Megan T. Valentine
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5070, United States
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5121, United States
| | - Craig J. Hawker
- Materials Department, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5050, United States
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-9510, United States
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5121, United States
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13
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Li Z, Yong H, Wang K, Zhou YN, Lyu J, Liang L, Zhou D. (Controlled) Free radical (co)polymerization of multivinyl monomers: strategies, topological structures and biomedical applications. Chem Commun (Camb) 2023; 59:4142-4157. [PMID: 36919482 DOI: 10.1039/d3cc00250k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/10/2023]
Abstract
Free radical (co)polymerization (FRP/FRcP) of multivinyl monomers (MVMs) has emerged as a powerful strategy for the synthesis of chemically and topologically complex polymers due to its unique reaction kinetics, which enables the preparation of polymers with multiple functional groups and novel macromolecular structures. However, conventional FRP/FRcP of MVMs inevitably leads to insoluble crosslinked materials. Therefore, the development of advanced strategies for the controlled polymerization of MVMs is essential for the preparation of chemically and topologically complex polymers. In this review, we introduce the gelation mechanism of conventional FRP of MVMs and present the strategies of controlled polymerization of MVMs for the preparation of chemically and topologically complex polymers. We also discuss polymers with unique topologies synthesized by controlled polymerization of MVMs, such as crosslinked networks, (hyper)branched, star, cyclic, and single-chain cyclized/knotted structures. Finally, biomedical applications of various advanced polymeric materials prepared by controlled polymerization of MVMs are highlighted and the challenges is this field are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhili Li
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China.
| | - Haiyang Yong
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China.
| | - Kaixuan Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China.
| | - Ya-Nan Zhou
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China.
| | - Jing Lyu
- Charles Institute of Dermatology, School of Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Lirong Liang
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Beijing Institute of Respiratory Medicine and Beijing Chao Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100020, China.
| | - Dezhong Zhou
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China.
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14
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Hotton C, Ducouret G, Sirieix-Plénet J, Bizien T, Porcar L, Malikova N. Tuning Structure and Rheological Properties of Polyelectrolyte-Based Hydrogels through Counterion-Specific Effects. Macromolecules 2023. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c01565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Claire Hotton
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Electrolytes and Interfacial Nanosystems (PHENIX), Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005Paris, France
| | - Guylaine Ducouret
- Laboratory of Soft Matter Sciences and Engineering (SIMM), ESPCI Paris, PSL Research University, CNRS, F-75005Paris, France
| | - Juliette Sirieix-Plénet
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Electrolytes and Interfacial Nanosystems (PHENIX), Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005Paris, France
| | - Thomas Bizien
- Synchrotron SOLEIL, l’Orme des Merisiers, Saint-Aubin - BP 48, 91192Gif-sur-Yvette, CEDEX, France
| | - Lionel Porcar
- Large Scale Structures, Institut Laue Langevin, GrenobleF-38042, France
| | - Natalie Malikova
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Electrolytes and Interfacial Nanosystems (PHENIX), Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005Paris, France
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15
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Eddine MA, Belbekhouche S, de Chateauneuf-Randon S, Salez T, Kovalenko A, Bresson B, Monteux C. Large and Nonlinear Permeability Amplification with Polymeric Additives in Hydrogel Membranes. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c01462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Malak Alaa Eddine
- Laboratoire Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, 10 rue Vauquelin, Cedex05 75231Paris, France
- CNRS, Institut Chimie et Matériaux Paris Est, Université Paris Est Créteil, UMR 7182, 2 Rue Henri Dunant, 94320Thiais, France
| | - Sabrina Belbekhouche
- CNRS, Institut Chimie et Matériaux Paris Est, Université Paris Est Créteil, UMR 7182, 2 Rue Henri Dunant, 94320Thiais, France
| | | | - Thomas Salez
- CNRS, Univ. Bordeaux, LOMA, UMR 5798, F-33400Talence, France
| | - Artem Kovalenko
- Laboratoire Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, 10 rue Vauquelin, Cedex05 75231Paris, France
| | - Bruno Bresson
- Laboratoire Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, 10 rue Vauquelin, Cedex05 75231Paris, France
| | - Cécile Monteux
- Laboratoire Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, 10 rue Vauquelin, Cedex05 75231Paris, France
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16
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Barney CW, Valentine MT, Helgeson ME. Strength of fluid-filled soft composites across the elastofracture length. SOFT MATTER 2022; 18:4897-4904. [PMID: 35722727 DOI: 10.1039/d2sm00177b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Materials that utilize heterogeneous microstructures to control macroscopic mechanical response are ubiquitous in nature. Yet, translating nature's lessons to create synthetic soft solids has remained challenging. This is largely due to the limited synthetic routes available for creating soft composites, particularly with submicron features, as well as uncertainty surrounding the role of such a microstructured secondary phase in determining material behavior. This work leverages recent advances in the development of photocrosslinkable thermogelling nanoemulsions to produce composite hydrogels with a secondary phase assembled at well controlled length scales ranging from tens of nm to tens of μm. Through analysis of the mechanical response of these fluid-filled composite hydrogels, it is found that the size scale of the secondary phase has a profound impact on the strength when at or above the elastofracture length. Moreover, this work shows that mechanical integrity of fluid-filled soft solids can be sensitive to the size scale of the secondary phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher W Barney
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
| | - Megan T Valentine
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
| | - Matthew E Helgeson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
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17
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Bailey SJ, Barney CW, Sinha NJ, Pangali SV, Hawker CJ, Helgeson ME, Valentine MT, Read de Alaniz J. Rational mechanochemical design of Diels-Alder crosslinked biocompatible hydrogels with enhanced properties. MATERIALS HORIZONS 2022; 9:1947-1953. [PMID: 35575385 DOI: 10.1039/d2mh00338d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
An important but often overlooked feature of Diels-Alder (DA) cycloadditions is the ability for DA adducts to undergo mechanically induced cycloreversion when placed under force. Herein, we demonstrate that the commonly employed DA cycloaddition between furan and maleimide to crosslink hydrogels results in slow gelation kinetics and "mechanolabile" crosslinks that relate to reduced material strength. Through rational computational design, "mechanoresistant" DA adducts were identified by constrained geometries simulate external force models and employed to enhance failure strength of crosslinked hydrogels. Additionally, utilization of a cyclopentadiene derivative, spiro[2.4]hepta-4,6-diene, provided mechanoresistant DA adducts and rapid gelation in minutes at room temperature. This study illustrates that strategic molecular-level design of DA crosslinks can provide biocompatible materials with improved processing, mechanical durability, lifetime, and utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia J Bailey
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
| | - Christopher W Barney
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Nairiti J Sinha
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Sai Venkatesh Pangali
- Center for Structural Molecular Biology, Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Craig J Hawker
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Materials Department, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Matthew E Helgeson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Megan T Valentine
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Javier Read de Alaniz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
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18
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Bayles AV, Pleij T, Hofmann M, Hauf F, Tervoort T, Vermant J. Structuring Hydrogel Cross-Link Density Using Hierarchical Filament 3D Printing. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:15667-15677. [PMID: 35347981 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c02069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Polymer hydrogels, water-laden 3D cross-linked networks, find broad application as advanced biomaterials and functional materials because of their biocompatibility, stimuli responsiveness, and affordability. The cross-linking density reports material properties such as elasticity, permeability, and swelling propensity. However, this critical design parameter can be challenging to template locally. Here, we report a continuous processing scheme that uses laminar flow to direct the organization of cross-linking density across a single sample. Dilute and concentrated poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate solutions are fed into custom serpentine millifluidic devices. These feature a modular sequence of splitting, rotation, and recombination elements, which create patterned streamlines that serve as a template for hierarchical concentration distributions. Poly(acrylic acid) microgels impart viscoplasticity, which stabilizes layered flow during multiplication and ensures reliable advection. The devices produce structured, seamless filaments, which are then arranged into objects using 3D printing, and photopolymerized to secure the heterogeneous distribution. The flow-encoded, multiscale architecture provides mechanical contrast, which is demonstratively exploited to program robust and reversible shape transformations, potentially useful in soft actuator and sensor applications. The unique structures achieved, and the geometrically dictated, chemistry-agnostic operating principles used to achieve them, provides a new means to engineer hydrogels to suit a variety of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra V Bayles
- Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland 8093
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Tazio Pleij
- Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland 8093
| | - Martin Hofmann
- Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland 8093
| | - Fabian Hauf
- Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland 8093
| | - Theo Tervoort
- Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland 8093
| | - Jan Vermant
- Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland 8093
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19
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Davenport MN, Bentley CL, Brennecke JF, Freeman BD. Ethylene and ethane transport properties of hydrogen-stable Ag+-based facilitated transport membranes. J Memb Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2022.120300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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20
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Abrego CJG, Dedroog L, Deschaume O, Wellens J, Vananroye A, Lettinga MP, Patterson J, Bartic C. Multiscale Characterization of the Mechanical Properties of Fibrin and Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering Applications. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.202100366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Jose Garcia Abrego
- Department of Physics and Astronomy Soft Matter and Biophysics Unit KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200D‐ box 2416, 3001 Leuven Belgium
- Department of Materials Engineering KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 44 ‐ box 2430, 3001 Leuven Belgium
| | - Lens Dedroog
- Department of Physics and Astronomy Soft Matter and Biophysics Unit KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200D‐ box 2416, 3001 Leuven Belgium
| | - Olivier Deschaume
- Department of Physics and Astronomy Soft Matter and Biophysics Unit KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200D‐ box 2416, 3001 Leuven Belgium
| | - Jolan Wellens
- Department of Physics and Astronomy Soft Matter and Biophysics Unit KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200D‐ box 2416, 3001 Leuven Belgium
| | - Anja Vananroye
- Department of Chemical Engineering Soft Matter, Rheology and Technology Division KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200J‐ box 2424, 3001 Leuven Belgium
| | - Minne Paul Lettinga
- Department of Physics and Astronomy Soft Matter and Biophysics Unit KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200D‐ box 2416, 3001 Leuven Belgium
| | - Jennifer Patterson
- Biomaterials and Regenerative Medicine Group, IMDEA Materials Institute C/Eric Kandel, 2 Getafe Madrid 28906 Spain
| | - Carmen Bartic
- Department of Physics and Astronomy Soft Matter and Biophysics Unit KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200D‐ box 2416, 3001 Leuven Belgium
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21
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Ajith C, Deshpande AP, Varughese S. Effect of crosslink-induced heterogeneities on the transport and deformation behavior of hydrophilic ionic polymer membranes. Polym J 2021. [DOI: 10.1038/s41428-021-00546-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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22
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Cavitation controls droplet sizes in elastic media. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2102014118. [PMID: 34588303 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2102014118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological cells use droplets to separate components and spatially control their interior. Experiments demonstrate that the complex, crowded cellular environment affects the droplet arrangement and their sizes. To understand this behavior, we here construct a theoretical description of droplets growing in an elastic matrix, which is motivated by experiments in synthetic systems where monodisperse emulsions form during a temperature decrease. We show that large droplets only form when they break the surrounding matrix in a cavitation event. The energy barrier associated with cavitation stabilizes small droplets on the order of the mesh size and diminishes the stochastic effects of nucleation. Consequently, the cavitated droplets have similar sizes and highly correlated positions. In particular, we predict the density of cavitated droplets, which increases with faster cooling, as in the experiments. Our model also suggests how adjusting the cooling protocol and the density of nucleation sites affects the droplet size distribution. In summary, our theory explains how elastic matrices affect droplets in the synthetic system, and it provides a framework for understanding the biological case.
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23
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Lian WZ, Fan ZW, Cui K, Yin P, Yang J, Jiang H, Tang L, Sun T. Tough Hydrogels with Dynamic H-Bonds: Structural Heterogeneities and Mechanical Performances. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c01064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhen Lian
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Zhi Wei Fan
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Kunpeng Cui
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Design and Discovery (WPI-ICReDD), Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Panchao Yin
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Junsheng Yang
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Han Jiang
- Applied Mechanics and Structure Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, School of Mechanics and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China
| | - Liqun Tang
- School of Civil Engineering and Transportation, South China University of Technology, No.381, Wushan Road, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Taolin Sun
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
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24
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Zhao X, Chen X, Yuk H, Lin S, Liu X, Parada G. Soft Materials by Design: Unconventional Polymer Networks Give Extreme Properties. Chem Rev 2021; 121:4309-4372. [PMID: 33844906 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c01088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 308] [Impact Index Per Article: 102.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogels are polymer networks infiltrated with water. Many biological hydrogels in animal bodies such as muscles, heart valves, cartilages, and tendons possess extreme mechanical properties including being extremely tough, strong, resilient, adhesive, and fatigue-resistant. These mechanical properties are also critical for hydrogels' diverse applications ranging from drug delivery, tissue engineering, medical implants, wound dressings, and contact lenses to sensors, actuators, electronic devices, optical devices, batteries, water harvesters, and soft robots. Whereas numerous hydrogels have been developed over the last few decades, a set of general principles that can rationally guide the design of hydrogels using different materials and fabrication methods for various applications remain a central need in the field of soft materials. This review is aimed at synergistically reporting: (i) general design principles for hydrogels to achieve extreme mechanical and physical properties, (ii) implementation strategies for the design principles using unconventional polymer networks, and (iii) future directions for the orthogonal design of hydrogels to achieve multiple combined mechanical, physical, chemical, and biological properties. Because these design principles and implementation strategies are based on generic polymer networks, they are also applicable to other soft materials including elastomers and organogels. Overall, the review will not only provide comprehensive and systematic guidelines on the rational design of soft materials, but also provoke interdisciplinary discussions on a fundamental question: why does nature select soft materials with unconventional polymer networks to constitute the major parts of animal bodies?
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuanhe Zhao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States.,Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Xiaoyu Chen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Hyunwoo Yuk
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Shaoting Lin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Xinyue Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - German Parada
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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25
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Song J, Rizvi MH, Lynch BB, Ilavsky J, Mankus D, Tracy JB, McKinley GH, Holten-Andersen N. Programmable Anisotropy and Percolation in Supramolecular Patchy Particle Gels. ACS NANO 2020; 14:17018-17027. [PMID: 33289544 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c06389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Patchy particle interactions are predicted to facilitate the controlled self-assembly and arrest of particles into phase-stable and morphologically tunable "equilibrium" gels, which avoids the arrested phase separation and subsequent aging that is typically observed in traditional particle gels with isotropic interactions. Despite these promising traits of patchy particle interactions, such tunable equilibrium gels have yet to be realized in the laboratory due to experimental limitations associated with synthesizing patchy particles in high yield. Here, we introduce a supramolecular metal-coordination platform consisting of metallic nanoparticles linked by telechelic polymer chains, which validates the predictions associated with patchy particle interactions and facilitates the design of equilibrium particle hydrogels through limited valency interactions. We demonstrate that the interaction valency and self-assembly of the particles can be effectively controlled by adjusting the relative concentration of polymeric linkers to nanoparticles, which enables the gelation of patchy particle hydrogels with programmable local anisotropy, morphology, and low mechanical percolation thresholds. Moreover, by crowding the local environment around the patchy particles with competing interactions, we introduce an independent method to control the self-assembly of the nanoparticles, thereby enabling the design of highly anisotropic particle hydrogels with substantially reduced percolation thresholds. We thus establish a canonical platform that facilitates multifaceted control of the self-assembly of the patchy nanoparticles en route to the design of patchy particle gels with tunable valencies, morphologies, and percolation thresholds. These advances lay important foundations for further fundamental studies of patchy particle systems and for designing tunable gel materials that address a wide range of engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mehedi H Rizvi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Brian B Lynch
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Jan Ilavsky
- X-ray Science Division at the Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | | | - Joseph B Tracy
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
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Habibi N, Christau S, Ochyl LJ, Fan Z, Hassani Najafabadi A, Kuehnhammer M, Zhang M, Helgeson M, Klitzing R, Moon JJ, Lahann J. Engineered Ovalbumin Nanoparticles for Cancer Immunotherapy. ADVANCED THERAPEUTICS 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/adtp.202000100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nahal Habibi
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
- Biointerfaces Institute University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Stephanie Christau
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
- Biointerfaces Institute University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Lukasz J. Ochyl
- Biointerfaces Institute University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Zixing Fan
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Alireza Hassani Najafabadi
- Biointerfaces Institute University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | | | - Mengwen Zhang
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of California Santa Barbara Santa Barbara CA 93106 USA
| | - Matthew Helgeson
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of California Santa Barbara Santa Barbara CA 93106 USA
| | - Regine Klitzing
- Department of Physics Technische Universitaet Darmstadt Darmstadt 64289 Germany
| | - James J. Moon
- Biointerfaces Institute University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Joerg Lahann
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
- Biointerfaces Institute University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
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27
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Ahmadi M, Löser L, Fischer K, Saalwächter K, Seiffert S. Connectivity Defects and Collective Assemblies in Model Metallo‐Supramolecular Dual‐Network Hydrogels. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.201900400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa Ahmadi
- Department of Polymer Engineering and Color Technology Amirkabir University of Technology Tehran Iran
- Institute of Physical Chemistry Johannes Gutenberg‐Universität Mainz Duesbergweg 10‐14 D‐55128 Mainz Germany
| | - Lucas Löser
- Institut für Physik‐NMR Martin‐Luther‐Universität Halle‐Wittenberg Betty‐Heimann‐Str. 7 D‐06120 Halle Germany
| | - Karl Fischer
- Institute of Physical Chemistry Johannes Gutenberg‐Universität Mainz Duesbergweg 10‐14 D‐55128 Mainz Germany
| | - Kay Saalwächter
- Institut für Physik‐NMR Martin‐Luther‐Universität Halle‐Wittenberg Betty‐Heimann‐Str. 7 D‐06120 Halle Germany
| | - Sebastian Seiffert
- Institute of Physical Chemistry Johannes Gutenberg‐Universität Mainz Duesbergweg 10‐14 D‐55128 Mainz Germany
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28
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Stillman ZS, Jarai BM, Raman N, Patel P, Fromen CA. Degradation Profiles of Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA)-based hydrogel nanoparticles. Polym Chem 2019; 11:568-580. [PMID: 33224282 DOI: 10.1039/c9py01206k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogel nanoparticles (also known as nanogels) have been utilized for a wide range of applications including analytics, sensors, drug delivery, immune engineering, and biotechnology. While these types of nanoparticles can be characterized using standard colloidal characterization techniques, degradation profiles typically must be inferred from those of bulk gels with the same formulation, typically by applying swelling ratios and rheological measurements that tend to severely underestimate nanoparticle degradation rates. Herein, we present an analysis of the degradation via ester hydrolysis of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA)-based hydrogel nanoparticles in water, varied pH conditions, and redox environments. We perform this characterization using thermogravimetric analysis and mass spectrometry to analyze rates of degradation and products released, respectively, and compare results to those for equivalent bulk gel formulations. Our findings show that PEGDA-based nanoparticles display significant mass loss over time accompanied by negligible changes in hydrodynamic diameter, indicating a bulk mode of degradation. Nanoparticle mass loss occurs at a much higher rate than for bulk gels under comparable incubation conditions, confirming that bulk gel degradation serves as a poor surrogate for nanoparticle degradation. We further demonstrate that the incorporation of other diacrylate-based co-monomers drastically accelerates nanoparticle degradation rates. Through formulation considerations of co-monomer content and weight percent of PEGDA, we demonstrate the ability to tune the degradation rates of PEGDA-based nanoparticles on a range of hours to weeks. These findings highlight critical design considerations for enhancing the tunability and utility of PEGDA hydrogel nanoparticles and introduce a rigorous framework for the characterization of nanogel degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary S Stillman
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware
| | - Bader M Jarai
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware
| | - Nisha Raman
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware
| | - Premal Patel
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware
| | - Catherine A Fromen
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware
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29
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Portone A, Sciancalepore AG, Melle G, Netti GS, Greco G, Persano L, Gesualdo L, Pisignano D. Quasi-3D morphology and modulation of focal adhesions of human adult stem cells through combinatorial concave elastomeric surfaces with varied stiffness. SOFT MATTER 2019; 15:5154-5162. [PMID: 31192342 DOI: 10.1039/c9sm00481e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In vivo cell niches are complex architectures that provide a wide range of biochemical and mechanical stimuli to control cell behavior and fate. With the aim to provide in vitro microenvironments mimicking physiological niches, microstructured substrates have been exploited to support cell adhesion and to control cell shape as well as three dimensional morphology. At variance with previous methods, we propose a simple and rapid protein subtractive soft lithographic method to obtain microstructured polydimethylsiloxane substrates for studying stem cell adhesion and growth. The shape of adult renal stem cells and nuclei is found to depend predominantly on micropatterning of elastomeric surfaces and only weakly on the substrate mechanical properties. Differently, focal adhesions in their shape and density but not in their alignment mainly depend on the elastomer stiffness almost regardless of microscale topography. Local surface topography with concave microgeometry enhancing adhesion drives stem cells in a quasi-three dimensional configuration where stiffness might significantly steer mechanosensing as highlighted by focal adhesion properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Portone
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza S. Silvestro 12, I-56127 Pisa, Italy.
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30
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Suljovrujic E, Miladinovic ZR, Micic M, Suljovrujic D, Milicevic D. The influence of monomer/solvent feed ratio on POEGDMA thermoresponsive hydrogels: Radiation-induced synthesis, swelling properties and VPTT. Radiat Phys Chem Oxf Engl 1993 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2018.12.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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31
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Turani-I-Belloto A, Meunier N, Lopez P, Leng J. Diffusion-limited dissolution of calcium carbonate in a hydrogel. SOFT MATTER 2019; 15:2942-2949. [PMID: 30758371 DOI: 10.1039/c8sm02625d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In the process of fabricating porous polymers, we use dispersed calcite as a sacrificial solid that generates porosity after dissolution. To do this, we trap calcite particles in a hydrogel, dissolve the particles and dry the hydrogel; here, we describe in detail the dissolution kinetics. We prepare PEGDA [poly(ethylene glycol)-diacrylate] water solutions loaded with micron-sized calcite particles (containing mostly calcium carbonate) up to about 30% volume fraction; these dispersions are photo-polymerized into hydrogels as flat and shallow monoliths with a typical thickness of ≈100 μm and a lateral extent on the order of 1 cm. These soft hydrogels are then soaked into an acidic solution (HCl) which induces the dissolution of the carbonates. The dissolution fronts remain sharp throughout the dissolution and progress inward in a diffusive manner. Such a kinetics is well described numerically using a mean-field diffusion-reaction model where the diffusion of the acid strongly limits the process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Turani-I-Belloto
- University of Bordeaux, Laboratory of the Future (CNRS/SOLVAY), 178, avenue du Docteur Schweitzer, 33600 Pessac, France.
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32
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Ricarte RG, Tournilhac F, Leibler L. Phase Separation and Self-Assembly in Vitrimers: Hierarchical Morphology of Molten and Semicrystalline Polyethylene/Dioxaborolane Maleimide Systems. Macromolecules 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.8b02144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ralm G. Ricarte
- Matière Molle et Chimie, ESPCI Paris, CNRS, PSL University, 75005 Paris, France
| | - François Tournilhac
- Matière Molle et Chimie, ESPCI Paris, CNRS, PSL University, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Ludwik Leibler
- Gulliver, ESPCI Paris, PSL University, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France
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33
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Tuning Bulk Hydrogel Degradation by Simultaneous Control of Proteolytic Cleavage Kinetics and Hydrogel Network Architecture. ACS Macro Lett 2018; 7:1302-1307. [PMID: 32523799 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.8b00664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Degradation of three-dimensional hydrogels is known to regulate many cellular behaviors. Accordingly, several elegant approaches have been used to render hydrogels degradable by cell-secreted proteases. However, existing hydrogel systems are limited in their ability to simultaneously and quantitatively tune two aspects of hydrogel degradability: cleavage rate (the rate at which individual chemical bonds are cleaved) and degraded hydrogel architecture (the network structure during degradation). Using standard peptide engineering approaches, we alter the proteolytic kinetics of the polymer cleavage rate to tune gel degradation time from less than 12 h to greater than 9 days. Independently, we vary the cross-linker functionality to achieve network architectures that initially have identical molecular weight between cross-links but upon degradation are designed to release between 5% and 100% of the polymer. Confirming the biological relevance of both parameters, formation of vascular-like structures by endothelial cells is regulated both by bond cleavage rate and by degraded hydrogel architecture. This strategy to fine-tune different aspects of hydrogel degradability has applications in cell culture, regenerative medicine, and drug delivery.
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Ford HO, Merrill LC, He P, Upadhyay SP, Schaefer JL. Cross-Linked Ionomer Gel Separators for Polysulfide Shuttle Mitigation in Magnesium–Sulfur Batteries: Elucidation of Structure–Property Relationships. Macromolecules 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.8b01717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hunter O. Ford
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Laura C. Merrill
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Peng He
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Sunil P. Upadhyay
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Jennifer L. Schaefer
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
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35
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Majer G, Southan A. Adenosine triphosphate diffusion through poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate hydrogels can be tuned by cross-link density as measured by PFG-NMR. J Chem Phys 2018; 146:225101. [PMID: 29166037 DOI: 10.1063/1.4984979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The diffusion of small molecules through hydrogels is of great importance for many applications. Especially in biological contexts, the diffusion of nutrients through hydrogel networks defines whether cells can survive inside the hydrogel or not. In this contribution, hydrogels based on poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate with mesh sizes ranging from ξ = 1.1 to 12.9 nm are prepared using polymers with number-average molecular weights between Mn = 700 and 8000 g/mol. Precise measurements of diffusion coefficients D of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), an important energy carrier in biological systems, in these hydrogels are performed by pulsed field gradient nuclear magnetic resonance. Depending on the mesh size, ξ, and on the polymer volume fraction of the hydrogel after swelling, ϕ, it is possible to tune the relative ATP diffusion coefficient D/D0 in the hydrogels to values between 0.14 and 0.77 compared to the ATP diffusion coefficient D0 in water. The diffusion coefficients of ATP in these hydrogels are compared with predictions of various mathematical expressions developed under different model assumptions. The experimental data are found to be in good agreement with the predictions of a modified obstruction model or the free volume theory in combination with the sieving behavior of the polymer chains. No reasonable agreement was found with the pure hydrodynamic model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Günter Majer
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstr. 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Alexander Southan
- Institute of Interfacial Process Engineering and Plasma Technology IGVP, University of Stuttgart, Nobelstr. 12, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
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36
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Rattan S, Li L, Lau HK, Crosby AJ, Kiick KL. Micromechanical characterization of soft, biopolymeric hydrogels: stiffness, resilience, and failure. SOFT MATTER 2018; 14:3478-3489. [PMID: 29700541 DOI: 10.1039/c8sm00501j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Detailed understanding of the local structure-property relationships in soft biopolymeric hydrogels can be instrumental for applications in regenerative tissue engineering. Resilin-like polypeptide (RLP) hydrogels have been previously demonstrated as useful biomaterials with a unique combination of low elastic moduli, excellent resilience, and cell-adhesive properties. However, comprehensive mechanical characterization of RLP hydrogels under both low-strain and high-strain conditions has not yet been conducted, despite the unique information such measurements can provide about the local structure and macromolecular behavior underpinning mechanical properties. In this study, mechanical properties (elastic modulus, resilience, and fracture initiation toughness) of equilibrium swollen resilin-based hydrogels were characterized via oscillatory shear rheology, small-strain microindentation, and large-strain puncture tests as a function of polypeptide concentration. These methods allowed characterization, for the first time, of the resilience and failure in hydrogels with low polypeptide concentrations (<20 wt%), as the employed methods obviate the handling difficulties inherent in the characterization of such soft materials via standard mechanical techniques, allowing characterization without any special sample preparation and requiring minimal volumes (as low as 50 μL). Elastic moduli measured from small-strain microindentation showed good correlation with elastic storage moduli obtained from oscillatory shear rheology at a comparable applied strain rate, and evaluation of multiple loading-unloading cycles revealed decreased resilience values at lower hydrogel concentrations. In addition, large-strain indentation-to-failure (or puncture) tests were performed to measure large-strain mechanical response and fracture toughness on length scales similar to biological cells (∼10-50 μm) at various polypeptide concentrations, indicating very high fracture initiation toughness for high-concentration hydrogels. Our results establish the utility of employing microscale mechanical methods for the characterization of the local mechanical properties of biopolymeric hydrogels of low concentrations (<20 wt%), and show how the combination of small and large-strain measurements can provide unique insight into structure-property relationships for biopolymeric elastomers. Overall, this study provides new insight into the effects on local mechanical properties of polypeptide concentration near the overlap polymer concentration c* for resilin-based hydrogels, confirming their unique elastomeric features for applications in regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruti Rattan
- Polymer Science and Engineering Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 120 Governors Drive, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA.
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Impact of surface adhesion and sample heterogeneity on the multiscale mechanical characterisation of soft biomaterials. Sci Rep 2018; 8:6780. [PMID: 29712954 PMCID: PMC5928067 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-24671-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanical properties of soft materials used in the biomedical field play an important role on their performance. In the field of tissue engineering, it is known that cells sense the mechanical properties of their environment, however some materials, such as Sylard 184 PDMS (poly(dimethylsiloxane)), have failed to elicit such response. It was proposed that differences in the mechanical properties of such soft materials, at different scales, could account for these discrepancies. Indeed, the variation in the elastic moduli obtained for soft materials characterised at different scales can span several orders of magnitude. This called for a side-by-side comparison of the mechanical behaviour of soft materials at different scales. Here we use indentation, rheology and atomic force microscopy nanoidentation (using different tip geometries) to characterise the mechanical properties of PDMS, poly(acrylamide) (PAAm) and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) hydrogels at different length scales. Our results highlight the importance of surface adhesion and the resulting changes in contact area, and sample microstructural heterogeneity, in particular for the mechanical characterisation of ultra-soft substrates at the nano- to micro-scale.
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38
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Southan A, Lang T, Schweikert M, Tovar GEM, Wege C, Eiben S. Covalent incorporation of tobacco mosaic virus increases the stiffness of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate hydrogels. RSC Adv 2018; 8:4686-4694. [PMID: 35539563 PMCID: PMC9077753 DOI: 10.1039/c7ra10364f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydrogels are versatile materials, finding applications as adsorbers, supports for biosensors and biocatalysts or as scaffolds for tissue engineering. A frequently used building block for chemically cross-linked hydrogels is poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEG-DA). However, after curing, PEG-DA hydrogels cannot be functionalized easily. In this contribution, the stiff, rod-like tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is investigated as a functional additive to PEG-DA hydrogels. TMV consists of more than 2000 identical coat proteins and can therefore present more than 2000 functional sites per TMV available for coupling, and thus has been used as a template or building block for nano-scaled hybrid materials for many years. Here, PEG-DA (M n = 700 g mol-1) hydrogels are combined with a thiol-group presenting TMV mutant (TMVCys). By covalent coupling of TMVCys into the hydrogel matrix via the thiol-Michael reaction, the storage modulus of the hydrogels is increased compared to pure PEG-DA hydrogels and to hydrogels containing wildtype TMV (wt-TMV) which is not coupled covalently into the hydrogel matrix. In contrast, the swelling behaviour of the hydrogels is not altered by TMVCys or wt-TMV. Transmission electron microscopy reveals that the TMV particles are well dispersed in the hydrogels without any large aggregates. These findings give rise to the conclusion that well-defined hydrogels were obtained which offer the possibility to use the incorporated TMV as multivalent carrier templates e.g. for enzymes in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Southan
- Institute of Interfacial Process Engineering and Plasma Technology IGVP, University of Stuttgart Nobelstr. 12 70569 Stuttgart Germany +49 711 68568162
| | - T Lang
- Institute of Interfacial Process Engineering and Plasma Technology IGVP, University of Stuttgart Nobelstr. 12 70569 Stuttgart Germany +49 711 68568162
| | - M Schweikert
- Department of Biobased Materials, Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart Pfaffenwaldring 57 70569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - G E M Tovar
- Institute of Interfacial Process Engineering and Plasma Technology IGVP, University of Stuttgart Nobelstr. 12 70569 Stuttgart Germany +49 711 68568162
- Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology IGB Nobelstr. 12 70569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - C Wege
- Department of Molecular Biology and Plant Virology, Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart Pfaffenwaldring 57 70569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - S Eiben
- Department of Molecular Biology and Plant Virology, Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart Pfaffenwaldring 57 70569 Stuttgart Germany
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39
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Zhang M, Corona PT, Ruocco N, Alvarez D, Malo de Molina P, Mitragotri S, Helgeson ME. Controlling Complex Nanoemulsion Morphology Using Asymmetric Cosurfactants for the Preparation of Polymer Nanocapsules. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2018; 34:978-990. [PMID: 29087721 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b02843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Complex nanoemulsions, comprising multiphase nanoscale droplets, hold considerable potential advantages as vehicles for encapsulation and delivery as well as templates for nanoparticle synthesis. Although methods exist to controllably produce complex emulsions on the microscale, very few methods exist to produce them on the nanoscale. Here, we examine a recently developed method involving a combination of high-energy emulsification with conventional cosurfactants to produce oil-water-oil (O/W/O) complex nanoemulsions. Specifically, we study in detail how the composition of conventional ethoxylated cosurfactants Span80 and Tween20 influences the morphology and structure of the resulting complex nanoemulsions in the water-cyclohexane system. Using a combination of small-angle neutron scattering and cryo-electron microscopy, we find that the cosurfactant composition controls the generation of complex droplet morphologies including core-shell and multicore-shell O/W/O nanodroplets, resulting in an effective state diagram for the selection of nanoemulsion morphology. Additionally, the cosurfactant composition can be used to control the thickness of the water shell contained within the complex nanodroplets. We hypothesize that this degree of control, despite the highly nonequilibrium nature of the nanoemulsions, is ultimately determined by a competition between the opposing spontaneous curvature of the two cosurfactants, which strongly influences the interfacial curvature of the nanodroplets as a result of their ultralow interfacial tension. This is supported by a correlation between cosurfactant compositions that produces complex nanoemulsions and those that produce homogeneous mixed micelles in equilibrium surfactant-cyclohexane solutions. Ultimately, we show that the formation of complex O/W/O nanoemulsions is weakly perturbed upon the addition of hydrophilic polymer precursors, facilitating their use as templates for the formation of polymer nanocapsules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengwen Zhang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Patrick T Corona
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Nino Ruocco
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - David Alvarez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Paula Malo de Molina
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Samir Mitragotri
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Matthew E Helgeson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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40
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41
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Zhang M, Nowak M, Malo de Molina P, Abramovitch M, Santizo K, Mitragotri S, Helgeson ME. Synthesis of Oil-Laden Poly(ethylene glycol) Diacrylate Hydrogel Nanocapsules from Double Nanoemulsions. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2017; 33:6116-6126. [PMID: 28605186 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b01162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Multiple emulsions have received great interest due to their ability to be used as templates for the production of multicompartment particles for a variety of applications. However, scaling these complex droplets to nanoscale dimensions has been a challenge due to limitations on their fabrication methods. Here, we report the development of oil-in-water-in-oil (O1/W/O2) double nanoemulsions via a two-step high-energy method and their use as templates for complex nanogels comprised of inner oil droplets encapsulated within a hydrogel matrix. Using a combination of characterization methods, we determine how the properties of the nanogels are controlled by the size, stability, internal morphology, and chemical composition of the nanoemulsion templates from which they are formed. This allows for identification of compositional and emulsification parameters that can be used to optimize the size and oil encapsulation efficiency of the nanogels. Our templating method produces oil-laden nanogels with high oil encapsulation efficiencies and average diameters of 200-300 nm. In addition, we demonstrate the versatility of the system by varying the types of inner oil, the hydrogel chemistry, the amount of inner oil, and the hydrogel network cross-link density. These nontoxic oil-laden nanogels have potential applications in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengwen Zhang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Maksymilian Nowak
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Paula Malo de Molina
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Michael Abramovitch
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Katherine Santizo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Samir Mitragotri
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Matthew E Helgeson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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Liang J, Shan G, Pan P. Double network hydrogels with highly enhanced toughness based on a modified first network. SOFT MATTER 2017; 13:4148-4158. [PMID: 28555697 DOI: 10.1039/c7sm00544j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
A novel double network (DN) hydrogel with highly enhanced toughness has been prepared using reversible addition-fragmentation transfer (RAFT)-modified poly(2-acrylamide-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid) (PAMPS) as the first network, and polyacrylamide (PAM) as the second network. The mechanical properties of the first-network-modified PAMPS/PAM DN hydrogels have been studied and the new DN hydrogel shows remarkably high fracture energy (3.3 MJ m-3) in tensile deformation, which is nearly 9 times larger than that of the unmodified PAMPS/PAM DN hydrogel. Synchrotron radiation small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) was used to study the microstructures of the first-network single network (SN) and DN hydrogels. It was demonstrated by the SAXS results that the introduction of the RAFT agent into the first network enlarges the size of the ordered cross-linked domains in the SN hydrogel. The large ordered domains are beneficial for entanglement and interpenetration between the first and the second networks to dissipate concentrated stress more efficiently, resulting in the enhanced toughness of the first-network-modified DN hydrogels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, 38 Zheda Road, Hangzhou 310027, China.
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Wang C, Wiener CG, Yang Y, Weiss RA, Vogt BD. Structural rearrangement and stiffening of hydrophobically modified supramolecular hydrogels during thermal annealing. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/polb.24360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chao Wang
- Department of Polymer Engineering; University of Akron; 250 S. Forge St. Akron Ohio 44325
| | - Clinton G. Wiener
- Department of Polymer Engineering; University of Akron; 250 S. Forge St. Akron Ohio 44325
| | - Yiming Yang
- Department of Polymer Engineering; University of Akron; 250 S. Forge St. Akron Ohio 44325
| | - R. A. Weiss
- Department of Polymer Engineering; University of Akron; 250 S. Forge St. Akron Ohio 44325
| | - Bryan D. Vogt
- Department of Polymer Engineering; University of Akron; 250 S. Forge St. Akron Ohio 44325
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Yin A, Yang J. Cross-Linking Dynamics of Cellulose Nanofibrils-Based Transient Network Hydrogels: A Study of pH Dependence. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.201600584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aishu Yin
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Lignocellulosic Chemistry; Beijing Forestry University; Beijing 100083 China
| | - Jun Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Lignocellulosic Chemistry; Beijing Forestry University; Beijing 100083 China
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46
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Abstract
Polymer-network gels often display nano- to microstructural inhomogeneity; this article reviews multiple types of origin of this structural feature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Seiffert
- Institute of Physical Chemistry
- Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz
- D-55128 Mainz
- Germany
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Malo de Molina P, Zhang M, Bayles AV, Helgeson ME. Oil-in-Water-in-Oil Multinanoemulsions for Templating Complex Nanoparticles. NANO LETTERS 2016; 16:7325-7332. [PMID: 27455402 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b02073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Complex nanoemulsions involving nanodroplets with a defined inner structure have great potential for encapsulation and templating applications. We report a method to form novel complex oil-in-water-in-oil nanoemulsions using a combination of high-energy processing with mixed nonionic surfactants that simultaneously achieve ultralow interfacial tension and frustrated curvature of the water-oil interface. The method produces multinanoemulsions possessing morphologies resembling water-swollen reverse vesicles with core-shell and multicore-shell morphologies of water in cyclohexane. A combination of macroscopic and microscopic characterization conclusively verifies and quantifies the complex morphologies, which vary systematically and reproducibly with water content for water volume fractions between 0.01 and 0.10. The complex morphologies are stable tens of hours, providing a route for their use as liquid templates for internally structured nanoparticles. As a demonstration, we test the complex nanoemulsions' ability to template complex polymer nanogels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Malo de Molina
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara , 3357 Engineering II, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Mengwen Zhang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara , 3357 Engineering II, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Alexandra V Bayles
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara , 3357 Engineering II, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Matthew E Helgeson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara , 3357 Engineering II, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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Wu B, Chassé W, Peters R, Brooijmans T, Dias AA, Heise A, Duxbury CJ, Kentgens APM, Brougham DF, Litvinov VM. Network Structure in Acrylate Systems: Effect of Junction Topology on Cross-Link Density and Macroscopic Gel Properties. Macromolecules 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b01070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bing Wu
- National
Institute for Cellular Biotechnology, School of Chemical Sciences, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland
- DSM Ahead Materials Sciences R&D, Urmonderbaan 22, 6167 RD Geleen, The Netherlands
- DSM Resolve, P.O. Box 18, 6160 MD Geleen, The Netherlands
| | - Walter Chassé
- Institute
for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University Nijmegen, Heyendaalsweg
135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ron Peters
- DSM Coating
Resins, Sluisweg 12, 5145
PE, Waalwijk, The Netherlands
- Analytical-Chemistry
Group, Van’t Hoff Institute for Molecular Science, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ton Brooijmans
- DSM Coating
Resins, Sluisweg 12, 5145
PE, Waalwijk, The Netherlands
| | - Aylvin A. Dias
- DSM Ahead Materials Sciences R&D, Urmonderbaan 22, 6167 RD Geleen, The Netherlands
| | - Andreas Heise
- School
of
Pharmacy, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, 123 St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | | | - Arno P. M. Kentgens
- Institute
for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University Nijmegen, Heyendaalsweg
135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Dermot F. Brougham
- School
of Chemistry, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Victor M. Litvinov
- Institute
for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University Nijmegen, Heyendaalsweg
135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- DSM Resolve, P.O. Box 18, 6160 MD Geleen, The Netherlands
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