Core/Shell Nanocomposites Produced by Superfast Sequential Microfluidic Nanoprecipitation

Crafting Docetaxel-Loaded Albumin Nanoparticles Through a Novel Thermal-Driven Self-Assembly/Microfluidic Combination Technology: Formulation, Process Optimization, Stability, and Bioavailability

Background

The commercial docetaxel (DTX) formulation causes severe side effects due to polysorbate 80 and ethanol. Novel surfactant-free nanoparticle (NP) systems are needed to improve bioavailability and reduce side effects. However, controlling the particle size and stability of NPs and improving the batch-to-batch variation are the major challenges.

Methods

DTX-loaded bovine serum albumin nanoparticles (DTX-BSA-NPs) were prepared by a novel thermal-driven self-assembly/microfluidic technology. Single-factor analysis and orthogonal test were conducted to obtain the optimal formulation of DTX-BSA-NPs in terms of particle size, encapsulation efficiency (EE), and drug loading (DL). The effects of oil/water flow rate and pump pressure on the particle size, EE, and DL were investigated to optimize the preparation process of DTX-BSA-NPs. The drug release, physicochemical properties, stability, and pharmacokinetics of NPs were evaluated.

Results

The optimized DTX-BSA-NPs were uniform, with a particle size of 118.30 nm, EE of 89.04%, and DL of 8.27%. They showed a sustained release of 70% over 96 hours and an increased stability. There were some interactions between the drug and excipients in DTX-BSA-NPs. The half-life, mean residence time, and area under the curve (AUC) of DTX-BSA-NPs increased, but plasma clearance decreased when compared with DTX.

Conclusion

The thermal-driven self-assembly/microfluidic combination method effectively produces BSA-based NPs that improve the bioavailability and stability of DTX, offering a promising alternative to traditional formulations.

Advances in Microfluidic-Based Core@Shell Nanoparticles Fabrication for Cancer Applications

Current research in cancer therapy focuses on personalized therapies, through nanotechnology-based targeted drug delivery systems. Particularly, controlled drug release with nanoparticles (NPs) can be designed to safely transport various active agents, optimizing delivery to specific organs and tumors, minimizing side effects. The use of microfluidics (MFs) in this field has stood out against conventional methods by allowing precise control over parameters like size, structure, composition, and mechanical/biological properties of nanoscale carriers. This review compiles applications of microfluidics in the production of core-shell NPs (CSNPs) for cancer therapy, discussing the versatility inherent in various microchannel and/or micromixer setups and showcasing how these setups can be utilized individually or in combination, as well as how this technology allows the development of new advances in more efficient and controlled fabrication of core-shell nanoformulations. Recent biological studies have achieved an effective, safe, and controlled delivery of otherwise unreliable encapsulants such as small interfering RNA (siRNA), plasmid DNA (pDNA), and cisplatin as a result of precisely tuned fabrication of nanocarriers, showing that this technology is paving the way for innovative strategies in cancer therapy nanofabrication, characterized by continuous production and high reproducibility. Finally, this review analyzes the technical, biological, and technological limitations that currently prevent this technology from becoming the standard.

Effect of polymer concentration on the morphology of the PHPMAA-g-PLA graft copolymer nanoparticles produced by microfluidics nanoprecipitation

Successful generation of micelles, vesicles, and/or worms with controllable sizes was achieved through the self-assembly process of the poly[N-(2-hydroxypropyl)]methacrylamide-g-polylactide (PHPMAA-g-PLA) graft copolymer within a microfluidic channel. A product diagram was created to illustrate various morphologies associated with different polymer concentrations, all while maintaining a constant flow velocity ratio between water and the polymer solution.

Advanced manufacturing of nanoparticle formulations of drugs and biologics using microfluidics

Numerous innovative nanoparticle formulations of drugs and biologics, named nano-formulations, have been developed in the last two decades. However, methods for their scaled-up production are still lagging, as the amount needed for large animal tests and clinical trials is typically orders of magnitude larger. This manufacturing challenge poses a critical barrier to successfully translating various nano-formulations. This review focuses on how microfluidics technology has become a powerful tool to overcome this challenge by synthesizing various nano-formulations with improved particle properties and product purity in large quantities. This microfluidic-based manufacturing is enabled by microfluidic mixing, which is capable of the precise and continuous control of the synthesis of nano-formulations. We further discuss the specific applications of hydrodynamic flow focusing, a staggered herringbone micromixer, a T-junction mixer, a micro-droplet generator, and a glass capillary on various types of nano-formulations of polymeric, lipid, inorganic, and nanocrystals. Various separation and purification microfluidic methods to enhance the product purity are reviewed, including acoustofluidics, hydrodynamics, and dielectrophoresis. We further discuss the challenges of microfluidics being used by broader research and industrial communities. We also provide future outlooks of its enormous potential as a decentralized approach for manufacturing nano-formulations.

Nanocomposite colloids prepared by the Ouzo effect

HYPOTHESIS

The organization of nanoparticles within nanocomposite colloids can imbue added functionality to these suprastructures. We hypothesize that the arrangement of nanoparticles in nanocomposite colloids can be systematically controlled by inducing co-precipitation of oil and a hydrophilic polymer in the presence of nanoparticles with a range of wetting properties. This process will produce oil core/polymer shell nanocapsules with nanoparticles strategically positioned within the suprastructures.

EXPERIMENTS

Coprecipitation of oil and polymer in the presence of nanoparticles is performed in glass capillary microfluidics. Silica nanoparticles of varying surface properties and morphology are used to investigate the relationship between nanoparticle wetting properties and nanocolloid morphology. The features of the nanocomposites formed are investigated using electron microscopy, sessile drop, and zeta potential measurements.

FINDINGS

When spherical nanoparticles with wetting properties ranging from hydrophilic to hydrophobic are used, the nanocomposite morphologies formed range from nanoparticles partially engulfed in the polymer shell to nanoparticles embedded in the oil core of the nanocapsule. The number of nanoparticles introduced in the nanocomposite is adjusted by changing their concentration in the precursor solution. The structure of nanocolloids formed with non-spherical or hollow silica nanoparticles depends on their wetting properties.

Dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy in drug delivery: a roadmap for correct characterization of nanoparticles and interpretation of results

In this focus article, we provide a scrutinizing analysis of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) as the two common methods to study the sizes of nanoparticles with focus on the application in pharmaceutics and drug delivery. Control over the size and shape of nanoparticles is one of the key factors for many biomedical systems. Particle size will substantially affect their permeation through biological membranes. For example, an enhanced permeation and retention effect requires a very narrow range of sizes of nanoparticles (50-200 nm) and even a minor deviation from these values will substantially affect the delivery of drug nanocarriers to the tumour. However, amazingly a great number of research papers in pharmaceutics and drug delivery report a striking difference in nanoparticle size measured by the two most popular experimental techniques (TEM and DLS). In some cases, this difference was reported to be 200-300%, raising the question of which size measurement result is more trustworthy. In this focus article, we primarily focus on the physical aspects that are responsible for the routinely observed mismatch between TEM and DLS results. Some of these factors such as concentration and angle dependencies are commonly underestimated and misinterpreted. We convincingly show that correctly used experimental procedures and a thorough analysis of results generated using both methods can eliminate the DLS and TEM data mismatch completely or will make the results much closer to each other. Also, we provide a clear roadmap for drug delivery and pharmaceutical researchers to conduct reliable DLS measurements.

Microfluidic synthesis of nanomaterials for biomedical applications

The field of nanomaterials has progressed dramatically over the past decades with important contributions to the biomedical area. The physicochemical properties of nanomaterials, such as the size and structure, can be controlled through manipulation of mass and heat transfer conditions during synthesis. In particular, microfluidic systems with rapid mixing and precise fluid control are ideal platforms for creating appropriate synthesis conditions. One notable example of microfluidics-based synthesis is the development of lipid nanoparticle (LNP)-based mRNA vaccines with accelerated clinical translation and robust efficacy during the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition to LNPs, microfluidic systems have been adopted for the controlled synthesis of a broad range of nanomaterials. In this review, we introduce the fundamental principles of microfluidic technologies including flow field- and multiple field-based methods for fabricating nanoparticles, and discuss their applications in the biomedical field. We conclude this review by outlining several major challenges and future directions in the implementation of microfluidic synthesis of nanomaterials.

Controlled Interfacial Polymer Self-Assembly Coordinates Ultrahigh Drug Loading and Zero-Order Release in Particles Prepared under Continuous Flow

Microparticles are successfully engineered through controlled interfacial self-assembly of polymers to harmonize ultrahigh drug loading with zero-order release of protein payloads. To address their poor miscibility with carrier materials, protein molecules are transformed into nanoparticles, whose surfaces are covered with polymer molecules. This polymer layer hinders the transfer of cargo nanoparticles from oil to water, achieving superior encapsulation efficiency (up to 99.9%). To control payload release, the polymer density at the oil-water interface is enhanced, forming a compact shell for microparticles. The resultant microparticles can harvest up to 49.9% mass fraction of proteins with zero-order release kinetics in vivo, enabling an efficient glycemic control in type 1 diabetes. Moreover, the precise control of engineering process offered through continuous flow results in high batch-to-batch reproducibility and, ultimately, excellent scale-up feasibility.

Sequential Flash NanoPrecipitation for the scalable formulation of stable core-shell nanoparticles with core loadings up to 90

Flash NanoPrecipitation (FNP) is a scalable, single-step process that uses rapid mixing to prepare nanoparticles with a hydrophobic core and amphiphilic stabilizing shell. Because the two steps of particle self-assembly - (1) core nucleation and growth and (2) adsorption of a stabilizing polymer onto the growing core surface - occur simultaneously during FNP, nanoparticles formulated at core loadings above approximately 70% typically exhibit poor stability or do not form at all. Additionally, a fundamental limit on the concentration of total solids that can be introduced into the FNP process has been reported previously. These limits are believed to share a common mechanism: entrainment of the stabilizing polymer into the growing particle core, leading to destabilization and aggregation. Here, we demonstrate a variation of FNP which separates the nucleation and stabilization steps of particle formation into separate sequential mixers. This scheme allows the hydrophobic core to nucleate and grow in the first mixing chamber unimpeded by adsorption of the stabilizing polymer, which is later introduced to the growing nuclei in the second mixer. Using this Sequential Flash NanoPrecipitation (SNaP) technique, we formulate stable nanoparticles with up to 90% core loading by mass and at 6-fold higher total input solids concentrations than typically reported.

Modulation of Oil/Polymer Nanocapsule Size via Phase Diagram-Guided Microfluidic Coprecipitation

Flow-based nanoprecipitation of different solutes via rapid mixing of two miscible liquids is a scalable strategy for manufacturing nanoparticles with various shapes and morphologies. Controlling the size of nanoparticles in flow-based nanoprecipitation, however, is often left to empirical variations in the flow rate ratios or the total flow rate of the two streams. In this work, we investigate the coprecipitations of oil and polymer to form nanocapsules via the Ouzo effect using glass capillary microfluidics across a range of mixing conditions. In the range of flow rates studied, the two streams mix convectively in micro-vortices formed at the junction of the two stream inlets. Using computational fluid dynamics simulations and glass capillary microfluidic nanoprecipitation, we establish a relationship between the precipitation conditions occurring experimentally in situ and the location on the ternary Ouzo phase diagram where precipitation is taking place. We find that a key variable in the resulting average diameter of the fabricated capsules is the degree of supersaturation experienced by both the oil and the polymer in the vortex zone of the device, showing a strong correlation between the two values. The control over the nanocapsule size by varying the extent of supersaturation of both precipitants is demonstrated by using two oils having distinct phase diagrams. This work provides a systematic approach to controlling the size of nanoparticles fabricated via continuous nanoprecipitation by linking the in situ flow conditions to ternary phase diagram behavior, enabling accurate control over nanocapsule size.

Recent Advances in the Lipid Nanoparticle-Mediated Delivery of mRNA Vaccines

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have recently emerged as one of the most advanced technologies for the highly efficient in vivo delivery of exogenous mRNA, particularly for COVID-19 vaccine delivery. LNPs comprise four different lipids: ionizable lipids, helper or neutral lipids, cholesterol, and lipids attached to polyethylene glycol (PEG). In this review, we present recent the advances and insights for the design of LNPs, as well as their composition and properties, with a subsequent discussion on the development of COVID-19 vaccines. In particular, as ionizable lipids are the most critical drivers for complexing the mRNA and in vivo delivery, the role of ionizable lipids in mRNA vaccines is discussed in detail. Furthermore, the use of LNPs as effective delivery vehicles for vaccination, genome editing, and protein replacement therapy is explained. Finally, expert opinion on LNPs for mRNA vaccines is discussed, which may address future challenges in developing mRNA vaccines using highly efficient LNPs based on a novel set of ionizable lipids. Developing highly efficient mRNA delivery systems for vaccines with improved safety against some severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants remains difficult.

Microfluidic preparation and optimization of sorafenib-loaded poly(ethylene glycol-block-caprolactone) nanoparticles for cancer therapy applications

The use of amphiphilic block copolymers to generate colloidal delivery systems for hydrophobic drugs has been the subject of extensive research, with several formulations reaching the clinical development stages. However, to generate particles of uniform size and morphology, with high encapsulation efficiency, yield and batch-to-batch reproducibility remains a challenge, and various microfluidic technologies have been explored to tackle these issues. Herein, we report the development and optimization of poly(ethylene glycol)-block-(ε-caprolactone) (PEG-b-PCL) nanoparticles for intravenous delivery of a model drug, sorafenib. We developed and optimized a glass capillary microfluidic nanoprecipitation process and studied systematically the effects of formulation and process parameters, including different purification techniques, on product quality and batch-to-batch variation. The optimized formulation delivered particles with a spherical morphology, small particle size (d_H < 80 nm), uniform size distribution (PDI < 0.2), and high drug loading degree (16 %) at 54 % encapsulation efficiency. Furthermore, the stability and in vitro drug release were evaluated, showing that sorafenib was released from the NPs in a sustained manner over several days. Overall, the study demonstrates a microfluidic approach to produce sorafenib-loaded PEG-b-PCL NPs and provides important insight into the effects of nanoprecipitation parameters and downstream processing on product quality.

Recent advances in mixing-induced nanoprecipitation: from creating complex nanostructures to emerging applications beyond biomedicine

Mixing-induced nanoprecipitation (MINP) is an efficient, controllable, scalable, versatile, and cost-effective technique for the preparation of nanoparticles. In addition to the formulation of drugs, MINP has attracted tremendous interest in other fields. In this review, we highlight recent advances in the preparation of nanoparticles with complex nanostructures via MINP and their emerging applications beyond biomedicine. First, the mechanisms of nanoprecipitation and four mixing approaches for MINP are briefly discussed. Next, three strategies for the preparation of nanoparticles with complex nanostructures including sequential nanoprecipitation, controlling phase separation, and incorporating inorganic nanoparticles, are summarized. Then, emerging applications including the engineering of catalytic nanomaterials, environmentally friendly photovoltaic inks, colloidal surfactants for the preparation of Pickering emulsions, and green templates for the synthesis of nanomaterials, are reviewed. Furthermore, we discuss the structure-function relationships to gain more insight into design principles for the development of functional nanoparticles via MINP. Finally, the remaining issues and future applications are discussed. This review will stimulate the development of nanoparticles with complex nanostructures and their broader applications beyond biomedicine.

Rapid Precipitation of Ionomers for Stabilization of Polymeric Colloids

Polymeric colloids have shown potential as "building blocks" in applications ranging from formulations of Pickering emulsions and drug delivery systems to advanced materials, including colloidal crystals and composites. However, for applications requiring tunable properties of charged colloids, obstacles in fabrication can arise through limitations in process scalability and chemical versatility. In this work, the capabilities of flash nanoprecipitation (FNP), a scalable nanoparticle (NP) fabrication technology, are expanded to produce charged polystyrene colloids using sulfonated polystyrene ionomers as a new class of NP stabilizers. Through experimental exploration of formulation parameters, increases in the ionomer content are shown to reduce the particle size, mitigating a significant trade-off between the final particle size and inlet concentration; thus, expanding the processable material throughput of FNP. Further, the degree of sulfonation is found to impact stabilization with optimal performance achieved by selecting ionomers with intermediate (2.45-5.2 mol %) sulfonation. Simulations of single ionomer chains and their arrangement in multicomponent NPs provide molecular insights into the assembly and structure of NPs wherein the partitioning of ionomers to the particle surface depends on the polymer molecular weight and degree of sulfonation. By combining the insights from simulations with diffusion-limited growth kinetics and parametric fits to experimental data, a simple design formulation relation is proposed and validated. This work highlights the potential of ionomer-based stabilizers for controllably producing charged NP dispersions in a scalable manner.

Microfluidic Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery

Nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted tremendous interest in drug delivery in the past decades. Microfluidics offers a promising strategy for making NPs for drug delivery due to its capability in precisely controlling NP properties. The recent success of mRNA vaccines using microfluidics represents a big milestone for microfluidic NPs for pharmaceutical applications, and its rapid scaling up demonstrates the feasibility of using microfluidics for industrial-scale manufacturing. This article provides a critical review of recent progress in microfluidic NPs for drug delivery. First, the synthesis of organic NPs using microfluidics focusing on typical microfluidic methods and their applications in making popular and clinically relevant NPs, such as liposomes, lipid NPs, and polymer NPs, as well as their synthesis mechanisms are summarized. Then, the microfluidic synthesis of several representative inorganic NPs (e.g., silica, metal, metal oxide, and quantum dots), and hybrid NPs is discussed. Lastly, the applications of microfluidic NPs for various drug delivery applications are presented.

Microfluidic-Assisted Fabrication of Dual-Coated pH-Sensitive Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Protein Delivery

Microfluidics has become a popular method for constructing nanosystems in recent years, but it can also be used to coat other materials with polymeric layers. The polymeric coating may serve as a diffusion barrier against hydrophilic compounds, a responsive layer for controlled release, or a functional layer introduced to a nanocomposite for achieving the desired surface chemistry. In this study, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) with enlarged pores were synthesized to achieve high protein loading combined with high protein retention within the MSN system with the aid of a microfluidic coating. Thus, MSNs were first coated with a cationic polyelectrolyte, poly (diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDMA), and to potentially further control the protein release, a second coating of a pH-sensitive polymer (spermine-modified acetylated dextran, SpAcDEX) was deposited by a designed microfluidic device. The protective PDDMA layer was first formed under aqueous conditions, whereby the bioactivity of the protein could be maintained. The second coating polymer, SpAcDEX, was preferred to provide pH-sensitive protein release in the intracellular environment. The optimized formulation was effectively taken up by the cells along with the loaded protein cargo. This proof-of-concept study thus demonstrated that the use of microfluidic technologies for the design of protein delivery systems has great potential in terms of creating multicomponent systems and preserving protein stability.

K, Pilaquinga F, Kumar B, Debut A. Comparative statistical analysis of the release kinetics models for nanoprecipitated drug delivery systems based on poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) is one of the most used polymers for drug delivery systems (DDSs). It shows excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, and allows spatio-temporal control of the release of a drug by altering its chemistry. In spite of this, few formulations have reached the market. To characterize and optimize the drug release process, mathematical models offer a good alternative as they allow interpreting and predicting experimental findings, saving time and money. However, there is no general model that describes all types of drug release of polymeric DDSs. This study aims to perform a statistical comparison of several mathematical models commonly used in order to find which of them best describes the drug release profile from PLGA particles synthesized by nanoprecipitation method. For this purpose, 40 datasets extracted from scientific articles published since 2016 were collected. Each set was fitted by the models: order zero to fifth order polynomials, Korsmeyer-Peppas, Weibull and Hyperbolic Tangent Function. Some data sets had few observations that do not allow to apply statistic test, thus bootstrap resampling technique was performed. Statistic evidence showed that Hyperbolic Tangent Function model is the one that best fit most of the data.

Microfluidic Roadmap for Translational Nanotheranostics

Nanotheranostic materials (NTMs) shed light on the mechanisms responsible for complex diseases such as cancer because they enable making a diagnosis, monitoring the disease progression, and applying a targeted therapy simultaneously. However, several issues such as the reproducibility and mass production of NTMs hamper their application for clinical practice. To address these issues and facilitate the clinical application of NTMs, microfluidic systems have been increasingly used. This perspective provides a glimpse into the current state-of-art of NTM research, emphasizing the methods currently employed at each development stage of NTMs and the related open problems. This work reviews microfluidic technologies used to develop NTMs, ranging from the fabrication and testing of a single NTM up to their manufacturing on a large scale. Ultimately, a step-by-step vision on the future development of NTMs for clinical practice enabled by microfluidics techniques is provided.

Microfluidic technologies for nanoparticle formation

Functional nanoparticles (NPs) hold immense promise in diverse fields due to their unique biological, chemical, and physical properties associated with size or morphology. Microfluidic technologies featuring precise fluid manipulation have become versatile toolkits for manufacturing NPs in a highly controlled manner with low batch-to-batch variability. In this review, we present the fundamentals of microfluidic fabrication strategies, including mixing-, droplet-, and multiple field-based microfluidic methods. We highlight the formation of functional NPs using these microfluidic reactors, with an emphasis on lipid NPs, polymer NPs, lipid-polymer hybrid NPs, supramolecular NPs, metal and metal-oxide NPs, metal-organic framework NPs, covalent organic framework NPs, quantum dots, perovskite nanocrystals, biomimetic NPs, etc. we discuss future directions in microfluidic fabrication for accelerated development of functional NPs, such as device parallelization for large-scale NP production, highly efficient optimization of NP formulations, and AI-guided design of multi-step microfluidic reactors.

Microfluidic technologies and devices for lipid nanoparticle-based RNA delivery

In 2021, mRNA vaccines against COVID-19 were approved by the Food and Drug Administration. mRNA vaccines are important for preventing severe COVID-19 and returning to normal life. The development of RNA-delivery technology, including mRNA vaccines, has been investigated worldwide for ~30 years. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are a breakthrough technology that stably delivers RNA to target organs, and RNA-loaded LNP-based nanomedicines have been studied for the development of vaccines and nanomedicines for RNA-, gene-, and cell-based therapies. Recently, microfluidic devices and technologies have attracted attention for the production of LNPs, particularly RNA-loaded LNPs. Microfluidics provides many advantages for RNA-loaded LNP production, including precise LNP size controllability, high reproducibility, high-throughput optimization of LNP formulation, and continuous LNP-production processes. In this review, we summarize microfluidic-based RNA-loaded LNP production and its applications in RNA-based therapy and genome editing.

Multi-directionally evaluating the formation mechanism of 1,4-dihydropyridine drug nanosuspensions through experimental validation and computer-aided drug design

The poor aqueous solubility of 1,4-dihydropyridine drugs needs to be solved urgently to improve the bioavailability. Nanotechnology can improve drug solubility and dissolution by reducing particle size, but usually a specific polymer or surfactant is required for stabilization. In this study, Poloxamer-407(P-407) was screened as the optimal stabilize through energy simulation, molecular docking and particle size. morphological study, X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman, in vitro dissolution test and molecular simulation of interactions were utilized to explore the formation mechanisms of four 1,4-dihydropyridine drugs/P-407 nanosuspensions. The result shows that the optimized nanosuspensions had the particle size in the nano-size range and maintained the original crystal state. The in vitro dissolution rate of the nanosuspension was 3-4 times higher than the corresponding API and could reduce the restriction of drug dissolution in different pH environments. Raman spectroscopy, FTIR and molecular docking simulations provided strong supporting evidence for the formation mechanism of 1,4-dihydropyridine drugs/P-407 nanosuspensions at the molecular level, which confirmed that the stable intermolecular hydrogen bond adsorption and hydrophobic interaction were formed between the drug and P-407. This research will provide practical concepts and technologies, which are helpful to develop nanosuspensions for the same class of drugs.

Towards principled design of cancer nanomedicine to accelerate clinical translation

Nanotechnology in medical applications, especially in oncology as drug delivery systems, has recently shown promising results. However, although these advances have been promising in the pre-clinical stages, the clinical translation of this technology is challenging. To create drug delivery systems with increased treatment efficacy for clinical translation, the physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles such as size, shape, elasticity (flexibility/rigidity), surface chemistry, and surface charge can be specified to optimize efficiency for a given application. Consequently, interdisciplinary researchers have focused on producing biocompatible materials, production technologies, or new formulations for efficient loading, and high stability. The effects of design parameters can be studied in vitro, in vivo, or using computational models, with the goal of understanding how they affect nanoparticle biophysics and their interactions with cells. The present review summarizes the advances and technologies in the production and design of cancer nanomedicines to achieve clinical translation and commercialization. We also highlight existing challenges and opportunities in the field.

Microfluidic nanomaterials: From synthesis to biomedical applications

Microfluidic platforms gain popularity in biomedical research due to their attractive inherent features, especially in nanomaterials synthesis. This review critically evaluates the current state of the controlled synthesis of nanomaterials using microfluidic devices. We describe nanomaterials' screening in microfluidics, which is very relevant for automating the synthesis process for biomedical applications. We discuss the latest microfluidics trends to achieve noble metal, silica, biopolymer, quantum dots, iron oxide, carbon-based, rare-earth-based, and other nanomaterials with a specific size, composition, surface modification, and morphology required for particular biomedical application. Screening nanomaterials has become an essential tool to synthesize desired nanomaterials using more automated processes with high speed and repeatability, which can't be neglected in today's microfluidic technology. Moreover, we emphasize biomedical applications of nanomaterials, including imaging, targeting, therapy, and sensing. Before clinical use, nanomaterials have to be evaluated under physiological conditions, which is possible in the microfluidic system as it stimulates chemical gradients, fluid flows, and the ability to control microenvironment and partitioning multi-organs. In this review, we emphasize the clinical evaluation of nanomaterials using microfluidics which was not covered by any other reviews. In the future, the growth of new materials or modification in existing materials using microfluidics platforms and applications in a diversity of biomedical fields by utilizing all the features of microfluidic technology is expected.

Microfluidic preparation and in vitro evaluation of iRGD-functionalized solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted delivery of paclitaxel to tumor cells

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) can combine the advantages of different colloidal carriers and prevent some of their disadvantages. The production of nanoparticles by means of microfluidics represents a successful platform for industrial scale-up of nanoparticle manufacture in a reproducible way. The realisation of a microfluidic technique to obtain SLNs in a continuous and reproducible manner encouraged us to create surface functionalised SLNs for targeted drug release using the same procedure. A tumor homing peptide, iRGD, owning a cryptic C-end Rule (CendR) motif is responsible for neuropilin-1 (NRP-1) binding and for triggering extravasation and tumor penetration of the peptide. In this study, the Paclitaxel loaded-SLNs produced by microfluidics were functionalized with the iRGD peptide. The SLNs proved to be stable in aqueous medium andwere characterized by a Z-average under 150 nm, a polydispersity index below 0.2, a zeta-potential between -20 and -35 mV and a drug encapsulation efficiency around 40%. Moreover, in vitro cytotoxic effects and cellular uptake have been assessed using 2D and 3D tumour models of U87 glioblastoma cell lines. Overall, these results demonstrate that the surface functionalization of SLNs with iRGD allow better cellular uptake and cytotoxicity ability.

Recent Advances of Microfluidic Platforms for Controlled Drug Delivery in Nanomedicine

Nanomedicine drug delivery systems hold great potential for the therapy of many diseases, especially cancer. However, the controlled drug delivery systems of nanomedicine bring many challenges to clinical practice. These difficulties can be attributed to the high batch-to-batch variations and insufficient production rate of traditional preparation methods, as well as a lack of technology for fast screening of nanoparticulate drug delivery structures with high correlation to in vivo tests. These problems may be addressed through microfluidic technology. Microfluidics, for example, can not only produce nanoparticles in a well-controlled, reproducible, and high-throughput manner, but it can also continuously create three-dimensional environments to mimic physiological and/or pathological processes. This overview gives a top-level view of the microfluidic devices advanced to put together nanoparticulate drug delivery systems, including drug nanosuspensions, polymer nanoparticles, polyplexes, structured nanoparticles and therapeutic nanoparticles. Additionally, highlighting the current advances of microfluidic systems in fabricating the more and more practical fashions of the in vitro milieus for fast screening of nanoparticles was reviewed. Overall, microfluidic technology provides a promising technique to boost the scientific delivery of nanomedicine and nanoparticulate drug delivery systems. Nonetheless, digital microfluidics with droplets and liquid marbles is the answer to the problems of cumbersome external structures, in addition to the rather big pattern volume. As the latest work is best at the proof-of-idea of liquid-marble-primarily based on totally virtual microfluidics, computerized structures for developing liquid marble, and the controlled manipulation of liquid marble, including coalescence and splitting, are areas of interest for bringing this platform toward realistic use.

Nanoprecipitation as a simple and straightforward process to create complex polymeric colloidal morphologies

Polymeric nanoparticles are highly important functional nanomaterials for a large range of applications from therapeutics to energy. Advances in nanotechnology have enabled the engineering of multifunctional polymeric nanoparticles with a variety of shapes and inner morphologies. Thanks to its inherent simplicity, the nanoprecipitation technique has progressively become a popular approach to construct polymeric nanoparticles with precise control of nanostructure. The present review highlights the great capability of this technique in controlling the fabrication of various polymeric nanostructures of interest. In particular, we show here how the nanoprecipitation of either block copolymers or mixtures of homopolymers can afford a myriad of colloids displaying equilibrium (typically onion-like) or out-of-equilibrium (stacked lamellae, porous cores) morphologies, depending whether the system "freezes" while passing the glass transition or crystallization point of starting materials. We also show that core-shell morphologies, either from polymeric or oil/polymer mixtures, are attainable by this one-pot process. A final discussion proposes new directions to enlarge the scope and possible achievements of the process.

Au@Ag Core@Shell Nanoparticles Synthesized with Rumex hymenosepalus as Antimicrobial Agent

In this work, we used a sequential method of synthesis for gold-silver bimetallic nanoparticles with core@shell structure (Au@AgNPs). Rumex hymenosepalus root extract (Rh), which presents high content in catechins and stilbenes, was used as reductor agent in nanoparticles synthesis. Size distribution obtained by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) gives a mean diameter of 36 ± 11 nm for Au@AgNPs, 24 ± 4 nm for gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), and 13 ± 3 nm for silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). The geometrical shapes of NPs were principally quasi-spherical. The thickness of the silver shell over AuNPs is around 6 nm and covered by active biomolecules onto the surface. Nanoparticles characterization included high angle annular dark field images (HAADF) recorded with a scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM), Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), UV-Vis Spectroscopy, Zeta Potential, and Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS). Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR), and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) show that nanoparticles are stabilized by extract molecules. A growth kinetics study was performed using the Gompertz model for microorganisms exposed to nanomaterials. The results indicate that AgNPs and Au@AgNPs affect the lag phase and growth rate of Escherichia coli and Candida albicans in a dose-dependent manner, with a better response for Au@AgNPs.

Chips for Biomaterials and Biomaterials for Chips: Recent Advances at the Interface between Microfabrication and Biomaterials Research

In recent years, the use of microfabrication techniques has allowed biomaterials studies which were originally carried out at larger length scales to be miniaturized as so-called "on-chip" experiments. These miniaturized experiments have a range of advantages which have led to an increase in their popularity. A range of biomaterial shapes and compositions are synthesized or manufactured on chip. Moreover, chips are developed to investigate specific aspects of interactions between biomaterials and biological systems. Finally, biomaterials are used in microfabricated devices to replicate the physiological microenvironment in studies using so-called "organ-on-chip," "tissue-on-chip" or "disease-on-chip" models, which can reduce the use of animal models with their inherent high cost and ethical issues, and due to the possible use of human cells can increase the translation of research from lab to clinic. This review gives an overview of recent developments at the interface between microfabrication and biomaterials science, and indicates potential future directions that the field may take. In particular, a trend toward increased scale and automation is apparent, allowing both industrial production of micron-scale biomaterials and high-throughput screening of the interaction of diverse materials libraries with cells and bioengineered tissues and organs.

Particle engineering principles and technologies for pharmaceutical biologics

The global market of pharmaceutical biologics has expanded significantly during the last few decades. Currently, pharmaceutical biologic products constitute an indispensable part of the modern medicines. Most pharmaceutical biologic products are injections either in the forms of solutions or lyophilized powders because of their low oral bioavailability. There are certain pharmaceutical biologic entities formulated into particulate delivery systems for the administration via non-invasive routes or to achieve prolonged pharmaceutical actions to reduce the frequency of injections. It has been well documented that the design of nano- and microparticles via various particle engineering technologies could render pharmaceutical biologics with certain benefits including improved stability, enhanced intracellular uptake, prolonged pharmacological effect, enhanced bioavailability, reduced side effects, and improved patient compliance. Herein, we review the principles of the particle engineering technologies based on bottom-up approach and present the important formulation and process parameters that influence the critical quality attributes with some mathematical models. Subsequently, various nano- and microparticle engineering technologies used to formulate or process pharmaceutical biologic entities are reviewed. Lastly, an array of commercialized products of pharmaceutical biologics accomplished based on various particle engineering technologies are presented and the challenges in the development of particulate delivery systems for pharmaceutical biologics are discussed.

Microfluidic formulation of nanoparticles for biomedical applications

Nanomedicine has made significant advances in clinical applications since the late-20th century, in part due to its distinct advantages in biocompatibility, potency, and novel therapeutic applications. Many nanoparticle (NP) therapies have been approved for clinical use, including as imaging agents or as platforms for drug delivery and gene therapy. However, there are remaining challenges that hinder translation, such as non-scalable production methods and the inefficiency of current NP formulations in delivering their cargo to their target. To address challenges with existing formulation methods that have batch-to-batch variability and produce particles with high dispersity, microfluidics-devices that manipulate fluids on a micrometer scale-have demonstrated enormous potential to generate reproducible NP formulations for therapeutic, diagnostic, and preventative applications. Microfluidic-generated NP formulations have been shown to have enhanced properties for biomedical applications by formulating NPs with more controlled physical properties than is possible with bulk techniques-such as size, size distribution, and loading efficiency. In this review, we highlight advances in microfluidic technologies for the formulation of NPs, with an emphasis on lipid-based NPs, polymeric NPs, and inorganic NPs. We provide a summary of microfluidic devices used for NP formulation with their advantages and respective challenges. Additionally, we provide our analysis for future outlooks in the field of NP formulation and microfluidics, with emerging topics of production scale-independent formulations through device parallelization and multi-step reactions within droplets.

Fabrication of tunable, high-molecular-weight polymeric nanoparticles via ultrafast acoustofluidic micromixing

High-molecular-weight polymeric nanoparticles are critical to increasing the loading efficacy and tuning the release profile of targeted molecules for medical diagnosis, imaging, and therapeutics. Although a number of microfluidic approaches have attained reproducible nanoparticle synthesis, it is still challenging to fabricate nanoparticles from high-molecular-weight polymers in a size and structure-controlled manner. In this work, an acoustofluidic platform is developed to synthesize size-tunable, high-molecular-weight (>45 kDa) poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)-b-poly(ethylene glycol) (PLGA-PEG) nanoparticles without polymer aggregation by exploiting the characteristics of complete and ultrafast mixing. Moreover, the acoustofluidic approach achieves two features that have not been achieved by existing microfluidic approaches: (1) multi-step (≥2) sequential nanoprecipitation in a single device, and (2) synthesis of core-shell structured PLGA-PEG/lipid nanoparticles with high molecular weights. The developed platform expands microfluidic potential in nanomaterial synthesis, where high-molecular-weight polymers, multiple reagents, or sequential nanoprecipitations are needed.

Synthesis of monodisperse spherical AgNPs by ultrasound-intensified Lee-Meisel method, and quick evaluation via machine learning

Due to the high reactivity of Ag⁺ and uncontrolled growth process, the AgNPs produced by conventional Lee-Meisel method always exhibited larger particle size (30-200 nm) and polydisperse morphology (including spherical, triangular, and rod-like shape). An ultrasound-intensified Lee-Meisel (UILM) method is developed in this study to environmental-friendly and controllable synthesize monodisperse spherical AgNPs (~3.7 nm). Effects of Ag:citrate ratio (1:3 or 5:4), ultrasound power (300 to 1200 W) and reaction time (4 to 24 min) on the physical-chemical properties of AgNPs are investigated systematically. The transmission electron microscope (TEM) images, UV-Vis spectra, average particle size, zeta potential and pH value all demonstrate that crystallization and digestive ripening processes are facilitated in the presence of ultrasound irradiation. Therefore, both chemical reaction rate and mass transfer rate are enhanced to accelerate primary nucleation and inhibit uncontrolled particle growth, leading to the formation of monodisperse spherical AgNPs. Moreover, a machine learning approach - Decision Tree Regressor in conjunction with Shapley value analysis reveal the concentration of reactants is a more important feature affecting the particle.

Recent Progress in the Diagnosis and Precise Nanocarrier-Mediated Therapy of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

The effective colon drug delivery remains to be an international frontier research in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) therapy. The exploration and research of nanocarrier-based nanomedicine with great potential brings new opportunities for IBD therapy and diagnoses. Functional nanocarriers with varying morphology and characteristics can not only effectively avoid the destruction of the complex gastrointestinal (GI) tract microenvironment but also endow drugs with target therapy and improved bioavailability, thus elevating therapeutic efficacy. In this review, we illustrated several challenges in IBD therapy, then emphasis on some latest research progress of nanoparticles based therapy of oral administration, rectal administration and parenteral administration, as well as IBD diagnoses. Finally, we described the future perspective of nanocarriers in the treatment and diagnoses of IBD.

Acetalated dextran based nano- and microparticles: synthesis, fabrication, and therapeutic applications

Acetalated dextran (Ac-DEX) is a pH-responsive dextran derivative polymer. Prepared by a simple acetalation reaction, Ac-DEX has tunable acid-triggered release profile. Despite its relatively short research history, Ac-DEX has shown great potential in various therapeutic applications. Furthermore, the recent functionalization of Ac-DEX makes versatile derivatives with additional properties. Herein, we summarize the cutting-edge development of Ac-DEX and related polymers. Specifically, we focus on the chemical synthesis, nano- and micro-particle fabrication techniques, the controlled-release mechanisms, and the rational design Ac-DEX-based of drug delivery systems in various biomedical applications. Finally, we briefly discuss the challenges and future perspectives in the field.

Polymer based nanoparticles for biomedical applications by microfluidic techniques: from design to biological evaluation

The development of microfluidic technologies represents a new strategy to produce and test drug delivery systems.

Modular and Integrated Systems for Nanoparticle and Microparticle Synthesis-A Review

Nanoparticles (NPs) and microparticles (MPs) have been widely used in different areas of research such as materials science, energy, and biotechnology. On-demand synthesis of NPs and MPs with desired chemical and physical properties is essential for different applications. However, most of the conventional methods for producing NPs/MPs require bulky and expensive equipment, which occupies large space and generally need complex operation with dedicated expertise and labour. These limitations hinder inexperienced researchers to harness the advantages of NPs and MPs in their fields of research. When problems individual researchers accumulate, the overall interdisciplinary innovations for unleashing a wider range of directions are undermined. In recent years, modular and integrated systems are developed for resolving the ongoing dilemma. In this review, we focus on the development of modular and integrated systems that assist the production of NPs and MPs. We categorise these systems into two major groups: systems for the synthesis of (1) NPs and (2) MPs; systems for producing NPs are further divided into two sections based on top-down and bottom-up approaches. The mechanisms of each synthesis method are explained, and the properties of produced NPs/MPs are compared. Finally, we discuss existing challenges and outline the potentials for the development of modular and integrated systems.

Development of High-Drug-Loading Nanoparticles

Formulating drugs into nanoparticles offers many attractive advantages over free drugs including improved bioavailability, minimized toxic side effects, enhanced drug delivery, feasibility of incorporating other functions such as controlled release, imaging agents for imaging, targeting delivery, and loading more than one drug for combination therapies. One of the key parameters is drug loading, which is defined as the mass ratio of drug to drug-loaded nanoparticles. Currently, most nanoparticle systems have relatively low drug loading (<10 wt%), and developing methods to increase drug loading remains a challenge. This Minireview presents an overview of recent research on developing nanoparticles with high drug loading (>10 wt%) from the perspective of synthesis strategies, including post-loading, co-loading, and pre-loading. Based on these three different strategies, various nanoparticle systems with different materials and drugs are summarized and discussed in terms of their synthesis methods, drug loadings, encapsulation efficiencies, release profiles, stabilities, and their applications in drug delivery. The advantages and disadvantages of these strategies are presented with an objective of providing useful design rules for future development of high-drug-loading nanoparticles.

Active Encapsulation in Biocompatible Nanocapsules

Co-precipitation is generally refers to the co-precipitation of two solids and is widely used to prepare active-loaded nanoparticles. Here, it is demonstrated that liquid and solid can precipitate simultaneously to produce hierarchical core-shell nanocapsules that encapsulate an oil core in a polymer shell. During the co-precipitation process, the polymer preferentially deposits at the oil/water interface, wetting both the oil and water phases; the behavior is determined by the spreading coefficients and driven by the energy minimization. The technique is applicable to directly encapsulate various oil actives and avoid the use of toxic solvent or surfactant during the preparation process. The obtained core-shell nanocapsules harness the advantage of biocompatibility, precise control over the shell thickness, high loading capacity, high encapsulation efficiency, good dispersity in water, and improved stability against oxidation. The applications of the nanocapsules as delivery vehicles are demonstrated by the excellent performances of natural colorant and anti-cancer drug-loaded nanocapsules. The core-shell nanocapsules with a controlled hierarchical structure are, therefore, ideal carriers for practical applications in food, cosmetics, and drug delivery.

A Microarray Screening Platform with an Experimental Conditions Gradient Generator for the High-Throughput Synthesis of Micro/Nanosized Calcium Phosphates

Calcium phosphates (CaP) represent an impressive kind of biomedical material due to their excellent biocompatibility, bioactivity, and biodegradability. Their morphology and structure highly influence their properties and applications. Whilst great progress has been made in research on biomedical materials, there is still a need to develop a method that can rapidly synthesize and screen micro/nanosized biomedical materials. Here, we utilized a microarray screening platform that could provide the high-throughput synthesis of biomedical materials and screen the vital reaction conditions. With this screening platform, 9 × 9 sets of parallel experiments could be conducted simultaneously with one- or two-dimensions of key reaction condition gradients. We used this platform to establish a one-dimensional gradient of the pH and citrate concentration and a two-dimensional gradient of both the Ca/P ratio and pH to synthesize CaP particles with various morphologies. This screening platform also shows the potential to be extended to other reaction systems for rapid high-throughput screening.

Microfluidics for pharmaceutical nanoparticle fabrication: The truth and the myth

Using micro-sized channels to manipulate fluids is the essence of microfluidics which has wide applications from analytical chemistry to material science and cell biology research. Recently, using microfluidic-based devices for pharmaceutical research, in particular for the fabrication of micro- and nano-particles, has emerged as a new area of interest. The particles that can be prepared by microfluidic devices can range from micron size droplet-based emulsions to nano-sized drug loaded polymeric particles. Microfluidic technology poses unique advantages in terms of the high precision of the mixing regimes and control of fluids involved in formulation preparation. As a result of this, monodispersity of the particles prepared by microfluidics is often recognised as being a particularly advantageous feature in comparison to those prepared by conventional large-scale mixing methods. However, there is a range of practical drawbacks and challenges of using microfluidics as a direct micron- and nano-particle manufacturing method. Technological advances are still required before this type of processing can be translated for application by the pharmaceutical industry. This review focuses specifically on the application of microfluidics for pharmaceutical solid nanoparticle preparation and discusses the theoretical foundation of using the nanoprecipitation principle to generate particles and how this is translated into microfluidic design and operation.

In silico design and 3D printing of microfluidic chips for the preparation of size-controllable siRNA nanocomplexes

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) is regarded as one of the most powerful tools for the treatment of various diseases by downregulating the expression of aberrant proteins. Delivery vehicle is often necessary for getting siRNA into the cells. Nanocomplex using polyamidoamine (PAMAM) is regarded a promising approach for the delivery of siRNA. The size of siRNA nanocomplexes is a critical attribute in order to achieve high gene silencing efficiency in vivo. Microfluidics provides advantages in the preparation of siRNA nanocomplexes due to better reproducibility and a potential for more robust process control. The mixing efficiency of siRNA and PAMAM is different in microfluidics systems with different geometries, therefore, resulting in nanocomplexes with varying size attributes. In this study, hydrodynamic flow focusing microfluidic chips with different channel designs, i.e. diameters/widths, channel shapes (cylindrical/rectangular) and inter-channel spacings were optimized in silico and rapidly prototyped using 3D printing and finally, used for production of siRNA nanocomplexes. The fluid mixing inside the microfluidic chips was simulated using the finite element method (FEM) with the single-phase laminar flow interface in connection with the transport of diluted species interface. The digital design and optimization of microfluidic chips showed consistency with experimental results. It was concluded that the size of siRNA nanocomplexes can be controlled by adjusting the channel geometry of the microfluidic chips and the simulation with FEM could be used to facilitate the design and optimization of microfluidic chips in order to produce nanocomplexes with desirable attributes.

Flow physics and mixing quality in a confined impinging jet mixer

Due to their ability to provide efficient mixing at small scales, confined impinging jet mixers (CIJMs) are employed widely in nanoparticle assembly processes such as flash nanoprecipitation and flash nanocomplexation, which require rapid mixing. In this mixing device, two jets from opposite directions impinge directly on each other forming a thin shear layer that breaks down rapidly into small flow structures. This enables effective mixing of the species transported by each jet by drastically reducing the diffusion distance. In the present study, the mixing performance of a commonly used cylindrical CIJM is examined by direct numerical simulations. Analysis of the simulation results indicates that the interaction of the shear layer with the inner walls of the CIJM is critical in inducing a range of instabilities in the impinging jet flow. By examining flow structures, statistical quantities, and metrics, we have characterized and quantified the mixing quality of a binary mixture in the CIJM. Product uniformity in processes such as precipitation and complexation is expected to depend on the residence time of the constituents, and this quantity is also calculated and compared for the cases with different jet Reynolds numbers. The jet Reynolds numbers of Re = 200, 600, and 1000 are considered, and the simulation results show that the CIJM achieves very good mixing for the Re = 600 and Re = 1000 cases. It is also found that the Re = 600 case performs slightly better than the other cases in terms of uniformity of the residence time. These quantitative analyses offer useful insights into the mechanism of nanoparticle size control and uniformity afforded by the unique flow physics and mixing characteristics in the CIJMs.

Microfluidic Platforms toward Rational Material Fabrication for Biomedical Applications

The emergence of micro/nanomaterials in recent decades has brought promising alternative approaches in various biomedicine-related fields such as pharmaceutics, diagnostics, and therapeutics. These micro/nanomaterials for specific biomedical applications shall possess tailored properties and functionalities that are closely correlated to their geometries, structures, and compositions, therefore placing extremely high demands for manufacturing techniques. Owing to the superior capabilities in manipulating fluids and droplets at microscale, microfluidics has offered robust and versatile platform technologies enabling rational design and fabrication of micro/nanomaterials with precisely controlled geometries, structures and compositions in high throughput manners, making them excellent candidates for a variety of biomedical applications. This review briefly summarizes the progress of microfluidics in the fabrication of various micro/nanomaterials ranging from 0D (particles), 1D (fibers) to 2D/3D (film and bulk materials) materials with controllable geometries, structures, and compositions. The applications of these microfluidic-based materials in the fields of diagnostics, drug delivery, organs-on-chips, tissue engineering, and stimuli-responsive biodevices are introduced. Finally, an outlook is discussed on the future direction of microfluidic platforms for generating materials with superior properties and on-demand functionalities. The integration of new materials and techniques with microfluidics will pave new avenues for preparing advanced micro/nanomaterials with enhanced performance for biomedical applications.

Microfluidics for Production of Particles: Mechanism, Methodology, and Applications

In the past two decades, microfluidics-based particle production is widely applied for multiple biological usages. Compared to conventional bulk methods, microfluidic-assisted particle production shows significant advantages, such as narrower particle size distribution, higher reproducibility, improved encapsulation efficiency, and enhanced scaling-up potency. Herein, an overview of the recent progress of the microfluidics technology for nano-, microparticles or droplet fabrication, and their biological applications is provided. For both nano-, microparticles/droplets, the previously established mechanisms behind particle production via microfluidics and some typical examples during the past five years are discussed. The emerging interdisciplinary technologies based on microfluidics that have produced microparticles or droplets for cellular analysis and artificial cells fabrication are summarized. The potential drawbacks and future perspectives are also briefly discussed.