1
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Alvebratt C, Karlén F, Åhlén M, Edueng K, Dubbelboer I, Bergström CAS. Benefits of combining supersaturating and solubilizing formulations - Is two better than one? Int J Pharm 2024:124437. [PMID: 39002818 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2024.124437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2024] [Revised: 07/03/2024] [Accepted: 07/04/2024] [Indexed: 07/15/2024]
Abstract
A variety of enabling formulations has been developed to address poor oral drug absorption caused by insufficient dissolution in the gastrointestinal tract. As the in vivo performance of these formulations is a result of a complex interplay between dissolution, digestion and permeation, development of suitable in vitro assays that captures these phenomena are called for. The enabling-absorption (ENA) device, consisting of a donor and receiver chamber separated by a semipermeable membrane, has successfully been used to study the performance of lipid-based formulations. In this work, the ENA device was prepared with two different setups (a Caco-2 cell monolayer and an artificial lipid membrane) to study the performance of a lipid-based formulation (LBF), an amorphous solid dispersion (ASD) and the potential benefit of combining the two formulation strategies. An in vivo pharmacokinetic study in rats was performed to evaluate the in vitro-in vivo correlation. In the ENA, high drug concentrations in the donor chamber did not translate to a high mass transfer, which was particularly evident for the ASD as compared to the LBF. The solubility of the polymer used in the ASD was strongly affected by pH-shifts in vitro, and as a result, the in vivo performance of the formulation was poor. The dissolution was however increased in vitro when the ASD was combined with a blank lipid-based formulation. This beneficial effect was also observed in vivo, where the drug exposure of the ASD increased significantly when the ASD was co-administered with the blank LBF. To conclude, the in vitro model managed to capture solubility limitations and strategies to overcome these for one of the formulations studied. The correlation between the in vivo exposure of the drug exposure and AUC in the ENA was good for the non pH-sensitive formulations. The deconvoluted pharmacokinetic data indicated that the receiver chamber was a better predictor for the in vivo performance of the drug, however both chambers provided valuable insights to observed outcome. This shows that the advanced in vitro setting used herein successfully could explain absorption differences of highly complex formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Alvebratt
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala Biomedical Centre, P.O. Box 580, Uppsala University, Uppsala SE-751 23, Sweden.
| | - Filip Karlén
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala Biomedical Centre, P.O. Box 580, Uppsala University, Uppsala SE-751 23, Sweden.
| | - Michelle Åhlén
- Division of Nanotechnology and Functional Materials, Department of Engineering Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala SE-75121, Sweden.
| | - Khadijah Edueng
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala Biomedical Centre, P.O. Box 580, Uppsala University, Uppsala SE-751 23, Sweden
| | - Ilse Dubbelboer
- The Swedish Drug Delivery Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala Biomedical Centre, P.O. Box 591, Uppsala University, Uppsala SE-751 24, Sweden.
| | - Christel A S Bergström
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala Biomedical Centre, P.O. Box 580, Uppsala University, Uppsala SE-751 23, Sweden; The Swedish Drug Delivery Center, Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala Biomedical Centre, P.O. Box 580, Uppsala University, Uppsala SE-751 23, Sweden.
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2
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Tanaka Y, Arai H, Hidaka A, Noda S, Imai K, Tsujisawa F, Yagi H, Sakuma S. In Vitro Digestion-In Situ Absorption Setup Employing a Physiologically Relevant Value of the Membrane Surface Area/Volume Ratio for Evaluating Performance of Lipid-Based Formulations: A Comparative Study with an In Vitro Digestion-Permeation Model. Mol Pharm 2024; 21:3459-3470. [PMID: 38809159 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.4c00161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
The aim of this study is to establish and test an in vitro digestion-in situ absorption model that can mimic in vivo drug flux by employing a physiologically relevant value of the membrane surface area (S)/volume (V) ratio for accurate prediction of oral drug absorption from lipid-based formulations (LBFs). Three different types of LBFs (Type IIIA-MC, Type IIIA-LC, and Type IV) loaded with cinnarizine (CNZ), a lipophilic weak base with borderline permeability, and a control suspension were prepared. Subsequently, a simultaneous in vitro digestion-permeation experiment was conducted using a side-by-side diffusion cell with a dialysis membrane having a low S/V value. During digestion, CNZ partially precipitated for Type IV, while it remained solubilized in the aqueous phase for Type IIIA-MC and Type IIIA-LC in the donor compartment. However, in vitro drug fluxes for Type IIIA-MC and Type IIIA-LC were lower than those for Type IV due to the reduced free fraction of CNZ in the donor compartment. In pharmacokinetic studies, a similar improvement in in vivo oral exposure relative to suspension was observed, regardless of the LBFs used. Consequently, a poor correlation was found between in vitro permeation and areas under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUCoral) (R2 = 0.087). A luminal concentration measurement study revealed that this discrepancy was attributed to the extremely high absorption rate of CNZ in the gastrointestinal tract compared to that across a dialysis membrane evaluated by the in vitro digestion-permeation model, i.e., the absorption of CNZ in vivo was completed regardless of the extent of the free fraction, owing to the rapid removal of CNZ from the intestine. Subsequently, we aimed to predict the oral absorption of CNZ from the same formulations using a model that demonstrated high drug flux by employing the physiologically relevant S/V value and rat jejunum segment as an absorption sink (for replicating in vivo intestinal permeability). Predigested formulations were injected into the rat intestinal loop, and AUCloop values were calculated from the plasma concentration-time profiles. A better correlation was found between AUCloop and AUCoral (R2 = 0.72), although AUCloop underestimated AUCoral for Type IV due to the precipitation of CNZ during the predigestion process. However, this result indicated the importance of mimicking the in vivo drug absorption rate in the predictive model. The method presented herein is valuable for the development of LBFs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Tanaka
- Laboratory of Drug Delivery System, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Setsunan University, 45-1 Nagaotoge-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-0101, Japan
| | - Hinata Arai
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hiroshima International University, 5-1-1 Hiro-koshingai, Kure, Hiroshima 737-0112, Japan
| | - Aya Hidaka
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hiroshima International University, 5-1-1 Hiro-koshingai, Kure, Hiroshima 737-0112, Japan
| | - Saki Noda
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hiroshima International University, 5-1-1 Hiro-koshingai, Kure, Hiroshima 737-0112, Japan
| | - Ko Imai
- Laboratory of Drug Delivery System, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Setsunan University, 45-1 Nagaotoge-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-0101, Japan
| | - Fumiya Tsujisawa
- Laboratory of Drug Delivery System, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Setsunan University, 45-1 Nagaotoge-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-0101, Japan
| | - Haruya Yagi
- Laboratory of Drug Delivery System, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Setsunan University, 45-1 Nagaotoge-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-0101, Japan
| | - Shinji Sakuma
- Laboratory of Drug Delivery System, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Setsunan University, 45-1 Nagaotoge-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-0101, Japan
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3
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Han R, He H, Lu Y, Lu H, Shen S, Wu W. Oral targeted drug delivery to post-gastrointestinal sites. J Control Release 2024; 370:256-276. [PMID: 38679163 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2024.04.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2024] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
As an essential branch of targeted drug delivery, oral targeted delivery is attracting growing attention in recent years. In addition to site-specific delivery for the treatment of locoregional diseases in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), oral targeted delivery to remote sites beyond the GIT emerges as a cutting-edge research topic. This review aims to provide an overview of the fundamental concepts and most recent advances in this field. Owing to the physiological barriers existing in the GIT, carrier systems should be transported across the enteric epithelia to target remote sites. Recently, pioneer investigations have validated the transport of intact micro- or nanocarriers across gastrointestinal barriers and subsequently to various distal organs and tissues. The microfold (M) cell pathway is the leading mechanism underlying the oral absorption of particulates, but the contribution of the transcellular and paracellular pathways should not be neglected either. In addition to well-acknowledged physicochemical and biological factors, the formation of a protein corona may also influence the biological fate of carrier systems. Although in an early stage of conceptualization, oral targeted delivery to remote diseases has demonstrated promising potential for the treatment of inflammation, tumors, and diseases inflicting the lymphatic and mononuclear phagocytosis systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongze Han
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery of MOE, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Haisheng He
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery of MOE, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yi Lu
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery of MOE, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China; Shanghai Skin Disease Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200443, China; Fudan Zhangjiang Institute, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Huiping Lu
- Pharmacy Department and Center for Medical Research and Innovation, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai 201399, China
| | - Shun Shen
- Pharmacy Department and Center for Medical Research and Innovation, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai 201399, China.
| | - Wei Wu
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery of MOE, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China; Pharmacy Department and Center for Medical Research and Innovation, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai 201399, China; Shanghai Skin Disease Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200443, China; Fudan Zhangjiang Institute, Shanghai 201203, China.
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4
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Schulzen A, Andreadis II, Bergström CAS, Quodbach J. Development and characterization of solid lipid-based formulations (sLBFs) of ritonavir utilizing a lipolysis and permeation assay. Eur J Pharm Sci 2024; 196:106732. [PMID: 38408708 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2024.106732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
As a high number of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) under development belong to BCS classes II and IV, the need for improving bioavailability is critical. A powerful approach is the use of lipid-based formulations (LBFs) that usually consist of a combination of liquid lipids, cosolvents, and surfactants. In this study, ritonavir loaded solid LBFs (sLBFs) were prepared using solid lipid excipients to investigate whether sLBFs are also capable of improving solubility and permeability. Additionally, the influence of polymeric precipitation inhibitors (PVP-VA and HPMC-AS) on lipolysis triggered supersaturation and precipitation was investigated. One step intestinal digestion and bicompartmental permeation studies using an artificial lecithin-in-dodecane (LiDo) membrane were performed for each formulation. All formulations presented significantly higher solubility (5 to >20-fold higher) during lipolysis and permeation studies compared to pure ritonavir. In the combined lipolysis-permeation studies, the formulated ritonavir concentration increased 15-fold in the donor compartment and the flux increased up to 71 % as compared to non-formulated ritonavir. The formulation with the highest surfactant concentration showed significantly higher ritonavir solubility compared to the formulation with the highest amount of lipids. However, the precipitation rates were comparable. The addition of precipitation inhibitors did not influence the lipolytic process and showed no significant benefit over the initial formulations with regards to precipitation. While all tested sLBFs increased the permeation rate, no statistically significant difference was noted between the formulations regardless of composition. To conclude, the different release profiles of the formulations were not correlated to the resulting flux through a permeation membrane, further supporting the importance of making use of combined lipolysis-permeation assays when exploring LBFs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arne Schulzen
- Institute of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, Heinrich Heine University, Universitätsstraße 1, DE-40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Ioannis I Andreadis
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 580, SE-751 23, Uppsala, Sweden; Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Christel A S Bergström
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 580, SE-751 23, Uppsala, Sweden; The Swedish Drug Delivery Center, Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 580, SE-751 23, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Julian Quodbach
- Institute of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, Heinrich Heine University, Universitätsstraße 1, DE-40225, Düsseldorf, Germany; Department of Pharmacy, Utrecht Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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5
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Sinko PD, Parker L, Prahl Wittberg L, Bergström CAS. Estimation of the concentration boundary layer adjacent to a flat surface using computational fluid dynamics. Int J Pharm 2024; 653:123870. [PMID: 38401511 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2024.123870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Revised: 01/28/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
Dissolution-permeation (D/P) experiments are widely used during preclinical development due to producing results with better predictability than traditional monophasic experiments. However, it is difficult to compare absorption across in vitro setups given the propensity to only report apparent permeability. We therefore developed an approach to predict the concentration boundary layer for any D/P device by using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The Navier-Stokes and continuity equation in 2D were solved numerically in MATLAB and by finite element methods in COMSOL v6.1 to predict the momentum [Formula: see text] and concentration ηg boundary layer for a flow over a flat plate, i.e. the classical Blasius boundary layer flow. A MATLAB algorithm was developed to calculate the edge of either boundary layer. The methodology to determine the concentration boundary layer based on Blasius's analysis provided an accurate estimate for both [Formula: see text] and ηg, resulting in, [Formula: see text] , at high Schmidt numbers (Sc ∼ 1000) within 14 % of the Blasius solution and 6.6 % of the accepted Schmidt number correlation ( [Formula: see text] ). The methodology based on the Blasius analysis of the concentration boundary layer using velocity and concentration profiles computed using CFD presented herein will enable characterization/analysis of complex D/P apparatuses used in preclinical development, where an analytical solution may not be available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick D Sinko
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala Biomedical Center, Uppsala University, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Louis Parker
- FLOW, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Royal Institute of Technology, KTH, Osquars Backe 18, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lisa Prahl Wittberg
- FLOW, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Royal Institute of Technology, KTH, Osquars Backe 18, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Christel A S Bergström
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala Biomedical Center, Uppsala University, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden.
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6
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Ejskjær L, O'Dwyer PJ, Ryan CD, Holm R, Kuentz M, Box KJ, Griffin BT. Developing an in vitro lipolysis model for real-time analysis of drug concentrations during digestion of lipid-based formulations. Eur J Pharm Sci 2024; 194:106681. [PMID: 38128839 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2023.106681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the effect of digestion on oral lipid-based drug formulations is a critical step in assessing the impact of the digestive process in the intestine on intraluminal drug concentrations. The classical pH-stat in vitro lipolysis technique has traditionally been applied, however, there is a need to explore the establishment of higher throughput small-scale methods. This study explores the use of alternative lipases with the aim of selecting digestion conditions that permit in-line UV detection for the determination of real-time drug concentrations. A range of immobilised and pre-dissolved lipases were assessed for digestion of lipid-based formulations and compared to digestion with the classical source of lipase, porcine pancreatin. Palatase® 20000 L, a purified liquid lipase, displayed comparable digestion kinetics to porcine pancreatin and drug concentration determined during digestion of a fenofibrate lipid-based formulation were similar between methods. In-line UV analysis using the MicroDISS ProfilerTM demonstrated that drug concentration could be monitored during one hour of dispersion and three hours of digestion for both a medium- and long-chain lipid-based formulations with corresponding results to that obtained from the classical lipolysis method. This method offers opportunities exploring the real-time dynamic drug concentration during dispersion and digestion of lipid-based formulations in a small-scale setup avoiding artifacts as a result of extensive sample preparation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lotte Ejskjær
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, College Road, Cork, Ireland
| | - Patrick J O'Dwyer
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, College Road, Cork, Ireland
| | - Callum D Ryan
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, College Road, Cork, Ireland
| | - René Holm
- University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, Odense, Denmark
| | - Martin Kuentz
- University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Hofackerstr. 30, Muttenz 4132, Switzerland
| | - Karl J Box
- Pion Inc (UK), Forest Row, East Sussex, UK
| | - Brendan T Griffin
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, College Road, Cork, Ireland.
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7
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Chen G, Zhu Y, Wang Q, Bai Y, Ma S, Wang J, Zhao M, Zou M, Cheng G. The development of a novel simultaneous in vitro dissolution - in situ perfusion system as a potential tool for studying the absorption of solid oral formulation in rat. Eur J Pharm Sci 2023; 191:106601. [PMID: 37783379 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2023.106601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 09/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this work is to develop a novel simultaneous in vitro dissolution - in situ perfusion system (SDPS) as a potential tool to evaluate the in vivo performance of solid oral formulation in rat. The innovative nitrendipine (NTD) tablet of Bayotensin mite® made in Germany was used as reference listed drug (RLD), and five generic products from Chinese market were compared with RLD using the in vitro dissolution test method specified by the orange book and the SDPS method developed in this study. Four self-prepared NTD tablets with different proportions of microcrystalline cellulose/starch were employed to investigate the discriminatory ability of the SDPS for formulation. In addition, the predictivity of the SDPS in relation to data from in vivo pharmaceutics studies was evaluated. The 45-min dissolution test and multiple-pH dissolution profiles of generic product 1 and 2 have no difference compared with the RLD, but their dissolution profiles from the SDPS showed statistically significant differences. A biexponential formula successfully described the concentration profiles of self-prepared formulations in SDPS experiments. The kdis (0.08 ± 0.01 ∼ 0.2 ± 0.03 min-1) and ka (about 2.30 × 10-3 min-1) values calculated by the formulas of F1-F3 suggested that the used excipients had no effect on the intestinal absorption of NTD, and it might be the property of active pharmaceutical ingredient that led to the difference among the generics. Furthermore, the in vivo rat pharmacokinetics study results of F1-F3 showed a good correlation (R2 = 0.99) with the SDPS data. In summary, the SDPS is a promising tool to detect the unexpected quality changes of pharmaceutical products in weakly regulated markets, facilitate formulation screening, and potentially reduce animal testing for estimating the in vivo absorption behavior of solid oral formulations. The absorption performance of generic drugs in vivo should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No.103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Yumeng Zhu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No.103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Qiaoqiao Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No.103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Yifeng Bai
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No.103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Siyuan Ma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No.103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Jingfeng Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No.103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Minqian Zhao
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No.103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Meijuan Zou
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No.103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Gang Cheng
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No.103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China.
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8
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Zupančič O, Kushwah V, Paudel A. Pancreatic lipase digestion: The forgotten barrier in oral administration of lipid-based delivery systems? J Control Release 2023; 362:381-395. [PMID: 37579977 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Revised: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/16/2023]
Abstract
This review highlights the importance of controlling the digestion process of orally administered lipid-based delivery systems (LBDS) and their performance. Oral LBDS are prone to digestion via pancreatic lipase in the small intestine. Rapid or uncontrolled digestion may cause the loss of delivery system integrity, its structural changes, reduced solubilization capacity and physical stability issues. All these events can lead to uncontrolled drug release from the digested LBDS into the gastrointestinal environment, exposing the incorporated drug to precipitation or degradation by luminal proteases. To prevent this, the digestion rate of orally administered LBDS can be estimated by appropriate choice of the formulation type, excipient combinations and their ratios. In addition, in vitro digestion models like pH-stat are useful tools to evaluate the formulation digestion rate. Controlling digestion can be achieved by conventional lipase inhibitors like orlistat, sterically hindering of lipase adsorption on the delivery system surface with polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains, lipase desorption or saturation of the interface with surfactants as well as formulating LBDS with ester-free excipients. Recent in vivo studies demonstrated that digestion inhibition lead to altered pharmacokinetic profiles, where Cmax and Tmax were reduced in spite of same AUC compared to control or even improved oral bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ožbej Zupančič
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH (RCPE), Inffeldgasse 13, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Varun Kushwah
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH (RCPE), Inffeldgasse 13, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Amrit Paudel
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH (RCPE), Inffeldgasse 13, 8010 Graz, Austria; Graz University of Technology, Institute of Process and Particle Engineering, Inffeldgasse 13/3, 8010 Graz, Austria.
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9
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Andreadis II, Schulzen A, Quodbach J, Bergström CAS. Exploring the use of modified in vitro digestion assays for the evaluation of ritonavir loaded solid lipid-based formulations. Eur J Pharm Sci 2023; 189:106524. [PMID: 37433412 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2023.106524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2023]
Abstract
Solid lipid-based formulations (sLBFs) have the potential to increase the oral bioavailability of drugs with poor solubility in water, while counteracting some of the disadvantages of liquid LBFs. The most common experimental set-up to study the performance of LBFs in vitro is the lipolysis assay, during which the LBFs are digested by lipases in an environment mimicking the human small intestine. However, this assay has failed in many cases to correctly predict the performance of LBFs in vivo, highlighting the need for new and improved in vitro assays to evaluate LBFs at the preclinical stage. In this study, the suitability of three different in vitro digestion assays for the evaluation of sLBFs was assessed; the classic one-step intestinal digestion assay, a two-step gastrointestinal digestion assay and a bicompartmental assay permitting the simultaneous monitoring of digestion and permeation of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) across an artificial membrane (Lecithin in Dodecane - LiDo). Three sLBFs (M1-M3) with varied composition and ritonavir as model drug were prepared and examined. When comparing the ability of these formulations to keep the drug solubilized in the aqueous phase, all three assays show that M1 performs better, while M3 presents poor performance. However, the classic in vitro intestinal digestion assay fails to provide a clear ranking of the three formulations, something that is more evident when using the two modified and more physiologically relevant assays. Also, the two modified assays provide additional information about the performance of the formulations including the performance in the gastric environment and intestinal flux of the drug. These modified in vitro digestion assays are valuable tools for the development and evaluation of sLBFs to make better informed decisions of which formulations to pursue for in vivo studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis I Andreadis
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 580, SE-751 23, Uppsala, Sweden; Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Arne Schulzen
- Institute of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, Heinrich Heine University, Universitätsstraße 1, DE-40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Julian Quodbach
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Christel A S Bergström
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 580, SE-751 23, Uppsala, Sweden; The Swedish Drug Delivery Center, Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 580, SE-751 23, Uppsala, Sweden.
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10
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Reppas C, Kuentz M, Bauer-Brandl A, Carlert S, Dallmann A, Dietrich S, Dressman J, Ejskjaer L, Frechen S, Guidetti M, Holm R, Holzem FL, Karlsson Ε, Kostewicz E, Panbachi S, Paulus F, Senniksen MB, Stillhart C, Turner DB, Vertzoni M, Vrenken P, Zöller L, Griffin BT, O'Dwyer PJ. Leveraging the use of in vitro and computational methods to support the development of enabling oral drug products: An InPharma commentary. Eur J Pharm Sci 2023; 188:106505. [PMID: 37343604 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2023.106505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 06/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
Due to the strong tendency towards poorly soluble drugs in modern development pipelines, enabling drug formulations such as amorphous solid dispersions, cyclodextrins, co-crystals and lipid-based formulations are frequently applied to solubilize or generate supersaturation in gastrointestinal fluids, thus enhancing oral drug absorption. Although many innovative in vitro and in silico tools have been introduced in recent years to aid development of enabling formulations, significant knowledge gaps still exist with respect to how best to implement them. As a result, the development strategy for enabling formulations varies considerably within the industry and many elements of empiricism remain. The InPharma network aims to advance a mechanistic, animal-free approach to the assessment of drug developability. This commentary focuses current status and next steps that will be taken in InPharma to identify and fully utilize 'best practice' in vitro and in silico tools for use in physiologically based biopharmaceutic models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christos Reppas
- Department of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
| | - Martin Kuentz
- School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Muttenz CH 4132, Switzerland
| | - Annette Bauer-Brandl
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, Odense 5230, Denmark
| | | | - André Dallmann
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and Development, Pharmaceuticals, Bayer AG, Leverkusen, Germany
| | - Shirin Dietrich
- Department of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
| | - Jennifer Dressman
- Fraunhofer Institute of Translational Medicine and Pharmacology, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Lotte Ejskjaer
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Sebastian Frechen
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and Development, Pharmaceuticals, Bayer AG, Leverkusen, Germany
| | - Matteo Guidetti
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, Odense 5230, Denmark; Solvias AG, Department for Solid-State Development, Römerpark 2, 4303 Kaiseraugst, Switzerland
| | - René Holm
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, Odense 5230, Denmark
| | - Florentin Lukas Holzem
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, Odense 5230, Denmark; Pharmaceutical R&D, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Edmund Kostewicz
- Fraunhofer Institute of Translational Medicine and Pharmacology, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Shaida Panbachi
- School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Muttenz CH 4132, Switzerland
| | - Felix Paulus
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, Odense 5230, Denmark
| | - Malte Bøgh Senniksen
- Fraunhofer Institute of Translational Medicine and Pharmacology, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Pharmaceutical R&D, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Cordula Stillhart
- Pharmaceutical R&D, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Maria Vertzoni
- Department of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
| | - Paul Vrenken
- Department of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece; Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and Development, Pharmaceuticals, Bayer AG, Leverkusen, Germany
| | - Laurin Zöller
- AstraZeneca R&D, Gothenburg, Sweden; Fraunhofer Institute of Translational Medicine and Pharmacology, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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11
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Higashino H, Minami K, Takagi T, Kataoka M, Yamashita S. The Effects of Degree and Duration of Supersaturation on In Vivo Absorption Profiles for Highly Permeable Drugs, Dipyridamole and Ketoconazole. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2023:S0939-6411(23)00150-9. [PMID: 37301301 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2023.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The prediction of oral absorption from a supersaturating drug delivery system (SDDS) remains a significant challenge. Here we evaluated the effects of the degree and duration of supersaturation on in vivoabsorption for dipyridamole and ketoconazole. Various dose concentrations of supersaturated suspensions were prepared by a pH shift method, and in vitro dissolution and in vivo absorption profiles were determined. For dipyridamole, the duration of supersaturation decreased with the increase of the dose concentration owing to rapid precipitation. For ketoconazole, the initially constant dissolved concentrations due probably to the liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) as a reservoir were observed at high dose concentrations. However, the LLPS did not delay the peak plasma concentration of ketoconazole in rats, indicating that drug molecules were immediately released from the oil phase to the bulk aqueous phase. For both model drugs, the degree of supersaturation, but not the duration of supersaturation, correlated with systemic exposure, indicating quick drug absorption before precipitation. Therefore, the degree of supersaturation is an important parameter compared with the duration of supersaturation for enhancing the in vivo absorption of highly permeable drugs. These findings would help develop a promising SDDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruki Higashino
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Setsunan University, 45-1 Nagaotoge-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-0101, Japan; Pharmaron (Exton) Lab Services LLC (Absorption Systems LLC), 436 Creamery way, Suite 600, Exton, PA 19341, USA.
| | - Keiko Minami
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Setsunan University, 45-1 Nagaotoge-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-0101, Japan
| | - Toshihide Takagi
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Setsunan University, 45-1 Nagaotoge-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-0101, Japan
| | - Makoto Kataoka
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Setsunan University, 45-1 Nagaotoge-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-0101, Japan
| | - Shinji Yamashita
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Setsunan University, 45-1 Nagaotoge-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-0101, Japan
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12
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Wibel R, Jörgensen AM, Laffleur F, Spleis H, Claus V, Bernkop-Schnürch A. Oral delivery of calcitonin-ion pairs: In vivo proof of concept for a highly lipophilic counterion. Int J Pharm 2023; 631:122476. [PMID: 36528188 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2022.122476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Hydrophobic ion pairing and subsequent incorporation into self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) is a promising strategy to orally deliver hydrophilic macromolecular drugs. Within this study, hydrophobic ion pairs (HIP) between salmon calcitonin (sCT) and highly lipophilic sulfosuccinate counterions were formed and compared to frequently applied commercially available counterions. Bis(isotridecyl) sulfosuccinate resulted in HIPs of the highest lipophilicity and in significantly higher solubility in lipophilic co-solvents. Thus, bis(isotridecyl) sulfosuccinate allowed efficient solubilization of sCT in a SEDDS preconcentrate based on a lipophilic co-solvent and an indigestible lipid, but omitting hydrophilic co-solvents. In addition to the increased solubility in the lipidic matrix, markedly reduced dissociation in biorelevant media resulted in high distribution coefficients between oil droplet and FaSSGF or FaSSIF (logD) of 2.98 ± 0.12 or 2.77 ± 0.14, respectively. The composition of the lipidic matrix preserved integrity of the oil droplets after emulsification and subsequent lipolysis, allowing to fully exploit the potential of the HIP attributed to the high logD. Oral administration of the HIP-loaded SEDDS resulted in an excellent relative pharmacological activity of 13.8 ± 5.6 % measured as hypocalcaemic effect in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Wibel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Innsbruck, Institute of Pharmacy, Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Arne Matteo Jörgensen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Innsbruck, Institute of Pharmacy, Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Flavia Laffleur
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Innsbruck, Institute of Pharmacy, Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Helen Spleis
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Innsbruck, Institute of Pharmacy, Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; Thiomatrix Forschungs-und Beratungs GmbH, Trientlgasse, 65, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Victor Claus
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Innsbruck, Institute of Pharmacy, Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; Thiomatrix Forschungs-und Beratungs GmbH, Trientlgasse, 65, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Andreas Bernkop-Schnürch
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Innsbruck, Institute of Pharmacy, Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria.
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13
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Timur B, Usta DY, Teksin ZS. Investigation of the effect of colloidal structures formed during lipolysis of lipid-based formulation on exemestane permeability using the in vitro lipolysis-permeation model. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2022.103797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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14
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Nora GI, Venkatasubramanian R, Strindberg S, Siqueira-Jørgensen SD, Pagano L, Romanski FS, Swarnakar NK, Rades T, Müllertz A. Combining lipid based drug delivery and amorphous solid dispersions for improved oral drug absorption of a poorly water-soluble drug. J Control Release 2022; 349:206-212. [PMID: 35787914 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.06.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Two widely applied enabling drug delivery approaches, self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) and amorphous solid dispersions (ASD), were combined, with the aim of enhancing physical stability, solubilization and absorption of the model drug ritonavir. Ritonavir was loaded at a concentration above its saturation solubility (Seq) in the SNEDDS (superSNEDDS, 250% of Seq). An ASD of ritonavir with polyvinylpyrrolidone-vinyl acetate copolymers (Kollidon® VA64) was prepared by ball milling. Relevant control formulations, which include conventional SNEDDS (90% of Seq), superSNEDDS with a physical mix of Kollidon® VA64 and ritonavir (superSNEDDS+PM) and an aqueous suspension of ritonavir were used. A pharmacokinetic (PK) study in rats was performed to assess the relative bioavailability of ritonavir after oral administration. This was followed by evaluating the formulations in a novel two-step in vitro lipolysis model simulating rat gastric and intestinal conditions. The addition of a ritonavir containing ASD to superSNEDDS increased the degree of supersaturation from 250% to 275% Seq in the superSNEDDS and the physical stability (absence of drug recrystallization) of the system from 48 h to 1 month under ambient conditions. The PK study in rats displayed significantly higher Cmax and AUC0-7h (3-fold increase) and faster Tmax for superSNEDDS+ASD compared to the conventional SNEDDS whilst containing 3 times less lipid than the latter. Furthermore, superSNEDDS+ASD were able to keep the drug solubilised during in vitro lipolysis to the same degree as the conventional SNEDDS. These findings suggest that dissolving an ASD in a superSNEDDS can contribute to the development of novel oral delivery systems with increased bioavailability for poorly water-soluble drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia-Ioanna Nora
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 4, Copenhagen 2100, Denmark
| | | | - Sophie Strindberg
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 4, Copenhagen 2100, Denmark.
| | | | - Livia Pagano
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 4, Copenhagen 2100, Denmark.
| | - Francis S Romanski
- BASF Corporation, 500 White Plains Rd., Tarrytown, NY 10591, United States of America; BASF Corporation, Pharma Solutions, 500 White Plains Road, 10591 Tarrytown, United States.
| | - Nitin K Swarnakar
- BASF Corporation, 500 White Plains Rd., Tarrytown, NY 10591, United States of America; BASF Corporation, Pharma Solutions, 500 White Plains Road, 10591 Tarrytown, United States.
| | - Thomas Rades
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 4, Copenhagen 2100, Denmark.
| | - Anette Müllertz
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 4, Copenhagen 2100, Denmark; Bioneer: FARMA, Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 4, Copenhagen 2100, Denmark.
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15
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Al-Badr AA. Danazol. PROFILES OF DRUG SUBSTANCES, EXCIPIENTS, AND RELATED METHODOLOGY 2022; 47:149-326. [PMID: 35396014 DOI: 10.1016/bs.podrm.2021.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
A comprehensive profile of danazol describing the nomenclatures, formulae, elemental composition, appearance, uses and applications is presented. The profile contains the method which was utilized for the preparation of the drug substance and its respective scheme is outlined. The physical characteristics of the drug including the solubility, X-ray powder diffraction pattern, differential scanning calorimetry, thermal behavior and spectroscopic studies are described. The methods which were used for the analysis of the drug substance in bulk drug and/or in pharmaceutical formulations including the compendial, spectrophotometric, electrochemical and the chromatographic methods are reported. The stability, toxicity, pharmacokinetics, bioavailability, drug evaluation and monitoring, comparisons, pharmacology, in addition to several compiled reviews on the drug substance which were involved. Finally, two hundred and seventy-nine references are listed at the end of this profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah A Al-Badr
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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16
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Hong L, Salentinig S. Functional food colloids: studying structure and interactions during digestion. Curr Opin Food Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2022.100817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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17
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Keemink J, Hedge OJ, Bianco V, Hubert M, Bergström CAS. Comparison of Cellular Monolayers and an Artificial Membrane as Absorptive Membranes in the in vitro Lipolysis-permeation Assay. J Pharm Sci 2021; 111:175-184. [PMID: 34516987 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2021.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Permeation across Caco-2 cells in lipolysis-permeation setups can predict the rank order of in vivo drug exposure obtained with lipid-based formulations (LBFs). However, Caco-2 cells require a long differentiation period and do not capture all characteristics of the human small intestine. We therefore evaluated two in vitro assays with artificial lecithin-in-dodecane (LiDo) membranes and MDCK cells as absorptive membranes in the lipolysis-permeation setup. Fenofibrate-loaded LBFs were used and the results from the two assays compared to literature plasma concentrations in landrace pigs administered orally with the same formulations. Aqueous drug concentrations, supersaturation, and precipitation were determined in the digestion chamber and drug permeation in the receiver chamber. Auxiliary in vitro parameters were assessed, such as permeation of the taurocholate, present in the simulated intestinal fluid used in the assay, and size of colloidal structures in the digestion medium over time. The LiDo membrane gave a similar drug distribution as the Caco-2 cells and accurately reproduced the equivalent rank-order of fenofibrate exposure in plasma. Permeation of fenofibrate across MDCK monolayers did not, however, reflect the in vivo exposure rankings. Taurocholate flux was negligible through either membrane. This process was therefore not considered to significantly affect the in vitro distribution of fenofibrate. We conclude that the artificial LiDo membrane is a promising tool for lipolysis-permeation assays to evaluate LBF performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janneke Keemink
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden; F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel, Switzerland
| | - Oliver J Hedge
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Madlen Hubert
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Christel A S Bergström
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden; The Swedish Drug Delivery Center, Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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18
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Hedge O, Höök F, Joyce P, Bergström CAS. Investigation of Self-Emulsifying Drug-Delivery System Interaction with a Biomimetic Membrane under Conditions Relevant to the Small Intestine. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2021; 37:10200-10213. [PMID: 34379976 PMCID: PMC8388123 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c01689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 07/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Self-emulsifying drug-delivery systems (SEDDS) have been extensively shown to increase oral absorption of solvation-limited compounds. However, there has been little clinical and commercial use of these formulations, in large part because the demonstrated advantages of SEDDS have been outweighed by our inability to precisely predict drug absorption from SEDDS using current in vitro assays. To overcome this limitation and increase the biological relevancy of in vitro assays, an absorption function can be incorporated using biomimetic membranes. However, the effects that SEDDS have on the integrity of a biomimetic membrane are not known. In this study, a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy were employed as complementary methods to in vitro lipolysis-permeation assays to characterize the interaction of various actively digested SEDDS with a liquescent artificial membrane comprising lecithin in dodecane (LiDo). Observations from surface analysis showed that interactions between the digesting SEDDS and LiDo membrane coincided with inflection points in the digestion profiles. Importantly, no indications of membrane damage could be observed, which was supported by flux profiles of the lipophilic model drug felodipine (FEL) and impermeable marker Lucifer yellow on the basal side of the membrane. There was a correlation between the digestion kinetics of the SEDDS and the flux of FEL, but no clear correlation between solubilization and absorption profiles. Membrane interactions were dependent on the composition of lipids within each SEDDS, with the more digestible lipids leading to more pronounced interactions, but in all cases, the integrity of the membrane was maintained. These insights demonstrate that LiDo membranes are compatible with in vitro lipolysis assays for improving predictions of drug absorption from lipid-based formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver
J. Hedge
- Department
of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Höök
- Division
of Nano and Biophysics, Department of Physics, Chalmers Technical University, 412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Paul Joyce
- Division
of Nano and Biophysics, Department of Physics, Chalmers Technical University, 412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
- UniSA
Clinical & Health Sciences, University
of South Australia, 5090 Adelaide, Australia
- ARC
Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, 5090 Adelaide, Australia
| | - Christel A. S. Bergström
- Department
of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
- The
Swedish Drug Delivery Center, Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, 751
23 Uppsala, Sweden
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19
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Huang Y, Yu Q, Chen Z, Wu W, Zhu Q, Lu Y. In vitro and in vivo correlation for lipid-based formulations: Current status and future perspectives. Acta Pharm Sin B 2021; 11:2469-2487. [PMID: 34522595 PMCID: PMC8424225 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2021.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 01/03/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipid-based formulations (LBFs) have demonstrated a great potential in enhancing the oral absorption of poorly water-soluble drugs. However, construction of in vitro and in vivo correlations (IVIVCs) for LBFs is quite challenging, owing to a complex in vivo processing of these formulations. In this paper, we start with a brief introduction on the gastrointestinal digestion of lipid/LBFs and its relation to enhanced oral drug absorption; based on the concept of IVIVCs, the current status of in vitro models to establish IVIVCs for LBFs is reviewed, while future perspectives in this field are discussed. In vitro tests, which facilitate the understanding and prediction of the in vivo performance of solid dosage forms, frequently fail to mimic the in vivo processing of LBFs, leading to inconsistent results. In vitro digestion models, which more closely simulate gastrointestinal physiology, are a more promising option. Despite some successes in IVIVC modeling, the accuracy and consistency of these models are yet to be validated, particularly for human data. A reliable IVIVC model can not only reduce the risk, time, and cost of formulation development but can also contribute to the formulation design and optimization, thus promoting the clinical translation of LBFs.
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Key Words
- ANN, artificial neural network
- AUC, area under the curve
- Absorption
- BCS, biopharmaceutics classification system
- BE, bioequivalence
- CETP, cholesterol ester transfer protein
- Cmax, peak plasma concentration
- DDS, drug delivery system
- FDA, US Food and Drug Administration
- GI, gastrointestinal
- HLB, hydrophilic–lipophilic balance
- IVIVC, in vitro and in vivo correlation
- IVIVR, in vitro and in vivo relationship
- In silico prediction
- In vitro and in vivo correlations
- LBF, lipid-based formulation
- LCT, long-chain triglyceride
- Lipid-based formulation
- Lipolysis
- MCT, medium-chain triglyceride
- Model
- Oral delivery
- PBPK, physiologically based pharmacokinetic
- PK, pharmacokinetic
- Perspectives
- SCT, short-chain triglyceride
- SEDDS, self-emulsifying drug delivery system
- SGF, simulated gastric fluid
- SIF, simulated intestinal fluid
- SLS, sodium lauryl sulfate
- SMEDDS, self-microemulsifying drug delivery system
- SNEDDS, self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system
- TIM, TNO gastrointestinal model
- TNO, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research
- Tmax, time to reach the peak plasma concentration
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20
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Thakore SD, Sirvi A, Joshi VC, Panigrahi SS, Manna A, Singh R, Sangamwar AT, Bansal AK. Biorelevant dissolution testing and physiologically based absorption modeling to predict in vivo performance of supersaturating drug delivery systems. Int J Pharm 2021; 607:120958. [PMID: 34332060 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Supersaturating drug delivery systems (SDDS) enhance the oral absorption of poorly water-soluble drugs by achieving a supersaturated state in the gastrointestinal tract. The maintenance of a supersaturated state is decided by the complex interplay among inherent properties of drug, excipients and physiological conditions of gastrointestinal tract. The biopharmaceutical advantage through SDDS can be mechanistically investigated by coupling biopredictive dissolution testing with physiologically based absorption modeling (PBAM). However, the development of biopredictive dissolution methods possess challenges due to concurrent dissolution, supersaturation, precipitation, and possible redissolution of precipitates during gastrointestinal transit of SDDS. In this comprehensive review, our effort is to critically assess the current state-of-knowledge and provide future directions for PBAM of SDDS. The review outlines various methods used to retrieve physiologically relevant values for input parameters like solubility, dissolution, precipitation, lipid-digestion and permeability of SDDS. SDDS-specific parameterization includes solubility values corresponding to apparent physical form, dissolution in physiologically relevant volumes with biorelevant media, and transfer experiments to incorporate precipitation kinetics. Interestingly, the lack of experimental permeability values and modification of absorption flux through SDDS possess the additional challenge for its PBAM. Supersaturation triggered permeability modifications are reported to fit the observed plasma concentration-time profile. Hence, the experimental insights on good fitting with modified permeability can be potential area of future research for the development of in vitro methods to reliably predict oral absorption of SDDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samarth D Thakore
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector 67, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, Punjab 160062, India
| | - Arvind Sirvi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector 67, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, Punjab 160062, India
| | - Vikram C Joshi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector 67, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, Punjab 160062, India
| | - Sanjali S Panigrahi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector 67, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, Punjab 160062, India
| | - Arijita Manna
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector 67, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, Punjab 160062, India
| | - Ridhima Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector 67, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, Punjab 160062, India
| | - Abhay T Sangamwar
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector 67, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, Punjab 160062, India
| | - Arvind K Bansal
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector 67, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, Punjab 160062, India.
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21
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Bennett-Lenane H, Jørgensen JR, Koehl NJ, Henze LJ, O'Shea JP, Müllertz A, Griffin BT. Exploring porcine gastric and intestinal fluids using microscopic and solubility estimates: Impact of placebo self-emulsifying drug delivery system administration to inform bio-predictive in vitro tools. Eur J Pharm Sci 2021; 161:105778. [PMID: 33647402 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2021.105778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Validation and characterisation of in vitro and pre-clinical animal models to support bio-enabling formulation development is of paramount importance. In this work, post-mortem gastric and small intestinal fluids were collected in the fasted, fed state and at five sample-points post administration of a placebo Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System (SEDDS) in the fasted state to pigs. Cryo-TEM and Negative Stain-TEM were used for ultrastructure characterisation. Ex vivo solubility of fenofibrate was determined in the fasted-state, fed-state and post-SEDDS administration. Highest observed ex vivo drug solubility in intestinal fluids after SEDDS administration was used for optimising the biorelevant in vitro conditions to determine maximum solubility. Under microscopic evaluation, fasted, fed and SEDDS fluids resulted in different colloidal structures. Drug solubility appeared highest 1 hour post SEDDS administration, corresponding with presence of SEDDS lipid droplets. A 1:200 dispersion of SEDDS in biorelevant media matched the highest observed ex vivo solubility upon SEDDS administration. Overall, impacts of this study include increasing evidence for the pig preclinical model to mimic drug solubility in humans, observations that SEDDS administration may poorly mimic colloidal structures observed under fed state, while microscopic and solubility porcine assessments provided a framework for increasingly bio-predictive in vitro tools.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jacob R Jørgensen
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - Niklas J Koehl
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Laura J Henze
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | | | - Anette Müllertz
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
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22
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Koehl NJ, Henze LJ, Bennett-Lenane H, Faisal W, Price DJ, Holm R, Kuentz M, Griffin BT. In Silico, In Vitro, and In Vivo Evaluation of Precipitation Inhibitors in Supersaturated Lipid-Based Formulations of Venetoclax. Mol Pharm 2021; 18:2174-2188. [PMID: 33890794 PMCID: PMC8289286 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.0c00645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The concept of using
precipitation inhibitors (PIs) to sustain
supersaturation is well established for amorphous formulations but
less in the case of lipid-based formulations (LBF). This study applied
a systematic in silico–in vitro–in vivo approach to assess the merits of
incorporating PIs in supersaturated LBFs (sLBF) using the model drug
venetoclax. sLBFs containing hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC),
hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS), polyvinylpyrrolidone
(PVP), PVP-co-vinyl acetate (PVP/VA), Pluronic F108,
and Eudragit EPO were assessed in silico calculating
a drug–excipient mixing enthalpy, in vitro using a PI solvent shift test, and finally, bioavailability was
assessed in vivo in landrace pigs. The estimation
of pure interaction enthalpies of the drug and the excipient was deemed
useful in determining the most promising PIs for venetoclax. The sLBF
alone (i.e., no PI present) displayed a high initial drug concentration
in the aqueous phase during in vitro screening. sLBF
with Pluronic F108 displayed the highest venetoclax concentration
in the aqueous phase and sLBF with Eudragit EPO the lowest. In vivo, the sLBF alone showed the highest bioavailability
of 26.3 ± 14.2%. Interestingly, a trend toward a decreasing bioavailability
was observed for sLBF containing PIs, with PVP/VA being significantly
lower compared to sLBF alone. In conclusion, the ability of a sLBF
to generate supersaturated concentrations of venetoclax in
vitro was translated into increased absorption in
vivo. While in silico and in vitro PI screening suggested benefits in terms of prolonged supersaturation,
the addition of a PI did not increase in vivo bioavailability.
The findings of this study are of particular relevance to pre-clinical
drug development, where the high in vivo exposure
of venetoclax was achieved using a sLBF approach, and despite the
perceived risk of drug precipitation from a sLBF, including a PI may
not be merited in all cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas J Koehl
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, College Road, T12 YN60 Cork, Ireland.,Drug Product Development, Janssen Research and Development, Johnson & Johnson, Turnhoutseweg 30, 2340 Beerse, Belgium
| | - Laura J Henze
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, College Road, T12 YN60 Cork, Ireland.,Analytical Development, Janssen Research and Development, Johnson & Johnson, Turnhoutseweg 30, 2340 Beerse, Belgium
| | | | - Waleed Faisal
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, College Road, T12 YN60 Cork, Ireland.,Faculty of Pharmacy, Minia University, Minia, Egypt
| | - Daniel J Price
- Merck KGaA, Frankfurter Str. 250, 64293 Darmstadt, Germany.,Institution of Pharmaceutical Technology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Max-von-Laue-Strasse 9, 60439 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - René Holm
- Drug Product Development, Janssen Research and Development, Johnson & Johnson, Turnhoutseweg 30, 2340 Beerse, Belgium.,Department of Science and Environment, Roskilde University, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark.,Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 5230 Odense, Denmark
| | - Martin Kuentz
- Institute of Pharma Technology, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Hofackerstrasse 30, 4132 Muttenz, Switzerland
| | - Brendan T Griffin
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, College Road, T12 YN60 Cork, Ireland
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23
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Klitgaard M, Müllertz A, Berthelsen R. Estimating the Oral Absorption from Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery Systems Using an In Vitro Lipolysis-Permeation Method. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13040489. [PMID: 33918449 PMCID: PMC8065752 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13040489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to design an in vitro lipolysis-permeation method to estimate drug absorption following the oral administration of self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDSs). The method was evaluated by testing five oral formulations containing cinnarizine (four SNEDDSs and one aqueous suspension) from a previously published pharmacokinetic study in rats. In that study, the pharmacokinetic profiles of the five formulations did not correlate with the drug solubilization profiles obtained during in vitro intestinal lipolysis. Using the designed lipolysis-permeation method, in vitro lipolysis of the five formulations was followed by in vitro drug permeation in Franz diffusion cells equipped with PermeaPad® barriers. A linear in vivo–in vitro correlation was obtained when comparing the area under the in vitro drug permeation–time curve (AUC0–3h), to the AUC0–3h of the plasma concentration–time profile obtained from the in vivo study. Based on these results, the evaluated lipolysis-permeation method was found to be a promising tool for estimating the in vivo performance of SNEDDSs, but more studies are needed to evaluate the method further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mette Klitgaard
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark;
| | - Anette Müllertz
- Bioneer: FARMA, Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark;
| | - Ragna Berthelsen
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +45-35-33-65-13
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24
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Vinarov Z, Abrahamsson B, Artursson P, Batchelor H, Berben P, Bernkop-Schnürch A, Butler J, Ceulemans J, Davies N, Dupont D, Flaten GE, Fotaki N, Griffin BT, Jannin V, Keemink J, Kesisoglou F, Koziolek M, Kuentz M, Mackie A, Meléndez-Martínez AJ, McAllister M, Müllertz A, O'Driscoll CM, Parrott N, Paszkowska J, Pavek P, Porter CJH, Reppas C, Stillhart C, Sugano K, Toader E, Valentová K, Vertzoni M, De Wildt SN, Wilson CG, Augustijns P. Current challenges and future perspectives in oral absorption research: An opinion of the UNGAP network. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 171:289-331. [PMID: 33610694 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Although oral drug delivery is the preferred administration route and has been used for centuries, modern drug discovery and development pipelines challenge conventional formulation approaches and highlight the insufficient mechanistic understanding of processes critical to oral drug absorption. This review presents the opinion of UNGAP scientists on four key themes across the oral absorption landscape: (1) specific patient populations, (2) regional differences in the gastrointestinal tract, (3) advanced formulations and (4) food-drug interactions. The differences of oral absorption in pediatric and geriatric populations, the specific issues in colonic absorption, the formulation approaches for poorly water-soluble (small molecules) and poorly permeable (peptides, RNA etc.) drugs, as well as the vast realm of food effects, are some of the topics discussed in detail. The identified controversies and gaps in the current understanding of gastrointestinal absorption-related processes are used to create a roadmap for the future of oral drug absorption research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahari Vinarov
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Sofia University, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Bertil Abrahamsson
- Oral Product Development, Pharmaceutical Technology & Development, Operations, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Per Artursson
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Hannah Batchelor
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Philippe Berben
- Pharmaceutical Development, UCB Pharma SA, Braine- l'Alleud, Belgium
| | - Andreas Bernkop-Schnürch
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - James Butler
- GlaxoSmithKline Research and Development, Ware, United Kingdom
| | | | - Nigel Davies
- Advanced Drug Delivery, Pharmaceutical Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Gøril Eide Flaten
- Department of Pharmacy, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Nikoletta Fotaki
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Martin Kuentz
- Institute for Pharma Technology, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Alan Mackie
- School of Food Science & Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Anette Müllertz
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | | | | | - Petr Pavek
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Charles University, Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
| | | | - Christos Reppas
- Department of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Kiyohiko Sugano
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ritsumeikan University, Shiga, Japan
| | - Elena Toader
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Iasi, Romania
| | - Kateřina Valentová
- Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Maria Vertzoni
- Department of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Saskia N De Wildt
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Clive G Wilson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick Augustijns
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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25
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Xu Y, Michalowski CB, Beloqui A. Advances in lipid carriers for drug delivery to the gastrointestinal tract. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cocis.2020.101414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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26
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Tanaka Y, Nguyen TH, Suys EJA, Porter CJH. Digestion of Lipid-Based Formulations Not Only Mediates Changes to Absorption of Poorly Soluble Drugs Due to Differences in Solubilization But Also Reflects Changes to Thermodynamic Activity and Permeability. Mol Pharm 2021; 18:1768-1778. [PMID: 33729806 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.1c00015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of lipid digestion on the permeability and absorption of orally administered saquinavir (SQV), a biopharmaceutics classification system (BCS) class IV drug, in different lipid-based formulations. Three LBFs were prepared: a mixed short- and medium-chain lipid-based formulation (SMCF), a medium-chain lipid-based formulation (MCF), and a long-chain lipid-based formulation (LCF). SQV was loaded into these LBFs at 26.7 mg/g. To evaluate the pharmacokinetics of SQV in vivo, drug-loaded formulations were predispersed in purified water at 3% w/w and orally administered to rats. A low dose (0.8 mg/rat) was employed to limit confounding effects on drug solubilization, and consistent with this design, presolubilization of SQV in the LBFs did not increase in vivo exposure compared to a control suspension formulation. The areas under the plasma concentration-time curve were, however, significantly lower after administration of SQV as MCF and LCF compared to SMCF. To evaluate the key mechanisms underpinning absorption, each LBF containing SQV was digested, and the flux of SQV from the digests across a dialysis membrane was evaluated in in vitro permeation experiments. This study revealed that the absorption profiles were driven by the free concentration of SQV and that this varied due to differences in SQV solubilization in the digestion products generated by LBF digestion. The apparent first-order permeation rate constants of SQV (kapp,total) were estimated by dividing the flux of SQV in the dialysis membrane experiments by the concentration of total SQV on the donor side. kapp,total values strongly correlated with in vivo AUC. The data provide one of the first studies of the effect of digestion products on the free concentration of a drug in the GI fluid and oral absorption. This simple permeation model may be a useful tool for the evaluation of the impact of lipid digestion on apparent drug permeability from lipid-based formulations. These effects should be assessed alongside, and in addition to, the more well-known effects of lipids on enhancing intestinal solubilization of poorly water-soluble drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Tanaka
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hiroshima International University, 5-1-1 Hiro-koshingai, Kure, Hiroshima 737-0112, Japan
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27
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Falavigna M, Brurok S, Klitgaard M, Flaten GE. Simultaneous assessment of in vitro lipolysis and permeation in the mucus-PVPA model to predict oral absorption of a poorly water soluble drug in SNEDDSs. Int J Pharm 2021; 596:120258. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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28
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Self-Nano-Emulsifying Drug-Delivery Systems: From the Development to the Current Applications and Challenges in Oral Drug Delivery. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12121194. [PMID: 33317067 PMCID: PMC7764143 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12121194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Approximately one third of newly discovered drug molecules show insufficient water solubility and therefore low oral bio-availability. Self-nano-emulsifying drug-delivery systems (SNEDDSs) are one of the emerging strategies developed to tackle the issues associated with their oral delivery. SNEDDSs are composed of an oil phase, surfactant, and cosurfactant or cosolvent. SNEDDSs characteristics, their ability to dissolve a drug, and in vivo considerations are determinant factors in the choice of SNEDDSs excipients. A SNEDDS formulation can be optimized through phase diagram approach or statistical design of experiments. The characterization of SNEDDSs includes multiple orthogonal methods required to fully control SNEDDS manufacture, stability, and biological fate. Encapsulating a drug in SNEDDSs can lead to increased solubilization, stability in the gastro-intestinal tract, and absorption, resulting in enhanced bio-availability. The transformation of liquid SNEDDSs into solid dosage forms has been shown to increase the stability and patient compliance. Supersaturated, mucus-permeating, and targeted SNEDDSs can be developed to increase efficacy and patient compliance. Self-emulsification approach has been successful in oral drug delivery. The present review gives an insight of SNEDDSs for the oral administration of both lipophilic and hydrophilic compounds from the experimental bench to marketed products.
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29
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Joyce P, Dening TJ, Meola TR, Wignall A, Ulmefors H, Kovalainen M, Prestidge CA. Contrasting Anti-obesity Effects of Smectite Clays and Mesoporous Silica in Sprague-Dawley Rats. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2020; 3:7779-7788. [PMID: 35019518 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.0c00969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Porous colloids have been shown to exert unique bioactivities for mediating lipid (fat) metabolism and thereby offer significant potential as anti-obesity therapies. In this study, we compare the capacity for two classes of colloids, that is, smectite clays (Laponite XLG, LAP; montmorillonite, MMT) and mesoporous silica (SBA-15 ordered silica; MPS), to impede intestinal lipid hydrolysis and provoke lipid and carbohydrate excretion through adsorption within their particle matrices. A two-stage in vitro gastrointestinal lipolysis model revealed the capacity for both smectite clays and MPS to inhibit the rate and extent of lipase-mediated digestion under simulated fed state conditions. Each system adsorbed more than its own weight of organic media (i.e., lipid and carbohydrates) after 60 min lipolysis, with MMT adsorbing >10% of all available organics through the indiscriminate adsorption of fatty acids and glycerides. When co-administered with a high-fat diet (HFD) to Sprague-Dawley rats, treatment with MMT and MPS significantly reduced normalized rodent weight gain compared to a negative control, validating their potential to restrict energy intake and serve as anti-obesity therapies. However, in vitro-in vivo correlations revealed poor associations between in vitro digestion parameters and normalized weight gain, indicating that additional/alternate anti-obesity mechanisms may exist in vivo, while also highlighting the need for improved in vitro assessment methodologies. Despite this, the current findings emphasize the potential for porous colloids to restrict weight gain and promote anti-obesity effects to subjects exposed to a HFD and should therefore drive the development of next-generation food-grade biomaterials for the treatment and prevention of obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Joyce
- UniSA Clinical & Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia
| | - Tahnee J Dening
- UniSA Clinical & Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia
| | - Tahlia R Meola
- UniSA Clinical & Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia
| | - Anthony Wignall
- UniSA Clinical & Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia
| | - Hanna Ulmefors
- UniSA Clinical & Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia
| | - Miia Kovalainen
- Research Unit of Biomedicine and Biocenter of Oulu, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 5000, Oulu FI-90014, Finland
| | - Clive A Prestidge
- UniSA Clinical & Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia
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30
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Kabedev A, Hossain S, Hubert M, Larsson P, Bergström CAS. Molecular Dynamics Simulations Reveal Membrane Interactions for Poorly Water-Soluble Drugs: Impact of Bile Solubilization and Drug Aggregation. J Pharm Sci 2020; 110:176-185. [PMID: 33152373 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2020.10.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Molecular transport mechanisms of poorly soluble hydrophobic drug compounds to lipid membranes were investigated using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The model compound danazol was used to investigate the mechanism(s) by which bile micelles delivered it to the membrane. The interactions between lipid membrane and pure drug aggregates-in the form of amorphous aggregates and nanocrystals-were also studied. Our simulations indicate that bile micelles formed in the intestinal fluid may facilitate danazol incorporation into cellular membranes through two different mechanisms. The micelle may be acting as: i) a shuttle that presents the danazol directly to the membrane or ii) an elevator that moves the solubilized danazol with it as the colloidal structure itself becomes incorporated and solubilized within the membrane. The elevator hypothesis was supported by complementary lipid monolayer adsorption experiments. In these experiments, colloidal structures formed with simulated intestinal fluid were observed to rapidly incorporate into the monolayer. Simulations of membrane interaction with drug aggregates showed that both the amorphous aggregates and crystalline nanostructures incorporated into the membrane. However, the amorphous aggregates solubilized more quickly than the nanocrystals into the membrane, thereby improving the danazol absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksei Kabedev
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Shakhawath Hossain
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Madlen Hubert
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Per Larsson
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden; The Swedish Drug Delivery Center (SweDeliver), Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Christel A S Bergström
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden; The Swedish Drug Delivery Center (SweDeliver), Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden.
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31
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Effect of fatty acid ester structure on cytotoxicity of self-emulsified nanoemulsion and transport of nanoemulsion droplets. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2020; 194:111220. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.111220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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32
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Nano lipid based carriers for lymphatic voyage of anti-cancer drugs: An insight into the in-vitro, ex-vivo, in-situ and in-vivo study models. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2020.101899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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33
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Falavigna M, Klitgaard M, Berthelsen R, Müllertz A, Flaten GE. Predicting Oral Absorption of fenofibrate in Lipid-Based Drug Delivery Systems by Combining In Vitro Lipolysis with the Mucus-PVPA Permeability Model. J Pharm Sci 2020; 110:208-216. [PMID: 32916137 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2020.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to develop a new in vitro lipolysis-permeation model to predict the in vivo absorption of fenofibrate in self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDSs). More specifically, the in vitro intestinal lipolysis model was combined with the mucus-PVPA (Phospholipid Vesicle-based Permeation Assay) in vitro permeability model. Biosimilar mucus (BM) was added to the surface of the PVPA barriers to closer simulate the intestinal mucosa. SNEDDSs for which pharmacokinetic data after oral dosing to rats was available in the literature were prepared, and the ability of the SNEDDSs to maintain fenofibrate solubilized during in vitro lipolysis was determined, followed by the assessment of drug permeation across the mucus-PVPA barriers. The amount of drug solubilized over time during in vitro lipolysis did not correlate with the AUC (area under the curve) of the plasma drug concentration curve. However, the AUC of the drug permeated after in vitro lipolysis displayed a good correlation with the in vivo AUC (R2 > 0.9). Thus, it was concluded that the in vitro lipolysis-mucus-PVPA permeation model, simulating the physiological digestion and absorption processes, was able to predict in vivo absorption data, exhibiting great potential for further prediction of in vivo performance of SNEDDSs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Falavigna
- Drug Transport and Delivery Research Group, Department of Pharmacy, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Universitetsveien 57, 9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Mette Klitgaard
- Physiological Pharmaceutics, Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2-4, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ragna Berthelsen
- Physiological Pharmaceutics, Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2-4, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anette Müllertz
- Physiological Pharmaceutics, Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2-4, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Gøril Eide Flaten
- Drug Transport and Delivery Research Group, Department of Pharmacy, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Universitetsveien 57, 9037 Tromsø, Norway.
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34
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Ilie AR, Griffin BT, Brandl M, Bauer-Brandl A, Jacobsen AC, Vertzoni M, Kuentz M, Kolakovic R, Holm R. Exploring impact of supersaturated lipid-based drug delivery systems of celecoxib on in vitro permeation across Permeapad Ⓡ membrane and in vivo absorption. Eur J Pharm Sci 2020; 152:105452. [PMID: 32622980 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2020.105452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Supersaturated lipid-based drug delivery systems have recently been investigated for oral administration for a variety of lipophilic drugs and have shown either equivalent or superior oral bioavailability compared to conventional non-supersaturated lipid-based drug delivery systems. The aim of the present work was to explore supersaturated versus non-supersaturated lipid-based systems at equivalent lipid doses, on in vivo bioavailability in rats and on in vitro permeation across a biomimetic PermeapadⓇ membrane to establish a potential in vivo - in vitro correlation. A secondary objective was to investigate the influence of lipid composition on in vitro and in vivo performance of lipid systems. Results obtained indicated that increasing the celecoxib load in the lipid-based formulations by thermally-induced supersaturation resulted in increased bioavailability for medium and long chain mono-/di-glycerides systems relative to their non-supersaturated (i.e. 85%) reference formulations, albeit only significant for the medium chain systems. Long chain systems displayed higher celecoxib bioavailability than equivalent medium chain systems, both at supersaturated and non-supersaturated drug loads. In vitro passive permeation of celecoxib was studied using both steady-state and dynamic conditions and correlated well with in vivo pharmacokinetic results with respect to compositional effects. In contrast, permeation studies indicated that flux and percentage permeated of supersaturated systems, either at steady-state or under dynamic conditions, decreased or were unchanged relative to non-supersaturated systems. This study has shown that by using two cell-free PermeapadⓇ permeation models coupled with rat-adapted gastro-intestinal conditions, bio-predictive in vitro tools can be developed to be reflective of in vivo scenarios. With further optimization, such models could be successfully used in pharmaceutical industry settings to rapidly screen various prototype formulations prior to animal studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra-Roxana Ilie
- Drug Product Development, Janssen Research and Development, Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium; School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | | | - Martin Brandl
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Annette Bauer-Brandl
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Ann-Christin Jacobsen
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Maria Vertzoni
- Department of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Zografou, Greece
| | - Martin Kuentz
- University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Institute of Pharma Technology, Muttenz, Switzerland
| | - Ruzica Kolakovic
- Drug Product Development, Janssen Research and Development, Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - René Holm
- Drug Product Development, Janssen Research and Development, Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium; Department of Science and Environment, Roskilde University, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
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35
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O'Dwyer PJ, Box KJ, Koehl NJ, Bennett-Lenane H, Reppas C, Holm R, Kuentz M, Griffin BT. Novel Biphasic Lipolysis Method To Predict in Vivo Performance of Lipid-Based Formulations. Mol Pharm 2020; 17:3342-3352. [PMID: 32787274 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.0c00427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The absence of an intestinal absorption sink is a significant weakness of standard in vitro lipolysis methods, potentially leading to poor prediction of in vivo performance and an overestimation of drug precipitation. In addition, the majority of the described lipolysis methods only attempt to simulate intestinal conditions, thus overlooking any supersaturation or precipitation of ionizable drugs as they transition from the acidic gastric environment to the more neutral conditions of the intestine. The aim of this study was to develop a novel lipolysis method incorporating a two-stage gastric-to-intestinal transition and an absorptive compartment to reliably predict in vivo performance of lipid-based formulations (LBFs). Drug absorption was mimicked by in situ quantification of drug partitioning into a decanol layer. The method was used to characterize LBFs from four studies described in the literature, involving three model drugs (i.e., nilotinib, fenofibrate, and danazol) where in vivo bioavailability data have previously been reported. The results from the novel biphasic lipolysis method were compared to those of the standard pH-stat method in terms of reliability for predicting the in vivo performance. For three of the studies, the novel biphasic lipolysis method more reliably predicted the in vivo bioavailability compared to the standard pH-stat method. In contrast, the standard pH-stat method was found to produce more predictive results for one study involving a series of LBFs composed of the soybean oil, glyceryl monolinoleate (Maisine CC), Kolliphor EL, and ethanol. This result was surprising and could reflect that increasing concentrations of ethanol (as a cosolvent) in the formulations may have resulted in greater partitioning of the drug into the decanol absorptive compartment. In addition to the improved predictivity for most of the investigated systems, this biphasic lipolysis method also uses in situ analysis and avoids time- and resource-intensive sample analysis steps, thereby facilitating a higher throughput capacity and biorelevant approach for characterization of LBFs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J O'Dwyer
- Pion Inc. (UK) Ltd., Forest Row RH18 5DW, East Sussex, U.K.,Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Zografou 157 72, Greece.,School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, College Road, Cork T12 YN60, Ireland
| | - Karl J Box
- Pion Inc. (UK) Ltd., Forest Row RH18 5DW, East Sussex, U.K
| | - Niklas J Koehl
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, College Road, Cork T12 YN60, Ireland
| | | | - Christos Reppas
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Zografou 157 72, Greece
| | - Rene Holm
- Drug Product Development, Janssen Research and Development, Johnson & Johnson, Turnhoutseweg 30, Beerse 2340, Belgium.,Department of Science and Environment, Roskilde University, Roskilde 4000, Denmark
| | - Martin Kuentz
- School of Life Sciences, Institute of Pharma Technology, University of Applied Sciences Northwest Switzerland, Hofackerstrasse 30, Muttenz 4132, Switzerland
| | - Brendan T Griffin
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, College Road, Cork T12 YN60, Ireland
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36
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Jacobsen AC, Ejskjær L, Brandl M, Holm R, Bauer-Brandl A. Do Phospholipids Boost or Attenuate Drug Absorption? In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of Mono- and Diacyl Phospholipid-Based Solid Dispersions of Celecoxib. J Pharm Sci 2020; 110:198-207. [PMID: 32827494 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2020.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Phospholipids are amphiphilic lipids with versatile properties making them promising excipients for enabling formulations for oral drug delivery. Unfortunately, systematic studies on how phospholipid type and content affect oral absorption are rare. Often, only one phospholipid type is used for the formulation development and only one formulation, optimized according to in vitro parameters, is included in oral bioavailability studies. Using this approach, it is unclear if a certain in vitro parameter is predictive for the in vivo performance. In this study, a labor-saving in vitro permeation screening method was combined with a pharmacokinetic study in rats to for the first time systematically compare two types of phospholipid-based solid dispersions. The dispersions contained the drug celecoxib and monoacyl or diacyl phosphatidylcholine at different drug-to-phospholipid ratios. The in vitro screening revealed: 1) none of the formulations with high phospholipid content increased permeation, 2) phospholipid content was negatively correlated with permeation, and 3) mono and diacyl-phosphatidylcholine formulations performed equally. The pharmacokinetic study revealed: 1) At low phospholipid content absorption was enhanced, 2) phospholipid content was negatively correlated with absorption, and 3) monoacyl and diacyl phosphatidylcholine formulations performed equally. Apart from the reference (suspension), the in vitro permeation screening thus predicted the formulations in vivo performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Christin Jacobsen
- Drug Transport & Delivery Group, Department of Physics, Chemistry & Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Odense 5230, Denmark
| | - Lotte Ejskjær
- Drug Transport & Delivery Group, Department of Physics, Chemistry & Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Odense 5230, Denmark
| | - Martin Brandl
- Drug Transport & Delivery Group, Department of Physics, Chemistry & Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Odense 5230, Denmark
| | - René Holm
- Drug Product Development, Janssen Research and Development, Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium; Department of Science and Environment, Roskilde University, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Annette Bauer-Brandl
- Drug Transport & Delivery Group, Department of Physics, Chemistry & Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Odense 5230, Denmark.
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37
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Karavasili C, Andreadis II, Tsantarliotou MP, Taitzoglou IA, Chatzopoulou P, Katsantonis D, Zacharis CK, Markopoulou C, Fatouros DG. Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery Systems (SNEDDS) Containing Rice Bran Oil for Enhanced Fenofibrate Oral Delivery: In Vitro Digestion, Ex Vivo Permeability, and In Vivo Bioavailability Studies. AAPS PharmSciTech 2020; 21:208. [PMID: 32725343 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-020-01765-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipid-based drug delivery systems (LbDDS), such as self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS), constitute a prominent formulation approach for enhancing the aqueous solubility and oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble compounds. Utilization of biorefinery wastes, such as oil from rice bran, may prove advantageous to both improving drug solubilization and absorption and to achieving sustainable agri-food waste valorization. Here, we assessed the effect of four SNEDDS compositions differing in the oil (rice bran oil and corn oil) and surfactant type (Kolliphor RH40 and EL) on the oral bioavailability of fenofibrate, a BCS class II compound. Prior to the in vivo oral administration of the SNEDDS in rats, drug solubilization was tested in vitro using the static digestion model, followed by the ex vivo permeability study of the predigested SNEDDS using the non-everted gut sac model. No significant variation was observed in the solubilization capacity within the different SNEDDS formulations. On the other hand, the ex vivo permeability data of the predigested SNEDDS correlated well with the in vivo bioavailability data designating the superiority of rice bran oil with Kolliphor EL as the surfactant, to enhance the oral absorption of fenofibrate. Results indicated that valorization of agro-industrial waste such as rice bran oil may prove useful in enhancing the oral performance of LbDDS in the case of fenofibrate, while at the same time maximizing the use of agricultural by-products via the creation of new sustainable value chains in the pharmaceutical field.
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38
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Koehl NJ, Holm R, Kuentz M, Jannin V, Griffin BT. Exploring the Impact of Surfactant Type and Digestion: Highly Digestible Surfactants Improve Oral Bioavailability of Nilotinib. Mol Pharm 2020; 17:3202-3213. [PMID: 32649208 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.0c00305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The scientific rationale for selection of the surfactant type during oral formulation development requires an in-depth understanding of the interplay between surfactant characteristics and biopharmaceutical factors. Currently, however, there is a lack of comprehensive knowledge of how surfactant properties, such as hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB), digestibility, and fatty acid (FA) chain length, translate into in vivo performance. In the present study, the relationship between surfactant properties, in vitro characteristics, and in vivo bioavailability was systematically evaluated. An in vitro lipolysis model was used to study the digestibility of a variety of nonionic surfactants. Eight surfactants and one surfactant mixture were selected for further analysis using the model poorly water-soluble drug nilotinib. In vitro lipolysis of all nilotinib formulations was performed, followed by an in vivo pharmacokinetic evaluation in rats. The in vitro lipolysis studies showed that medium-chain FA-based surfactants were more readily digested compared to long-chain surfactants. The in vivo study demonstrated that a Tween 20 formulation significantly enhanced the absolute bioavailability of nilotinib up to 5.2-fold relative to an aqueous suspension. In general, surfactants that were highly digestible in vitro tended to display higher bioavailability of nilotinib in vivo. The bioavailability may additionally be related to the FA chain length of digestible surfactants with an improved exposure in the case of medium-chain FA-based surfactants. There was no apparent relationship between the HLB value of surfactants and the in vivo bioavailability of nilotinib. The impact of this study's findings suggests that when designing surfactant-based formulations to enhance oral bioavailability of the poorly water-soluble drug nilotinib, highly digestible, medium chain-based surfactants are preferred. Additionally, for low-permeability drugs such as nilotinib, which is subject to efflux by intestinal P-glycoprotein, the biopharmaceutical effects of surfactants merit further consideration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas J Koehl
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, T12 YN60 Cork, Ireland
| | - René Holm
- Drug Product Development, Janssen Research and Development, Johnson & Johnson, Turnhoutseweg 30, 2340 Beerse, Belgium.,Department of Science and Environment, Roskilde University, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Martin Kuentz
- Institute of Pharma Technology, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, 4132 Muttenz, Switzerland
| | - Vincent Jannin
- Gattefossé SAS, 36 Chemin de Genas, 69804 Saint-Priest Cedex, France
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Supersaturated Lipid-Based Formulations to Enhance the Oral Bioavailability of Venetoclax. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12060564. [PMID: 32570753 PMCID: PMC7355533 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12060564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing numbers of beyond Rule-of-Five drugs are emerging from discovery pipelines, generating a need for bio-enabling formulation approaches, such as lipid-based formulations (LBF), to ensure maximal in vivo exposure. However, many drug candidates display insufficient lipid solubility, leading to dose-loading limitations in LBFs. The aim of this study was to explore the potential of supersaturated LBFs (sLBF) for the beyond Rule-of-Five drug venetoclax. Temperature-induced sLBFs of venetoclax were obtained in olive oil, Captex® 1000, Peceol® and Capmul MCM®, respectively. A Peceol®-based sLBF displayed the highest drug loading and was therefore evaluated further. In vitro lipolysis demonstrated that the Peceol®-based sLBF was able to generate higher venetoclax concentrations in the aqueous phase compared to a Peceol®-based suspension and an aqueous suspension. A subsequent bioavailability study in pigs demonstrated for sLBF a 3.8-fold and 2.1-fold higher bioavailability compared to the drug powder and Peceol®-based suspension, respectively. In conclusion, sLBF is a promising bio-enabling formulation approach to enhance in vivo exposure of beyond Rule-of-Five drugs, such as venetoclax. The in vitro lipolysis results correctly predicted a higher exposure of the sLBF in vivo. The findings of this study are of particular relevance to pre-clinical drug development, where maximum exposure is required.
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40
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Sinko PD, Harris S, Salehi N, Meyer PJ, Amidon GL, Amidon GE. Ultrathin, Large-Area Membrane Diffusion Cell for pH-Dependent Simultaneous Dissolution and Absorption Studies. Mol Pharm 2020; 17:2319-2328. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.0c00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick D. Sinko
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala Biomedical Centre, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 580, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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41
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Hedge OJ, Bergström CAS. Suitability of Artificial Membranes in Lipolysis-Permeation Assays of Oral Lipid-Based Formulations. Pharm Res 2020; 37:99. [PMID: 32435855 PMCID: PMC7239831 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-020-02833-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the performance of artificial membranes in in vitro lipolysis-permeation assays useful for absorption studies of drugs loaded in lipid-based formulations (LBFs). METHODS Polycarbonate as well as PVDF filters were treated with hexadecane, or lecithin in n-dodecane solution (LiDo) to form artificial membranes. They were thereafter used as absorption membranes separating two compartments mimicking the luminal and serosal side of the intestine in vitro. Membranes were subjected to dispersions of an LBF that had been digested by porcine pancreatin and spiked with the membrane integrity marker Lucifer Yellow (LY). Three fenofibrate-loaded LBFs were used to explore the in vivo relevance of the assay. RESULTS Of the explored artificial membranes, only LiDo applied to PVDF was compatible with lipolysis by porcine pancreatin. Formulation ranking based on mass transfer in the LiDo model exposed was the same as drug release in single-compartment lipolysis. Ranking based on observed apparent permeability coefficients of fenofibrate with different LBFs were the same as those obtained in a cell-based model. CONCLUSIONS The LiDo membrane was able to withstand lipolysis for a sufficient assay period. However, the assay with porcine pancreatin as digestive agent did not predict the in vivo ranking of the assayed formulations better than existing methods. Comparison with a Caco-2 based assay method nonetheless indicates that the in vitro in vivo relationship of this cell-free model could be improved with alternative digestive agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver J Hedge
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, Box 580, SE-75123, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Christel A S Bergström
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, Box 580, SE-75123, Uppsala, Sweden. .,The Swedish Drug Delivery Center, Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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42
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Hempt C, Gontsarik M, Buerki-Thurnherr T, Hirsch C, Salentinig S. Nanostructure generation during milk digestion in presence of a cell culture model simulating the small intestine. J Colloid Interface Sci 2020; 574:430-440. [PMID: 32344233 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2020.04.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
HYPOTHESIS The development of advanced oral delivery systems for bioactive compounds requires the fundamental understanding of the digestion process within the gastrointestinal tract. Towards this goal, dynamic invitro digestion models, capable of characterising the molecular as well as colloidal aspects of food, together with their biological interactions with relevant invitro cell culture models, are essential. EXPERIMENTS In this study, we demonstrate a novel digestion model that combines flow-through time resolved small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) with an invitro Caco-2/HT-29 cell co-culture model that also contained a mucus layer. This set-up allows the dynamic insitu characterisation of colloidal structures and their transport across a viable intestinal cell layer during simulated digestion. FINDINGS An integrated online SAXS - invitro cell co-culture model was developed and applied to study the digestion of nature's own emulsion, milk. The impact of the invitro cell culture on the digestion-triggered formation and evolution of highly ordered nanostructures in milk is demonstrated. Reported is also the crucial role of the mucus layer on top of the cell layer, protecting the cells from degradation by digestive juice components such as lipase. The novel model can open unique possibilities for the dynamic investigation of colloidal structure formation during lipid digestion and their effect on the uptake of bioactive molecules by the cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Hempt
- Laboratory for Particles-Biology Interactions, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, 9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland; Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Mark Gontsarik
- Laboratory for Biointerfaces, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, 9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Tina Buerki-Thurnherr
- Laboratory for Particles-Biology Interactions, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, 9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Cordula Hirsch
- Laboratory for Particles-Biology Interactions, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, 9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Salentinig
- Department of Chemistry, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 9, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
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Park H, Ha ES, Kim MS. Current Status of Supersaturable Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12040365. [PMID: 32316199 PMCID: PMC7238279 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12040365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDSs) are a vital strategy to enhance the bioavailability (BA) of formulations of poorly water-soluble compounds. However, these formulations have certain limitations, including in vivo drug precipitation, poor in vitro in vivo correlation due to a lack of predictive in vitro tests, issues in handling of liquid formulation, and physico-chemical instability of drug and/or vehicle components. To overcome these limitations, which restrict the potential usage of such systems, the supersaturable SEDDSs (su-SEDDSs) have gained attention based on the fact that the inclusion of precipitation inhibitors (PIs) within SEDDSs helps maintain drug supersaturation after dispersion and digestion in the gastrointestinal tract. This improves the BA of drugs and reduces the variability of exposure. In addition, the formulation of solid su-SEDDSs has helped to overcome disadvantages of liquid or capsule dosage form. This review article discusses, in detail, the current status of su-SEDDSs that overcome the limitations of conventional SEDDSs. It discusses the definition and range of su-SEDDSs, the principle mechanisms underlying precipitation inhibition and enhanced in vivo absorption, drug application cases, biorelevance in vitro digestion models, and the development of liquid su-SEDDSs to solid dosage forms. This review also describes the effects of various physiological factors and the potential interactions between PIs and lipid, lipase or lipid digested products on the in vivo performance of su-SEDDSs. In particular, several considerations relating to the properties of PIs are discussed from various perspectives.
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Alvebratt C, Keemink J, Edueng K, Cheung O, Strømme M, Bergström CA. An in vitro dissolution–digestion–permeation assay for the study of advanced drug delivery systems. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2020; 149:21-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2020.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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45
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Tanaka Y, Tay E, Nguyen TH, Porter CJH. Quantifying In Vivo Luminal Drug Solubilization -Supersaturation-Precipitation Profiles to Explain the Performance of Lipid Based Formulations. Pharm Res 2020; 37:47. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-020-2762-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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46
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Bunchongprasert K, Shao J. Impact of Media in Transport Study on Cell Monolayer Integrity and Permeability. J Pharm Sci 2020; 109:1145-1152. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2019.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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47
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Gleeson JP, McCartney F. Striving Towards the Perfect In Vitro Oral Drug Absorption Model. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2019; 40:720-724. [PMID: 31422894 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2019.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Oral drug delivery systems have multiple goals, assessing and enabling intestinal absorption at efficacious doses being one of them. Here we highlight the in vitro advances in modeling drug absorption, which more faithfully reflect human intestinal physiology and reduce the reliance on animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P Gleeson
- Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Fiona McCartney
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
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48
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Successful oral delivery of poorly water-soluble drugs both depends on the intraluminal behavior of drugs and of appropriate advanced drug delivery systems. Eur J Pharm Sci 2019; 137:104967. [PMID: 31252052 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2019.104967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Poorly water-soluble drugs continue to be a problematic, yet important class of pharmaceutical compounds for treatment of a wide range of diseases. Their prevalence in discovery is still high, and their development is usually limited by our lack of a complete understanding of how the complex chemical, physiological and biochemical processes that occur between administration and absorption individually and together impact on bioavailability. This review defines the challenge presented by these drugs, outlines contemporary strategies to solve this challenge, and consequent in silico and in vitro evaluation of the delivery technologies for poorly water-soluble drugs. The next steps and unmet needs are proposed to present a roadmap for future studies for the field to consider enabling progress in delivery of poorly water-soluble compounds.
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49
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Charalabidis A, Sfouni M, Bergström C, Macheras P. The Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) and the Biopharmaceutics Drug Disposition Classification System (BDDCS): Beyond guidelines. Int J Pharm 2019; 566:264-281. [PMID: 31108154 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.05.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The recent impact of the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) and the Biopharmaceutics Drug Disposition Classification System (BDDCS) on relevant scientific advancements is discussed. The major advances associated with the BCS concern the extensive work on dissolution of poorly absorbed BCS class II drugs in nutritional liquids (e.g. milk, peanut oil) and biorelevant media for the accurate prediction of the rate and the extent of oral absorption. The use of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling as predictive tool for bioavailability is also presented. Since recent dissolution studies demonstrate that the two mechanisms (diffusion- and reaction-limited dissolution) take place simultaneously, the neglected reaction-limited dissolution models are discussed, regarding the biopharmaceutical classification of drugs. Solubility- and dissolution-enhancing formulation strategies based on the supersaturation principle to enhance the extent of drug absorption, along with the applications of the BDDCS to the understanding of disposition phenomena are reviewed. Finally, recent classification systems relevant either to the BCS or the BDDCS are presented. These include: i) a model independent approach based on %metabolism and the fulfilment (or not) of the current regulatory dissolution criteria, ii) the so called ΑΒΓ system, a continuous version of the BCS, and iii) the so-called Extended Clearance Classification System (ECCS). ECCS uses clearance concepts (physicochemical properties and membrane permeability) to classify compounds and differentiates from BDDCS by bypassing the measure of solubility (based on the assumption that since it inter-correlates with lipophilicity, it is not directly relevant to clearance mechanisms or elimination).
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Affiliation(s)
- Aggelos Charalabidis
- Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Sfouni
- Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
| | - Christel Bergström
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, BMC P.O. Box 580, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Panos Macheras
- Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece; PharmaInformatics Unit, Research Center ATHENA, Athens, Greece; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, State University of New York (SUNY), Buffalo, USA.
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50
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Alskär LC, Parrow A, Keemink J, Johansson P, Abrahamsson B, Bergström CAS. Effect of lipids on absorption of carvedilol in dogs: Is coadministration of lipids as efficient as a lipid-based formulation? J Control Release 2019; 304:90-100. [PMID: 31047962 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2019.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Revised: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Lipid-based formulations (LBFs) is a formulation strategy for enabling oral delivery of poorly water-soluble drugs. However, current use of this strategy is limited to a few percent of the marketed products. Reasons for that are linked to the complexity of LBFs, chemical instability of pre-dissolved drug and a limited understanding of the influence of LBF intestinal digestion on drug absorption. The aim of this study was to explore intestinal drug solubilization from a long-chain LBF, and evaluate whether coadministration of LBF is as efficient as a lipid-based drug formulation containing the pre-dissolved model drug carvedilol. Thus, solubility studies of this weak base were performed in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) and aspirated dog intestinal fluid (DIF). DIF was collected from duodenal stomas after dosing of water and two levels (1 g and 2 g) of LBF. Similarly, the in vitro SIF solubility studies were conducted prior to, and after addition of, undigested or digested LBF. The DIF fluid was further characterized for lipid digestion products (free fatty acids) and bile salts. Subsequently, carvedilol was orally administered to dogs in a lipid-based drug formulation and coadministered with LBF, and drug plasma exposure was assessed. In addition to these studies, in vitro drug absorption from the different formulation approaches were evaluated in a lipolysis-permeation device, and the obtained data was used to evaluate the in vitro in vivo correlation. The results showed elevated concentrations of free fatty acids and bile salts in the DIF when 2 g of LBF was administered, compared to only water. As expected, the SIF and DIF solubility data revealed that carvedilol solubilization increased by the presence of lipids and lipid digestion products. Moreover, coadministration of LBF and drug demonstrated equal plasma exposure to the lipid-based drug formulation. Furthermore, evaluation of in vitro absorption resulted in the same rank order for the LBFs as in the in vivo dog study. In conclusion, this study demonstrated increased intestinal solubilization from a small amount of LBF, caused by lipid digestion products and bile secretion. The outcomes also support the use of coadministration of LBF as a potential dosing regimen in cases where it is beneficial to have the drug in the solid form, e.g. due to chemical instability in the lipid vehicle. Finally, the in vitro lipolysis-permeation used herein established IVIVC for carvedilol in the presence of LBFs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda C Alskär
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Uppsala Biomedical Center, P.O Box 580, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Albin Parrow
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Uppsala Biomedical Center, P.O Box 580, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Janneke Keemink
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Uppsala Biomedical Center, P.O Box 580, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | | | - Christel A S Bergström
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Uppsala Biomedical Center, P.O Box 580, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden.
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