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Berman P, de Haro LA, Cavaco AR, Panda S, Dong Y, Kuzmich N, Lichtenstein G, Peleg Y, Harat H, Jozwiak A, Cai J, Heinig U, Meir S, Rogachev I, Aharoni A. The biosynthetic pathway of the hallucinogen mescaline and its heterologous reconstruction. MOLECULAR PLANT 2024; 17:1129-1150. [PMID: 38835170 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2024.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Mescaline, among the earliest identified natural hallucinogens, holds great potential in psychotherapy treatment. Nonetheless, despite the existence of a postulated biosynthetic pathway for more than half a century, the specific enzymes involved in this process are yet to be identified. In this study, we investigated the cactus Lophophora williamsii (Peyote), the largest known natural producer of the phenethylamine mescaline. We employed a multi-faceted approach, combining de novo whole-genome and transcriptome sequencing with comprehensive chemical profiling, enzymatic assays, molecular modeling, and pathway engineering for pathway elucidation. We identified four groups of enzymes responsible for the six catalytic steps in the mescaline biosynthetic pathway, and an N-methyltransferase enzyme that N-methylates all phenethylamine intermediates, likely modulating mescaline levels in Peyote. Finally, we reconstructed the mescaline biosynthetic pathway in both Nicotiana benthamiana plants and yeast cells, providing novel insights into several challenges hindering complete heterologous mescaline production. Taken together, our study opens up avenues for exploration of sustainable production approaches and responsible utilization of mescaline, safeguarding this valuable natural resource for future generations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Berman
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Luis Alejandro de Haro
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Ana-Rita Cavaco
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Sayantan Panda
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Younghui Dong
- Life Sciences Core Facilities, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Nikolay Kuzmich
- The Maurice and Vivienne Wohl Institute for Drug Discovery, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Gabriel Lichtenstein
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Yoav Peleg
- Life Sciences Core Facilities, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Hila Harat
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Adam Jozwiak
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Jianghua Cai
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Uwe Heinig
- Life Sciences Core Facilities, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Sagit Meir
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Ilana Rogachev
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Asaph Aharoni
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel.
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Neumann J, Dhein S, Kirchhefer U, Hofmann B, Gergs U. Effects of congeners of amphetamine on the human heart. NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 2024; 397:4615-4642. [PMID: 38340182 PMCID: PMC11166837 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-024-02983-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/28/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Central stimulatory and hallucinogenic drugs of abuse like amphetamine and most congeners of amphetamine can have cardiac harmful effects. These cardiac side effects can lead to morbidities and death. In this paper, we review current knowledge on the direct and indirect effects of these amphetamine congeners on the mammalian heart-more specifically, the isolated human heart muscle preparation. In detail, we address the question of whether and how these drugs affect cardiac contractility and their mechanisms of action. Based on this information, further research areas are defined, and further research efforts are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Neumann
- Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Medizinische Fakultät, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Str. 4, 06112, D-06097, Halle, Germany.
| | - Stefan Dhein
- Rudolf-Boehm Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Universität Leipzig, Härtelstraße 16-18, D-04107, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Britt Hofmann
- Cardiac Surgery, Medizinische Fakultät, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, D-06097, Halle, Germany
| | - Ulrich Gergs
- Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Medizinische Fakultät, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Str. 4, 06112, D-06097, Halle, Germany
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3
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Hass RM, Stitt D. Neurological Effects of Stimulants and Hallucinogens. Semin Neurol 2024. [PMID: 38889896 DOI: 10.1055/s-0044-1787572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
In this article, we will discuss the history, pharmacodynamics, and neurotoxicity of psychostimulants and hallucinogens. The drugs discussed are widely used and have characteristic toxidromes and potential for neurological injuries with which the practicing clinician should be familiar. Psychostimulants are a class of drugs that includes cocaine, methamphetamine/amphetamines, and cathinones, among others, which produce a crescendoing euphoric high. Seizures, ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes, rhabdomyolysis, and a variety of movement disorders are commonly encountered in this class. Hallucinogens encompass a broad class of drugs, in which the user experiences hallucinations, altered sensorium, distorted perception, and cognitive dysfunction. The experience can be unpredictable and dysphoric, creating a profound sense of anxiety and panic in some cases. Recognizing the associated neurotoxicities and understanding the appropriate management is critical in caring for these patient populations. Several of these agents are not detectable by standard clinical laboratory analysis, making identification and diagnosis an even greater challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reece M Hass
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Derek Stitt
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
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Yu Z, Burback L, Winkler O, Xu L, Dennett L, Vermetten E, Greenshaw A, Li XM, Milne M, Wang F, Cao B, Winship IR, Zhang Y, Chan AW. Alterations in brain network connectivity and subjective experience induced by psychedelics: a scoping review. Front Psychiatry 2024; 15:1386321. [PMID: 38807690 PMCID: PMC11131165 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1386321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Intense interest surrounds current research on psychedelics, particularly regarding their potential in treating mental health disorders. Various studies suggest a link between the subjective effects produced by psychedelics and their therapeutic efficacy. Neuroimaging evidence indicates an association of changes in brain functional connectivity with the subjective effects of psychedelics. We conducted a review focusing on psychedelics and brain functional connectivity. The review focused on four psychedelic drugs: ayahuasca, psilocybin and LSD, and the entactogen MDMA. We conducted searches in databases of MEDLINE, Embase, APA PsycInfo and Scopus from inception to Jun 2023 by keywords related to functional connectivity and psychedelics. Using the PRISMA framework, we selected 24 articles from an initial pool of 492 for analysis. This scoping review and analysis investigated the effects of psychedelics on subjective experiences and brain functional connectivity in healthy individuals. The studies quantified subjective effects through psychometric scales, revealing significant experiences of altered consciousness, mood elevation, and mystical experiences induced by psychedelics. Neuroimaging results indicated alterations in the functional connectivity of psychedelics, with consistent findings across substances of decreased connectivity within the default mode network and increased sensory and thalamocortical connectivity. Correlations between these neurophysiological changes and subjective experiences were noted, suggesting a brain network basis of the psychedelics' neuropsychological impact. While the result of the review provides a potential neural mechanism of the subjective effects of psychedelics, direct clinical evidence is needed to advance their clinical outcomes. Our research serves as a foundation for further exploration of the therapeutic potential of psychedelics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijia Yu
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Lisa Burback
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Olga Winkler
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Lujie Xu
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Liz Dennett
- Sperber Health Sciences Library, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Eric Vermetten
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Andrew Greenshaw
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Xin-Min Li
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Michaela Milne
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
- Institute of Human Nutrition at the Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Fei Wang
- Nanjing Medical University Affiliated Brain Hospital, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Bo Cao
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Ian R. Winship
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Yanbo Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Allen W. Chan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
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Chibli LA, de Lima BR, Carneiro AM, Figueiró HC, Cicek SS, Spiegler V, Funari CS. Toward a More Sustainable Sample Preparation in Phytochemistry: Case Studies in Four Subclasses of Alkaloids. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2024; 87:470-479. [PMID: 38381880 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.3c01048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
The fact that alkaloids are bases has been the most explored chemical feature of their extraction and purification procedures. The main drawback of these procedures is that they employ undesirable chemicals, with HCl and CH2Cl2 probably being the most commonly employed chemicals in their subsequent steps. This work tested the hypothesis that advantages in recovery efficiency support this common practice. Experiments were conducted in three laboratories, monitoring the alkaloids harmine (1), boldine (2), vincamine (3), and mescaline (4) extracted from Banisteriopsis caapi, Peumus boldus, Vinca minor, and Trichocereus macrogonus var. pachanoi, respectively. The research demonstrated that HCl could be replaced with citric acid (CA) without loss or even better extraction performance. The recommended EtOAc could completely replace CH2Cl2 in three out of four study cases and partially in the fourth case without harming the extraction efficiency. In addition, the alternative solvents tert-amyl methyl ether (TAME) and n-butyl acetate (BuOAc) could enhance the extraction of alkaloids. These results might incentivize natural products laboratories to consider sustainability more routinely, thus being closer to current practices in the pharmaceutical industry, which has been replacing solvents and processes with greener ones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Apolinário Chibli
- Green Biotech Network, School of Agricultural Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 18610-034 Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Bruna Ribeiro de Lima
- Green Biotech Network, School of Agricultural Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 18610-034 Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Ariadne Magalhães Carneiro
- Green Biotech Network, School of Agricultural Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 18610-034 Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Harley Cardoso Figueiró
- Green Biotech Network, School of Agricultural Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 18610-034 Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Serhat Sezai Cicek
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Kiel University, Gutenbergstrase 76, 24118 Kiel, Germany
- Department of Biotechnology, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Ulmentliet 20, 21033 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Verena Spiegler
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Phytochemistry, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Cristiano Soleo Funari
- Green Biotech Network, School of Agricultural Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 18610-034 Botucatu, Brazil
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Barksdale BR, Doss MK, Fonzo GA, Nemeroff CB. The mechanistic divide in psychedelic neuroscience: An unbridgeable gap? Neurotherapeutics 2024; 21:e00322. [PMID: 38278658 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurot.2024.e00322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024] Open
Abstract
In recent years, psychedelics have generated considerable excitement and interest as potential novel therapeutics for an array of conditions, with the most advanced evidence base in the treatment of certain severe and/or treatment-resistant psychiatric disorders. An array of clinical and pre-clinical evidence has informed our current understanding of how psychedelics produce profound alterations in consciousness. Mechanisms of psychedelic action include receptor binding and downstream cellular and transcriptional pathways, with long-term impacts on brain structure and function-from the level of single neurons to large-scale circuits. In this perspective, we first briefly review and synthesize separate lines of research on potential mechanistic processes underlying the acute and long-term effects of psychedelic compounds, with a particular emphasis on highlighting current theoretical models of psychedelic drug action and their relationships to therapeutic benefits for psychiatric and brain-based disorders. We then highlight an existing area of ongoing controversy we argue is directly informed by theoretical models originating from disparate levels of inquiry, and we ultimately converge on the notion that bridging the current chasm in explanatory models of psychedelic drug action across levels of inquiry (molecular, cellular, circuit, and psychological/behavioral) through innovative methods and collaborative efforts will ultimately yield the comprehensive understanding needed to fully capitalize on the potential therapeutic properties of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan R Barksdale
- Center for Psychedelic Research and Therapy, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Manoj K Doss
- Center for Psychedelic Research and Therapy, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Gregory A Fonzo
- Center for Psychedelic Research and Therapy, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Charles B Nemeroff
- Center for Psychedelic Research and Therapy, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX, USA.
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Barman R, Kumar Bora P, Saikia J, Konwar P, Sarkar A, Kemprai P, Proteem Saikia S, Haldar S, Slater A, Banik D. Hypothetical biosynthetic pathways of pharmaceutically potential hallucinogenic metabolites in Myristicaceae, mechanistic convergence and co-evolutionary trends in plants and humans. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2024; 218:113928. [PMID: 38035973 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2023.113928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
The family Myristicaceae harbour mind-altering phenylpropanoids like myristicin, elemicin, safrole, tryptamine derivatives such as N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and 5-methoxy N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) and β-carbolines such as 1-methyl-6-methoxy-dihydro-β-carboline and 2-methyl-6-methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline. This study aimed to systematically review and propose the hypothetical biosynthetic pathways of hallucinogenic metabolites of Myristicaceae which have the potential to be used pharmaceutically. Relevant publications were retrieved from online databases, including Google Scholar, PubMed Central, Science Direct and the distribution of the hallucinogens among the family was compiled. The review revealed that the biosynthesis of serotonin in plants was catalysed by tryptamine 5-hydroxylase (T5H) and tryptophan 5-hydroxylase (TPH), whereas in invertebrates and vertebrates only by tryptophan 5-hydroxylase (TPH). Indolethylamine-N-methyltransferase catalyses the biosynthesis of DMT in plants and the brains of humans and other mammals. Caffeic acid 3-O-methyltransferase catalyses the biosynthesis of both phenylpropanoids and tryptamines in plants. All the hallucinogenic markers exhibited neuropsychiatric effects in humans as mechanistic convergence. The review noted that DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, and β-carbolines were natural protectants against both plant stress and neurodegenerative human ailments. The protein sequence data of tryptophan 5-hydroxylase and tryptamine 5-hydroxylase retrieved from NCBI showed a co-evolutionary relationship in between animals and plants on the phylogenetic framework of a Maximum Parsimony tree. The review also demonstrates that the biosynthesis of serotonin, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, 5-hydroxy dimethyltryptamine, and β-carbolines in plants, as well as endogenous secretion of these compounds in the brain and blood of humans and rodents, reflects co-evolutionary mutualism in plants and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubi Barman
- Agrotechnology and Rural Development Division, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat - 785006, Assam, India; AcSIR - Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad - 201002, India
| | - Pranjit Kumar Bora
- Agrotechnology and Rural Development Division, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat - 785006, Assam, India; AcSIR - Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad - 201002, India
| | - Jadumoni Saikia
- Agrotechnology and Rural Development Division, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat - 785006, Assam, India; AcSIR - Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad - 201002, India
| | - Parthapratim Konwar
- Agrotechnology and Rural Development Division, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat - 785006, Assam, India; AcSIR - Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad - 201002, India
| | - Aditya Sarkar
- Agrotechnology and Rural Development Division, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat - 785006, Assam, India
| | - Phirose Kemprai
- Agrotechnology and Rural Development Division, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat - 785006, Assam, India; AcSIR - Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad - 201002, India
| | - Siddhartha Proteem Saikia
- Agrotechnology and Rural Development Division, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat - 785006, Assam, India; AcSIR - Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad - 201002, India
| | - Saikat Haldar
- Agrotechnology and Rural Development Division, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat - 785006, Assam, India; AcSIR - Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad - 201002, India
| | - Adrian Slater
- Faculty of School of Health and Allied Sciences, Biomolecular Technology Group, Hawthorn Building HB1.12, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK
| | - Dipanwita Banik
- Agrotechnology and Rural Development Division, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat - 785006, Assam, India; AcSIR - Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad - 201002, India.
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8
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Duan W, Cao D, Wang S, Cheng J. Serotonin 2A Receptor (5-HT 2AR) Agonists: Psychedelics and Non-Hallucinogenic Analogues as Emerging Antidepressants. Chem Rev 2024; 124:124-163. [PMID: 38033123 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Psychedelics make up a group of psychoactive compounds that induce hallucinogenic effects by activating the serotonin 2A receptor (5-HT2AR). Clinical trials have demonstrated the traditional psychedelic substances like psilocybin as a class of rapid-acting and long-lasting antidepressants. However, there is a pressing need for rationally designed 5-HT2AR agonists that possess optimal pharmacological profiles in order to fully reveal the therapeutic potential of these agonists and identify safer drug candidates devoid of hallucinogenic effects. This Perspective provides an overview of the structure-activity relationships of existing 5-HT2AR agonists based on their chemical classifications and discusses recent advancements in understanding their molecular pharmacology at a structural level. The encouraging clinical outcomes of psychedelics in depression treatment have sparked drug discovery endeavors aimed at developing novel 5-HT2AR agonists with improved subtype selectivity and signaling bias properties, which could serve as safer and potentially nonhallucinogenic antidepressants. These efforts can be significantly expedited through the utilization of structure-based methods and functional selectivity-directed screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenwen Duan
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, 393 Middle Huaxia Road, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Dongmei Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yueyang Road, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Sheng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yueyang Road, Shanghai 200031, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Health Science of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Science, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China
| | - Jianjun Cheng
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, 393 Middle Huaxia Road, Shanghai 201210, China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, 393 Middle Huaxia Road, Shanghai 201210, China
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9
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Doesburg-van Kleffens M, Zimmermann-Klemd AM, Gründemann C. An Overview on the Hallucinogenic Peyote and Its Alkaloid Mescaline: The Importance of Context, Ceremony and Culture. Molecules 2023; 28:7942. [PMID: 38138432 PMCID: PMC10746114 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28247942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Peyote (Lophophora williamsii) is a cactus that contains various biologically active alkaloids-such as pellotine, anhalonidine, hordenine and mescaline. Here, mescaline induces the psychoactive effects of peyote through the activation of the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor and the subsequent release of calcium (Ca2+) from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Moreover, an evaluation of the therapeutic benefits of mescaline is also currently the subject of research. It is important to consider that the outcome of taking a psychedelic drug strongly depends on the mindset of the recipient and the context (set and setting principle), including ceremonies and culture. This overview serves to summarise the current state of the knowledge of the metabolism, mechanism of action and clinical application studies of peyote and mescaline. Furthermore, the benefits of the potential of peyote and mescaline are presented in a new light, setting an example for combining a form of treatment embedded in nature and ritually enriched with our current highly innovative Western medicine.
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Kirschner GK. Breaking bad buttons: mescaline biosynthesis in peyote. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 116:633-634. [PMID: 37861456 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
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11
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Watkins JL, Li Q, Yeaman S, Facchini PJ. Elucidation of the mescaline biosynthetic pathway in peyote (Lophophora williamsii). THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 116:635-649. [PMID: 37675639 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Peyote (Lophophora williamsii) is an entheogenic and medicinal cactus native to the Chihuahuan desert. The psychoactive and hallucinogenic properties of peyote are principally attributed to the phenethylamine derivative mescaline. Despite the isolation of mescaline from peyote over 120 years ago, the biosynthetic pathway in the plant has remained undiscovered. Here, we use a transcriptomics and homology-guided gene discovery strategy to elucidate a near-complete biosynthetic pathway from l-tyrosine to mescaline. We identified a cytochrome P450 that catalyzes the 3-hydroxylation of l-tyrosine to l-DOPA, a tyrosine/DOPA decarboxylase yielding dopamine, and four substrate-specific and regiospecific substituted phenethylamine O-methyltransferases. Biochemical assays with recombinant enzymes or functional analyses performed by feeding putative precursors to engineered yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) strains expressing candidate peyote biosynthetic genes were used to determine substrate specificity, which served as the basis for pathway elucidation. Additionally, an N-methyltransferase displaying broad substrate specificity and leading to the production of N-methylated phenethylamine derivatives was identified, which could also function as an early step in the biosynthesis of tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids in peyote.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacinta L Watkins
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Qiushi Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Sam Yeaman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Peter J Facchini
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada
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12
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Custodio RJP, Ortiz DM, Lee HJ, Sayson LV, Kim M, Lee YS, Kim KM, Cheong JH, Kim HJ. Serotonin 2C receptors are also important in head-twitch responses in male mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2023:10.1007/s00213-023-06482-9. [PMID: 37882810 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-023-06482-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Serotonergic psychedelics exert their effects via their high affinity for serotonin (5-HT) receptors, particularly through activating 5-HT2A receptors (5-HT2AR), employing the frontal cortex-dependent head-twitch response (HTR). Although universally believed to be so, studies have not yet fully ascertained whether 5-HT2AR activation is the sole initiator of these psychedelic effects. This is because not all 5-HT2AR agonists exhibit similar pharmacologic properties. OBJECTIVE This study aims to identify and discriminate the roles of 5-HT2AR and 5-HT2CR in the HTR induced by Methallylescaline (MAL) and 4-Methyl-2,5,β-trimethoxyphenethylamine (BOD) in male mice. Also, an analysis of their potential neurotoxic properties was evaluated. METHODS Male mice treated with MAL and BOD were evaluated in different behavioral paradigms targeting HTR and neurotoxicity effects. Drug affinity, pharmacological blocking, and molecular analysis were also conducted to support the behavioral findings. The HTR induced by DOI has been extensively characterized in male mice, making it a good positive control for this study, specifically for comparing the pharmacological effects of our test compounds. RESULTS The activation of 5-HT2CR, alone or in concert with 5-HT2AR, produces a comparable degree of HTRs (at a dose of 1 mg·kg-1), with divergent 5-HT2CR- and 5-HT2AR-Gqα11-mediated signaling and enhanced neurotoxic properties (at a dose of 30 mg·kg-1) coupled with activated pro-inflammatory cytokines. These findings show these compounds' potential psychedelic and neurotoxic effects in male mice. CONCLUSION These findings showed that while 5-HT2AR is the main initiator of HTR, the 5-HT2CR also has a distinct property that renders it effective in inducing HTR in male mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raly James Perez Custodio
- Networking Group Aging, Department of Ergonomics, Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors - IfADo, Ardeystrasse 67, Dortmund, 44139, Germany.
| | - Darlene Mae Ortiz
- Uimyung Research Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacy, Sahmyook University, 815 Hwarang-ro, Nowon-gu, Seoul, 01795, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Jun Lee
- Uimyung Research Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacy, Sahmyook University, 815 Hwarang-ro, Nowon-gu, Seoul, 01795, Republic of Korea
| | - Leandro Val Sayson
- Uimyung Research Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacy, Sahmyook University, 815 Hwarang-ro, Nowon-gu, Seoul, 01795, Republic of Korea
| | - Mikyung Kim
- Department of Chemistry & Life Science, Sahmyook University, 815 Hwarang-ro, Nowon-gu, Seoul, 01795, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Sup Lee
- Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Pharmacy & Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyeong-Man Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61186, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Hoon Cheong
- Institute for New Drug Development, College of Pharmacy, Jeonbuk National University, 567 Baekje-daero, Deokjin-gu, Jeonju, Jeollabuk-do, 54896, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hee Jin Kim
- Uimyung Research Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacy, Sahmyook University, 815 Hwarang-ro, Nowon-gu, Seoul, 01795, Republic of Korea.
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13
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Poulie CM, Chan CB, Parka A, Lettorp M, Vos J, Raaschou A, Pottie E, Bundgaard MS, Sørensen LME, Cecchi CR, Märcher-Rørsted E, Bach A, Herth MM, Decker A, Jensen AA, Elfving B, Kretschmann AC, Stove CP, Kohlmeier KA, Cornett C, Janfelt C, Kornum BR, Kristensen JL. In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of Pellotine: A Hypnotic Lophophora Alkaloid. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2023; 6:1492-1507. [PMID: 37854625 PMCID: PMC10580395 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.3c00142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
Quality of life is often reduced in patients with sleep-wake disorders. Insomnia is commonly treated with benzodiazepines, despite their well-known side effects. Pellotine (1), a Lophophora alkaloid, has been reported to have short-acting sleep-inducing properties in humans. In this study, we set out to evaluate various in vitro and in vivo properties of 1. We demonstrate that 1 undergoes slow metabolism; e.g. in mouse liver microsomes 65% remained, and in human liver microsomes virtually no metabolism was observed after 4 h. In mouse liver microsomes, two phase I metabolites were identified: 7-desmethylpellotine and pellotine-N-oxide. In mice, the two diastereomers of pellotine-O-glucuronide were additionally identified as phase II metabolites. Furthermore, we demonstrated by DESI-MSI that 1 readily enters the central nervous system of rodents. Furthermore, radioligand-displacement assays showed that 1 is selective for the serotonergic system and in particular the serotonin (5-HT)1D, 5-HT6, and 5-HT7 receptors, where it binds with affinities in the nanomolar range (117, 170, and 394 nM, respectively). Additionally, 1 was functionally characterized at 5-HT6 and 5-HT7, where it was found to be an agonist at the former (EC50 = 94 nM, Emax = 32%) and an inverse agonist at the latter (EC50 = 291 nM, Emax = -98.6). Finally, we demonstrated that 1 dose-dependently decreases locomotion in mice, inhibits REM sleep, and promotes sleep fragmentation. Thus, we suggest that pellotine itself, and not an active metabolite, is responsible for the hypnotic effects and that these effects are possibly mediated through modulation of serotonergic receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian
B. M. Poulie
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Camilla B. Chan
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Aleksandra Parka
- Department
of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, C Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Magnus Lettorp
- Department
of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, C Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Josephine Vos
- Department
of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, C Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Amanda Raaschou
- Department
of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, C Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Eline Pottie
- Laboratory
of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Ghent University, Campus Heymans, Ottergemsesteenweg
460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mikkel S. Bundgaard
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Louis M. E. Sørensen
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Claudia R. Cecchi
- Translational
Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Palle Juul-Jensens Boulevard 11, 8200 Aarhus N Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Emil Märcher-Rørsted
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anders Bach
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Matthias M. Herth
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department
of Clinical Physiology, Nuclear Medicine
& PET, Rigshospitalet, Blegdamsvej 9, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ann Decker
- Center for
Drug Discovery, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, United States
| | - Anders A. Jensen
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Betina Elfving
- Translational
Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Palle Juul-Jensens Boulevard 11, 8200 Aarhus N Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Andreas C. Kretschmann
- Department
of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, C Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Christophe P. Stove
- Laboratory
of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Ghent University, Campus Heymans, Ottergemsesteenweg
460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kristi A. Kohlmeier
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Claus Cornett
- Department
of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, C Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Christian Janfelt
- Department
of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, C Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Birgitte R. Kornum
- Department
of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, C Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jesper L. Kristensen
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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Kalfas M, Taylor RH, Tsapekos D, Young AH. Psychedelics for treatment resistant depression: are they game changers? Expert Opin Pharmacother 2023; 24:2117-2132. [PMID: 37947195 DOI: 10.1080/14656566.2023.2281582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION A new era of treatment for adults with treatment-resistant depression (TRD), which involves psychedelic substances, is dawning. Emerging evidence indicates that psychedelics can exert antidepressant effects through multiple neurobiological and psychological mechanisms. However, it remains to be seen if these new treatments will revolutionize the treatment of TRD. AREAS COVERED The present review focuses on the efficacy of serotoninergic psychedelics psilocybin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), ayahuasca, 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) and mescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine), as well as 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), for TRD. A systematic search was conducted for psilocybin in TRD as emerging trials had not yet been subject to review. A narrative review summarized findings on other psychedelics. EXPERT OPINION Psychedelic therapy has created a paradigm shift in the treatment of TRD, as it can maximize therapeutic benefits and minimize potential risks. Psilocybin holds promise as a potential game-changer in the treatment of TRD, with initial evidence suggesting a rapid antidepressant effect sustained for some responders for at least 3 months. Nevertheless, further adequately powered, double-blind, comparator-controlled trials are required to explore and clarify the mechanisms of action and long-term effects of psychedelics in TRD. Psychedelics also hold promise for other psychiatric conditions, such as bipolar depression and post-traumatic stress disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michail Kalfas
- Department of Psychological Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Rosie H Taylor
- Department of Psychological Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | | | - Allan H Young
- Department of Psychological Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
- South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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15
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Lin J, Yang S, Ji J, Xiang P, Wu L, Chen H. Natural or artificial: An example of topographic spatial distribution analysis of mescaline in cactus plants by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1066595. [PMID: 36844095 PMCID: PMC9950628 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1066595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Differentiating whether plant products are natural or artificial is of great importance in many practical fields, including forensic science, food safety, cosmetics, and fast-moving consumer goods. Information about the topographic distribution of compounds is an important criterion for answering this question. However, of equal importance is the likelihood that topographic spatial distribution information may provide important and valuable information for molecular mechanism study. METHODS In this study, we took mescaline, a substance with hallucinogenic properties in cacti of the species Trichocereus pachanoi and Lophophora williamsii, as an example to characterize the spatial distribution of mescaline in plants and flowers by liquid chromatograph-mass spectrometry-matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging at the macroscopic, tissue structure, and even cellular levels. RESULTS According to our results, the distribution of mescaline in natural plant was concentrated on the active meristems, epidermal tissues, and protruding parts of Trichocereus pachanoi and Lophophora williamsii, while artificially spiked Lophophora diffusa products showed no such difference in their topographic spatial distribution. DISCUSSION This difference in distribution pattern allowed us to distinguish between flowers that could synthesize mescaline on their own and those that had been artificially spiked with mescaline. The interesting topographic spatial distribution results, such as the overlap of the mescaline distribution map and micrographs of the vascular bundles, were consistent with the synthesis and transport theory of mescaline, indicating the potential for applying matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging in botanical research.
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16
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Gallagher R, McLaughlin MG, Blakey K, Wermuth UD, Boyd S, McGowan J. N,N-Diformylmescaline: A novel analogue of mescaline detected in Queensland. Drug Test Anal 2023; 15:204-212. [PMID: 36245421 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
N,N-Diformylmescaline, a novel analogue of mescaline, has recently been detected in Australia in two unrelated seizures. To confirm the identification, a three-step synthesis from 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenylacetic acid was devised. However, purification of the final product proved problematic with the compound prone to degradation in solution. Analysis of the compound by LC-MS indicated that the compound was unstable under acidic and basic conditions, breaking down to N-formylmescaline. Further degradation to mescaline was observed when the compound was dissolved in hydrochloric acid for an extended period of time suggesting that N,N-diformylmescaline may be a prodrug for mescaline. The GC-MS, NMR and FTIR data for the seized compound are presented along with details of the synthesis and studies of the compound's stability in solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Gallagher
- Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services (QHFSS), Brisbane, Australia
| | | | - Karen Blakey
- Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services (QHFSS), Brisbane, Australia
| | - Urs D Wermuth
- Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services (QHFSS), Brisbane, Australia
| | - Sue Boyd
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Jenny McGowan
- Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services (QHFSS), Brisbane, Australia
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17
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The Bright Side of Psychedelics: Latest Advances and Challenges in Neuropharmacology. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021329. [PMID: 36674849 PMCID: PMC9865175 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The need to identify effective therapies for the treatment of psychiatric disorders is a particularly important issue in modern societies. In addition, difficulties in finding new drugs have led pharmacologists to review and re-evaluate some past molecules, including psychedelics. For several years there has been growing interest among psychotherapists in psilocybin or lysergic acid diethylamide for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder, of depression, or of post-traumatic stress disorder, although results are not always clear and definitive. In fact, the mechanisms of action of psychedelics are not yet fully understood and some molecular aspects have yet to be well defined. Thus, this review aims to summarize the ethnobotanical uses of the best-known psychedelic plants and the pharmacological mechanisms of the main active ingredients they contain. Furthermore, an up-to-date overview of structural and computational studies performed to evaluate the affinity and binding modes to biologically relevant receptors of ibogaine, mescaline, N,N-dimethyltryptamine, psilocin, and lysergic acid diethylamide is presented. Finally, the most recent clinical studies evaluating the efficacy of psychedelic molecules in some psychiatric disorders are discussed and compared with drugs already used in therapy.
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18
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Vamvakopoulou IA, Narine KAD, Campbell I, Dyck JRB, Nutt DJ. Mescaline: The forgotten psychedelic. Neuropharmacology 2023; 222:109294. [PMID: 36252614 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Mescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine) is one of the oldest hallucinogens, with evidence of use dating back 5700 years. Mescaline is a naturally occurring alkaloid found in cacti, mainly in the peyote cactus (Lophophora williamsii) and in the cacti of the Echinopsis genus. Since the prohibition of psychoactive substances in the early 70s, research on mescaline and other classical psychedelics has been limited. OBJECTIVES This article aims to review the pharmacology and behavioural effects of mescaline, focusing on preclinical and clinical research. FINDINGS Mescaline is a serotonin 5HT2A/2C receptor agonist, with its main hallucinogenic effects being mediated via its 5HT2A receptor agonist action. It also exerts effects via agonist binding at α1A/2A noradrenaline and D1/2/3 dopamine receptors. Overall, mescaline has anxiolytic-like effects in animals and increases prosocial behaviour, locomotion, and response reactivity. In humans, mescaline can induce euphoria, hallucinations, improvements in well-being and mental health conditions, and psychotomimetic effects in a naturalistic or religious setting. CONCLUSION The pharmacological mechanisms of mescaline are similar to those of other classical psychedelics, like psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Mescaline appears to be safe to consume, with most intoxications being mild and easily treatable. Improvement in mental well-being and its ability to overcome alcoholism render mescaline potentially beneficial in clinical settings. This article is part of the Special Issue on 'Psilocybin Research'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioanna A Vamvakopoulou
- Neural Therapeutics Inc., Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Centre for Psychiatry, Division of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, Commonwealth Building, Hammersmith Campus, 160 Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, United Kingdom
| | | | - Ian Campbell
- Neural Therapeutics Inc., Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jason R B Dyck
- Neural Therapeutics Inc., Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Cardiovascular Research Centre, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - David J Nutt
- Neural Therapeutics Inc., Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Centre for Psychiatry, Division of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, Commonwealth Building, Hammersmith Campus, 160 Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, United Kingdom.
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19
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Carvalho A, Barbosa BM, Flores JS, do Carmo Gonçalves P, Diniz R, Cordeiro Y, Fernández CO, Cukierman DS, Rey NA. New mescaline-related N-acylhydrazone and its unsubstituted benzoyl derivative: Promising metallophores for copper-associated deleterious effects relief in Alzheimer's disease. J Inorg Biochem 2023; 238:112033. [PMID: 36396525 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2022.112033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is related to the presence of extracellular aggregated amyloid-β peptide (Aβ), which binds copper(II) with high affinity in its N-terminal region. In this sense, two new 1-methylimidazole-containing N-acylhydrazonic metallophores, namely, X1TMP and X1Benz, were synthesized as hydrochlorides and characterized. The compound X1TMP contains the 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoyl moiety present in the structure of mescaline, a natural hallucinogenic protoalkaloid that occurs in some species of cacti. Single crystals of X1Benz, the unsubstituted derivative of X1TMP, were obtained. The experimental partition coefficients of both compounds were determined, as well as their apparent affinity for Cu2+ in aqueous solution. Ascorbate consumption assays showed that these N-acylhydrazones are able to lessen the production of ROS by the Cu(Aβ)-system, and a short-time scale aggregation study, measured through turbidity and confirmed by TEM images, revealed their capacity in preventing Aβ fibrillation at equimolar conditions in the presence and absence of copper. 1H15N HSQC NMR experiments demonstrated a direct interaction between Aβ and X1Benz, the most soluble of the compounds. The Cu2+ sequestering potential of this hydrazone towards Aβ was explored by 1H NMR. Although increasing amounts of X1Benz were unexpectedly not efficient at removing the metal-induced perturbations in Aβ backbone amides, the broadening effects observed on the compound's signals indicate the formation of a ternary Aβ‑copper-X1Benz species, which can be responsible for the observed ROS-lessening and aggregation-preventing activities. Overall, the N-acylhydrazones X1TMP and X1Benz have shown promising prospects as agents for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Carvalho
- Department of Chemistry, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio), Rio de Janeiro 22451-900, Brazil
| | - Barbara Marinho Barbosa
- Department of Chemistry, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio), Rio de Janeiro 22451-900, Brazil
| | - Jesica S Flores
- Max Planck Laboratory for Structural Biology, Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics of Rosario (MPLbioR, UNR-MPINAT), Partner Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for Multidisciplinary Sciences (MPINAT, MPG), Centro de Estudios Interdisciplinarios, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario S2002LRK, Argentina
| | - Phelippe do Carmo Gonçalves
- Max Planck Laboratory for Structural Biology, Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics of Rosario (MPLbioR, UNR-MPINAT), Partner Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for Multidisciplinary Sciences (MPINAT, MPG), Centro de Estudios Interdisciplinarios, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario S2002LRK, Argentina
| | - Renata Diniz
- Department of Chemistry, ICEx, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Yraima Cordeiro
- Faculty of Pharmacy, CCS, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Claudio O Fernández
- Max Planck Laboratory for Structural Biology, Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics of Rosario (MPLbioR, UNR-MPINAT), Partner Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for Multidisciplinary Sciences (MPINAT, MPG), Centro de Estudios Interdisciplinarios, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario S2002LRK, Argentina
| | - Daphne S Cukierman
- Department of Chemistry, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio), Rio de Janeiro 22451-900, Brazil; Faculty of Pharmacy, CCS, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Nicolás A Rey
- Department of Chemistry, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio), Rio de Janeiro 22451-900, Brazil.
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Poulie CBM, Pottie E, Simon IA, Harpsøe K, D'Andrea L, Komarov IV, Gloriam DE, Jensen AA, Stove CP, Kristensen JL. Discovery of β-Arrestin-Biased 25CN-NBOH-Derived 5-HT 2A Receptor Agonists. J Med Chem 2022; 65:12031-12043. [PMID: 36099411 PMCID: PMC9511481 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c00702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The serotonin 2A receptor (5-HT2AR) is the mediator of the psychedelic effects of serotonergic psychedelics, which have shown promising results in clinical studies for several neuropsychiatric indications. The 5-HT2AR is able to signal through the Gαq and β-arrestin effector proteins, but it is currently not known how the different signaling pathways contribute to the therapeutic effects mediated by serotonergic psychedelics. In the present work, we have evaluated the subtype-selective 5-HT2AR agonist 25CN-NBOH and a series of close analogues for biased signaling at this receptor. These ligands were designed to evaluate the role of interactions with Ser1593×36. The lack of interaction between this hydroxyl moiety and Ser1593×36 resulted in detrimental effects on potency and efficacy in both βarr2 and miniGαq recruitment assays. Remarkably, Gαq-mediated signaling was considerably more affected. This led to the development of the first efficacious βarr2-biased 5-HT2AR agonists 4a-b and 6e-f, βarr2 preferring, relative to lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian B M Poulie
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK─2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Eline Pottie
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Campus Heymans, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Icaro A Simon
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK─2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kasper Harpsøe
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK─2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Laura D'Andrea
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK─2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - David E Gloriam
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK─2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anders A Jensen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK─2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Campus Heymans, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jesper L Kristensen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK─2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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21
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Padró J, De Panis DN, Luisi P, Dopazo H, Szajnman S, Hasson E, Soto IM. Ortholog genes from cactophilic Drosophila provide insight into human adaptation to hallucinogenic cacti. Sci Rep 2022; 12:13180. [PMID: 35915153 PMCID: PMC9343604 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-17118-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cultural transformations of lifestyles and dietary practices have been key drivers of human evolution. However, while most of the evidence of genomic adaptations is related to the hunter-gatherer transition to agricultural societies, little is known on the influence of other major cultural manifestations. Shamanism is considered the oldest religion that predominated throughout most of human prehistory and still prevails in many indigenous populations. Several lines of evidence from ethno-archeological studies have demonstrated the continuity and importance of psychoactive plants in South American cultures. However, despite the well-known importance of secondary metabolites in human health, little is known about its role in the evolution of ethnic differences. Herein, we identified candidate genes of adaptation to hallucinogenic cactus in Native Andean populations with a long history of shamanic practices. We used genome-wide expression data from the cactophilic fly Drosophila buzzatii exposed to a hallucinogenic columnar cactus, also consumed by humans, to identify ortholog genes exhibiting adaptive footprints of alkaloid tolerance. Genomic analyses in human populations revealed a suite of ortholog genes evolving under recent positive selection in indigenous populations of the Central Andes. Our results provide evidence of selection in genetic variants related to alkaloids toxicity, xenobiotic metabolism, and neuronal plasticity in Aymara and Quechua populations, suggesting a possible process of gene-culture coevolution driven by religious practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Padró
- INIBIOMA-CONICET, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Quintral 1250, R8400FRF, San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina.
| | - Diego N De Panis
- IEGEBA-CONICET, Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Pierre Luisi
- Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (FFyH-UNC), Córdoba, Argentina.,Microbial Paleogenomics Unit, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 Rue du Dr Roux, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Hernan Dopazo
- IEGEBA-CONICET, Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sergio Szajnman
- Departamento de Química Orgánica and UMYMFOR (CONICET-FCEyN), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Esteban Hasson
- IEGEBA-CONICET, Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ignacio M Soto
- IEGEBA-CONICET, Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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22
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Development and validation of an LC-MS/MS method for the quantification of mescaline and major metabolites in human plasma. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2022; 220:114980. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2022.114980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Yuan J, Liu R, Sheng S, Fu H, Wang X. Untargeted LC-MS/MS-Based Metabolomic Profiling for the Edible and Medicinal Plant Salvia miltiorrhiza Under Different Levels of Cadmium Stress. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:889370. [PMID: 35968141 PMCID: PMC9366474 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.889370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Salvia miltiorrhiza, a medicinal and edible plant, has been extensively applied to treat cardiovascular diseases and chronic hepatitis. Cadmium (Cd) affects the quality of S. miltiorrhiza, posing serious threats to human health. To reveal the metabolic mechanisms of S. miltiorrhiza's resistance to Cd stress, metabolite changes in S. miltiorrhiza roots treated with 0 (CK), 25 (T1), 50 (T2) and 100 (T3) mg kg-1 Cd by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) were investigated. A total of 305 metabolites were identified, and most of them were amino acids, organic acids and fatty acids, which contributed to the discrimination of CK from the Cd-treated groups. Among them, S. miltiorrhiza mainly upregulated o-tyrosine, chorismate and eudesmic acid in resistance to 25 mg kg-1 Cd; DL-tryptophan, L-aspartic acid, L-proline and chorismite in resistance to 50 mg kg-1 Cd; and L-proline, L-serine, L-histidine, eudesmic acid, and rosmarinic acid in resistance to 100 mg kg-1 Cd. It mainly downregulated unsaturated fatty acids (e.g., oleic acid, linoleic acid) in resistance to 25, 50, and 100 mg kg-1 Cd and upregulated saturated fatty acids (especially stearic acid) in resistance to 100 mg kg-1 Cd. Biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids, isoquinoline alkaloid, betalain, aminoacyl-tRNA, and tyrosine metabolism were the significantly enriched metabolic pathways and the most important pathways involved in the Cd resistance of S. miltiorrhiza. These data elucidated the crucial metabolic mechanisms involved in S. miltiorrhiza Cd resistance and the crucial metabolites that could be used to improve resistance to Cd stress in medicinal plant breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Yuan
- School of Nursing, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, China
| | - Rongpeng Liu
- Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine Resources and Ethnic Minority Medicine, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, China
| | - Shasha Sheng
- Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine Resources and Ethnic Minority Medicine, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, China
| | - Haihui Fu
- Key Laboratory of Crop Physiology, Ecology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Education, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang, China
| | - Xiaoyun Wang
- Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine Resources and Ethnic Minority Medicine, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, China
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24
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A Complete Review of Mexican Plants with Teratogenic Effects. PLANTS 2022; 11:plants11131675. [PMID: 35807626 PMCID: PMC9268836 DOI: 10.3390/plants11131675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In Mexico, the use of medicinal plants is the first alternative to treat the diseases of the most economically vulnerable population. Therefore, this review offers a list of Mexican plants (native and introduced) with teratogenic effects and describes their main alterations, teratogenic compounds, and the models and doses used. Our results identified 63 species with teratogenic effects (19 native) and the main alterations that were found in the nervous system and axial skeleton, induced by compounds such as alkaloids, terpenes, and flavonoids. Additionally, a group of hallucinogenic plants rich in alkaloids employed by indigenous groups without teratogenic studies were identified. Our conclusion shows that several of the identified species are employed in Mexican traditional medicine and that the teratogenic species most distributed in Mexico are Astragalus mollissimus, Astragalus lentiginosus, and Lupinus formosus. Considering the total number of plants in Mexico (≈29,000 total vascular plants), to date, existing research in the area shows that Mexican plants with teratogenic effects represent ≈0.22% of the total species of these in the country. This indicates a clear need to intensify the evaluation of the teratogenic effect of Mexican plants.
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25
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McClure-Begley TD, Roth BL. The promises and perils of psychedelic pharmacology for psychiatry. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2022; 21:463-473. [PMID: 35301459 DOI: 10.1038/s41573-022-00421-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Psychedelic drugs including psilocybin, N,N'-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) are undergoing a renaissance as potentially useful drugs for various neuropsychiatric diseases, with a rapid onset of therapeutic activity. Notably, phase II trials have shown that psilocybin can produce statistically significant clinical effects following one or two administrations in depression and anxiety. These findings have inspired a 'gold rush' of commercial interest, with nearly 60 companies already formed to explore opportunities for psychedelics in treating diverse diseases. Additionally, these remarkable phenomenological and clinical observations are informing hypotheses about potential molecular mechanisms of action that need elucidation to realize the full potential of this investigative space. In particular, despite compelling evidence that the 5-HT2A receptor is a critical mediator of the behavioural effects of psychedelic drugs, uncertainty remains about which aspects of 5-HT2A receptor activity in the central nervous system are responsible for therapeutic effects and to what degree they can be isolated by developing novel chemical probes with differing specificity and selectivity profiles. Here, we discuss this emerging area of therapeutics, covering both controversies and areas of consensus related to the opportunities and perils of psychedelic and psychedelic-inspired therapeutics. We highlight how basic science breakthroughs can guide the discovery and development of psychedelic-inspired medications with the potential for improved efficacy without hallucinogenic or rewarding actions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bryan L Roth
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
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26
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The promise of psychedelic research. FUTURE DRUG DISCOVERY 2022. [DOI: 10.4155/fdd-2021-0012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of psychedelics as medicines and for overall better brain health is potentially one of the most transformative developments given their immediate and long-lasting therapeutic effects across a plethora of neuropsychiatric disorders and, more recently, some neurodegenerative diseases. The US psychedelic drugs market is forecasted to grow by 16.3% by 2027 due to the increasing prevalence of treatment-resistant depression and mental health disorders. Decades-long restrictions, which date back to when psychedelics were declared controlled substances in 1970, have been lifted to allow researchers to publish on the therapeutic benefits of psychedelics. This review will feature the incredible depth of research underway revealing how psychedelics impact brain structure and function to treat mental health and other neurological disorders.
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27
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Abstract
Hallucinogens, or psychedelics, are substances/drugs that have been used for over a millennium. The most well known are LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, and PCP. These substances may induce hallucinations as well as cause somatic and psychological symptoms. Because of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970, there has been very little research done to determine the long-term consequences or perhaps potential benefit of misuse and abuse of hallucinogens. Typically, these drugs are not abused but more often misused. Recently, there has been a renewed interest in these compounds, which may lead to possible therapeutic options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wm Maurice Redden
- Division of Geriatric Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Neuroscience, St. Louis University School of Medicine, 1438 South Grand Boulevard, St Louis, MO 63104, USA.
| | - Saif-Ur-Rahman Paracha
- Division of Geriatric Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Neuroscience, St. Louis University School of Medicine, 1438 South Grand Boulevard, St Louis, MO 63104, USA
| | - Quratulanne Sheheryar
- Division of Geriatric Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Neuroscience, St. Louis University School of Medicine, 1438 South Grand Boulevard, St Louis, MO 63104, USA
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28
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Chan CB, Poulie CBM, Wismann SS, Soelberg J, Kristensen JL. The Alkaloids from Lophophora diffusa and Other "False Peyotes". JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2021; 84:2398-2407. [PMID: 34264089 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.1c00381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Commonly, false peyote refers to Lophophora diffusa. However, several other unrelated cacti go by this colloquial name. They either resemble "true" peyote, Lophophora williamsii, or are found in similar habitats. To date, over 40 different alkaloids have been isolated from the Lophophora genus. Of these, only the pharmacological actions of mescaline (1) have been extensively investigated. The major alkaloid in L. diffusa is pellotine (2), a tetrahydroisoquinoline (THIQ), which was briefly marketed as a sleeping aid around the beginning of the 20th century, following reports of its hypnotic properties in humans. Pharmacological experiments with the Lophophora THIQs were performed at the turn of the 20th century, whereas the chemical synthesis was not realized until several decades later. The biosynthetic pathways of the main Lophophora alkaloids were reported at the end of the 1960s. In this review, the relationship of the different "false peyotes" to L. williamsii, in regard to their alkaloid content, the bio- and chemical synthesis of the most relevant alkaloids, and their corresponding pharmacology will be outlined and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla B Chan
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, DK - 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Christian B M Poulie
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, DK - 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Simon S Wismann
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, DK - 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jens Soelberg
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, DK - 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jesper L Kristensen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, DK - 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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29
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Waters K. Pharmacologic Similarities and Differences Among Hallucinogens. J Clin Pharmacol 2021; 61 Suppl 2:S100-S113. [PMID: 34396556 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.1917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Hallucinogens constitute a unique class of substances that cause changes in the user's thoughts, perceptions, and mood through various mechanisms of action. Although the serotonergic hallucinogens such as lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin, and N,N-dimethyltryptamine have been termed the classical hallucinogens, many hallucinogens elicit their actions through other mechanisms such as N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonism, opioid receptor agonism, or inhibition of the reuptake of monoamines including serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. The aim of this article is to compare the pharmacologic similarities and differences among substances within the hallucinogen class and their impact on physical and psychiatric effects. Potential toxicities, including life-threatening and long-term effects, will be reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Waters
- School of Pharmacy, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
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30
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Cumming P, Scheidegger M, Dornbierer D, Palner M, Quednow BB, Martin-Soelch C. Molecular and Functional Imaging Studies of Psychedelic Drug Action in Animals and Humans. Molecules 2021; 26:2451. [PMID: 33922330 PMCID: PMC8122807 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Hallucinogens are a loosely defined group of compounds including LSD, N,N-dimethyltryptamines, mescaline, psilocybin/psilocin, and 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methamphetamine (DOM), which can evoke intense visual and emotional experiences. We are witnessing a renaissance of research interest in hallucinogens, driven by increasing awareness of their psychotherapeutic potential. As such, we now present a narrative review of the literature on hallucinogen binding in vitro and ex vivo, and the various molecular imaging studies with positron emission tomography (PET) or single photon emission computer tomography (SPECT). In general, molecular imaging can depict the uptake and binding distribution of labelled hallucinogenic compounds or their congeners in the brain, as was shown in an early PET study with N1-([11C]-methyl)-2-bromo-LSD ([11C]-MBL); displacement with the non-radioactive competitor ketanserin confirmed that the majority of [11C]-MBL specific binding was to serotonin 5-HT2A receptors. However, interactions at serotonin 5HT1A and other classes of receptors and pleotropic effects on second messenger pathways may contribute to the particular experiential phenomenologies of LSD and other hallucinogenic compounds. Other salient aspects of hallucinogen action include permeability to the blood-brain barrier, the rates of metabolism and elimination, and the formation of active metabolites. Despite the maturation of radiochemistry and molecular imaging in recent years, there has been only a handful of PET or SPECT studies of radiolabeled hallucinogens, most recently using the 5-HT2A/2C agonist N-(2[11CH3O]-methoxybenzyl)-2,5-dimethoxy- 4-bromophenethylamine ([11C]Cimbi-36). In addition to PET studies of target engagement at neuroreceptors and transporters, there is a small number of studies on the effects of hallucinogenic compounds on cerebral perfusion ([15O]-water) or metabolism ([18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose/FDG). There remains considerable scope for basic imaging research on the sites of interaction of hallucinogens and their cerebrometabolic effects; we expect that hybrid imaging with PET in conjunction with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) should provide especially useful for the next phase of this research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Cumming
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Bern University Hospital, CH-3010 Bern, Switzerland
- School of Psychology and Counselling, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane 4059, Australia
| | - Milan Scheidegger
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital of the University of Zurich, CH-8032 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.S.); (D.D.); (B.B.Q.)
| | - Dario Dornbierer
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital of the University of Zurich, CH-8032 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.S.); (D.D.); (B.B.Q.)
| | - Mikael Palner
- Odense Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5000 Odense, Denmark;
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Odense University Hospital, DK-5000 Odense, Denmark
- Neurobiology Research Unit, Copenhagen University Hospital, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Boris B. Quednow
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital of the University of Zurich, CH-8032 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.S.); (D.D.); (B.B.Q.)
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, CH-8058 Zurich, Switzerland
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Schwelm HM, Zimmermann N, Scholl T, Penner J, Autret A, Auwärter V, Neukamm MA. Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Tryptamines in the Poison of Incilius alvarius (Amphibia: Bufonidae). J Anal Toxicol 2021; 46:540-548. [PMID: 33851996 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Rising numbers of psychoactive tryptamine derivatives have become available on the drug market over the last decade, making these naturally occurring or synthetically manufactured compounds highly relevant for forensic analysis. One of these compounds is 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT), a constituent of the dried poison of Incilius alvarius (Colorado River toad) which has a history of ritual and/or recreational use. Still, comprehensive and validated qualitative as well as quantitative analytical data on the psychoactive components of this poison are scarce. In this study samples of the poison of Incilius alvarius were collected from live toads in the Sonoran Desert, Arizona (USA) and analyzed with a set of complementary methods. Acetone/water (70/30, v/v) proved to be the solvent of choice for the extraction of tryptamine derivatives. Trace compounds were enriched and overload with 5-MeO-DMT was prevented by chromatographic separation of 5-MeO-DMT prior to qualitative analysis. The method for quantification was validated. Applying attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to samples of the poison, 5-MeO-DMT was identified as the main tryptamine by comparison to the reference spectrum. The combined evaluation of analytical data gained from gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight high resolution MS (HPLC-qToF-HRMS), and HPLC-MS/MS confirmed the presence of 5-MeO-DMT, 5-MeO-N-methyltryptamine, 5-MeO-tryptamine, 5-MeO-tryptophol, 2-(5-methoxy-1H-indol-3-yl)-acetic-acid (5-MIAA), 5-HO-N-methyltryptamine, bufotenin, DMT, and tryptophan. For the first time, 5-MeO-tryptamine and two positional isomers of indole-substituted HO-MeO-DMT were detected in the poison of Incilius alvarius. The tryptamine present in the highest concentrations was 5-MeO-DMT (mean ± standard deviation: 410,000 ± 30,000 µg/g). Mean concentrations of 5-MeO-tryptamine (490 ± 260 µg/g), 5-HO-N-methyltryptamine (270 ± 120 µg/g), bufotenin (2,800 ± 1,900 µg/g), and DMT (250 ± 80 µg/g), showed a relatively high variability between individual samples. The comprehensive analytical reference data of Incilius alvarius poison presented here might prove useful for forensic chemists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes M Schwelm
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nicole Zimmermann
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | | | - Johannes Penner
- Chair of Wildlife Ecology and Wildlife Management, Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources, University of Freiburg, Germany.,Museum für Naturkunde Berlin, Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Berlin, Germany
| | - Amy Autret
- Tucson Police Department, Crime Laboratory/Toxicology, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Merja A Neukamm
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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Xu JJ, Fang X, Li CY, Yang L, Chen XY. General and specialized tyrosine metabolism pathways in plants. ABIOTECH 2020; 1:97-105. [PMID: 36304719 PMCID: PMC9590561 DOI: 10.1007/s42994-019-00006-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The tyrosine metabolism pathway serves as a starting point for the production of a variety of structurally diverse natural compounds in plants, such as tocopherols, plastoquinone, ubiquinone, betalains, salidroside, benzylisoquinoline alkaloids, and so on. Among these, tyrosine-derived metabolites, tocopherols, plastoquinone, and ubiquinone are essential to plant survival. In addition, this pathway provides us essential micronutrients (e.g., vitamin E and ubiquinone) and medicine (e.g., morphine, salidroside, and salvianolic acid B). However, our knowledge of the plant tyrosine metabolism pathway remains rudimentary, and genes encoding the pathway enzymes have not been fully defined. In this review, we summarize and discuss recent advances in the tyrosine metabolism pathway, key enzymes, and important tyrosine-derived metabolites in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Jing Xu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Plant Science Research Center, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai, 201602 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xin Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming, Kunming, 650201 Yunnan People’s Republic of China
| | - Chen-Yi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences/Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032 People’s Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032 People’s Republic of China
| | - Lei Yang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Plant Science Research Center, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai, 201602 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Ya Chen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Plant Science Research Center, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai, 201602 People’s Republic of China
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences/Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032 People’s Republic of China
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Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Pereira CL, da Silva DD. Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Aspects of Peyote and Mescaline: Clinical and Forensic Repercussions. Curr Mol Pharmacol 2020; 12:184-194. [PMID: 30318013 DOI: 10.2174/1874467211666181010154139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine), mainly found in the Peyote cactus (Lophophora williamsii), is one of the oldest known hallucinogenic agents that influence human and animal behavior, but its psychoactive mechanisms remain poorly understood. OBJECTIVES This article aims to fully review pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of mescaline, focusing on the in vivo and in vitro metabolic profile of the drug and its implications for the variability of response. METHODS Mescaline pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic aspects were searched in books and in PubMed (U.S. National Library of Medicine) without a limiting period. Biological effects of other compounds found in peyote were also reviewed. RESULTS Although its illicit administration is less common, in comparison with cocaine and Cannabis, it has been extensively described in adolescents and young adults, and licit consumption often occurs in religious and therapeutic rituals practiced by the Native American Church. Its pharmacodynamic mechanisms of action are primarily attributed to the interaction with the serotonergic 5-HT2A-C receptors, and therefore clinical effects are similar to those elicited by other psychoactive substances, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin, which include euphoria, hallucinations, depersonalization and psychoses. Moreover, as a phenethylamine derivative, signs and symptoms are consistent with a sympathomimetic effect. Mescaline is mainly metabolized into trimethoxyphenylacetic acid by oxidative deamination but several minor metabolites with possible clinical and forensic repercussions have also been reported. CONCLUSION Most reports concerning mescaline were presented in a complete absence of exposure confirmation, since toxicological analysis is not widely available. Addiction and dependence are practically absent and it is clear that most intoxications appear to be mild and are unlikely to produce lifethreatening symptoms, which favors the contemporary interest in the therapeutic potential of the drugs of the class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Jorge Dinis-Oliveira
- IINFACTS - Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, Department of Sciences, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, Rua Central de Gandra, 1317, 4585-116 Gandra PRD, Portugal.,UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, Porto, 4050-313, Portugal.,Department of Public Health and Forensic Sciences, and Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal
| | - Carolina Lança Pereira
- IINFACTS - Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, Department of Sciences, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, Rua Central de Gandra, 1317, 4585-116 Gandra PRD, Portugal
| | - Diana Dias da Silva
- IINFACTS - Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, Department of Sciences, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, Rua Central de Gandra, 1317, 4585-116 Gandra PRD, Portugal.,UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, Porto, 4050-313, Portugal
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Cacti for production of metabolites: current state and perspectives. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2019; 103:8657-8667. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-019-10125-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Abstract
Alkaloids of the Cactaceae have been studied for the last 120 years. The first half of that period provided the “classic” compounds, after which a large number of usually very similar analogs were isolated or determined with modern methods. Although some unusual synthetic approaches have been developed, their preparation is generally quite straightforward. Their biosynthesis has been studied but, particularly in the case of the isoquinoline compounds, important aspects have not been addressed. Due to its striking effects, the pharmacology of mescaline has been studied more intensely than that of the other phenethylamines present in cacti, followed only by hordenine. The many 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids have attracted much less interest and have often been considered practically inactive. Nevertheless, some recorded activities of this group of compounds suggests a need for additional studies, especially in connection with their co-administration with mescaline, as in dried cacti and in beverages prepared from them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce K. Cassels
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago 7800003, Chile
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