Effect of Cell Sex on Uptake of Nanoparticles: The Overlooked Factor at the Nanobio Interface

3D printing of drug delivery systems enhanced with micro/nano-technology

Drug delivery systems (DDSs) are increasingly important in ensuring drug safety and enhancing therapeutic efficacy. Micro/nano-technology has been utilized to develop DDSs for achieving high stability, bioavailability, and drug efficiency, as well as targeted delivery; meanwhile, 3D printing technology has made it possible to tailor DDSs with diverse components and intricate structures. This review presents the latest research progress integrating 3D printing technology and micro/nano-technology for developing novel DDSs. The technological fundamentals of 3D printing technology supporting the development of DDSs are presented, mainly from the perspective of different 3D printing mechanisms. Distinct types of DDSs leveraging 3D printing and micro/nano-technology are analyzed deeply, featuring micro/nanoscale materials and structures to enrich functionalities and improve effectiveness. Finally, we will discuss the future directions of 3D-printed DDSs integrated with micro/nano-technology, focusing on technological innovation and clinical application. This review will support interdisciplinary research efforts to advance drug delivery technology.

Understanding Neurogenesis and Neuritogenesis via Molecular Insights, Gender Influence, and Therapeutic Implications: Intervention of Nanomaterials

Neurological disorders impact global health by affecting both central and peripheral nervous systems. Understanding the neurogenic processes, i.e., neurogenesis and neuritogenesis, is of paramount importance in the context of nervous system development and regeneration as they hold promising therapeutic implications. Neurogenesis forms functional neurons from precursor cells, while neuritogenesis involves extending neurites for neuron connections. This review discusses how these processes are influenced by genetics, epigenetics, neurotrophic factors, environment, neuroinflammation, and neurotransmitters. It also covers gender-specific aspects of neurogenesis and neuritogenesis, their impact on brain plasticity, and susceptibility to neurological disorders. Alterations in these processes, under the influence of cytokines, growth factors, neurotransmitters, and aging, are linked to neurological disorders and potential therapeutic targets. Gender-specific effects of pharmacological interventions, like SSRIs, TCAs, atypical antipsychotics, and lithium, are explored in this review. Hormone-mediated effects of BDNF and PPAR-γ agonists, as well as variations in efficacy and tolerability of MAOIs, AEDs, NMDA receptor modulators, and ampakines, are detailed for accurate therapeutic design. The review also discusses nanotechnology's significant contribution to neural tissue regeneration for mending neurodegenerative disorders, enhancing neuronal connectivity, and stem cell differentiation. Gold nanoparticles support hippocampal neurogenesis, while other nanoparticles aid neuron growth and neurite outgrowth. Quantum dots and nanolayered double hydroxides assist neuroregeneration, which improves brain drug delivery. Gender-specific responses to nanomedicines designed to enhance neuroregeneration have not been extensively investigated. However, we have specified certain gender-related variables that should be taken into account during the development of nanomedicines in an aim to improve therapeutic efficacy. Further research on gender-specific responses to nanomedicines in neural processes could enhance personalized treatments for neurological disorders, paving the way for novel therapeutic approaches in neuroscience.

Internalization and Cellular Fate of Protein Corona-Coated Nanoparticles by Multimodal Multi-Scale Microscopy

Upon exposure to biological environments, nanoparticles are rapidly coated with biomolecules, predominantly proteins, which alter their colloidal stability, biodistribution, and cell interactions. Despite extensive efforts to investigate the nanoparticles' fate, only a few studies use high-resolution characterization methods that allow in-depth characterization, and the existing methodologies are unable to differentiate particles internalized at the onset of incubation from those taken up toward the end of an incubation period. In this study, these limitations related to incubation disparities are overcame and precisely monitored the spatiotemporal displacement of colloidally stable protein corona-coated nanoparticles within cells. An unprecedented application of cryogenic X-ray nanotomography, combined with high-resolution, super-resolution, and correlative microscopy techniques, revealed the migration of nanoparticles to the perinuclear region while monitoring the evolution of cellular organelles in fully hydrated cells under near-native conditions, without the need for contrasting agents. Notably, this tracking indicates the progressive fusion of vesicles carrying the nanoparticles intracellularly. This strategy demonstrates the potential for uncovering the temporal aspects of nanoparticle behavior within cells and can be adaptable to a wide range of nanoparticles and cell types, offering a versatile and powerful tool to follow nanoparticles in cellular environments.

The role of patient-specific variables in protein corona formation and therapeutic efficacy in nanomedicine

Despite their potential, the adoption of nanotechnology in therapeutics remains limited, with only around eighty nanomedicines approved in the past 30 years. This disparity is partly due to the "one-size-fits-all" approach in medical design, which often overlooks patient-specific variables such as biological sex, genetic ancestry, disease state, environment, and age that influence nanoparticle behavior. Nanoparticles (NPs) must be transported through systemic, microenvironmental, and cellular barriers that vary across heterogeneous patient populations. Key patient-dependent properties impacting NP delivery include blood flow rates, body fat distribution, reproductive organ vascularization, hormone and protein levels, immune responses, and chromosomal differences. Understanding these variables is crucial for developing effective, patient-specific nanotechnologies. The formation of a protein corona around NPs upon exposure to biological fluids significantly alters NP properties, affecting biodistribution, pharmacokinetics, cytotoxicity, and organ targeting. The dynamics of the protein corona, such as time-dependent composition and formation of soft and hard coronas, depend on NP characteristics and patient-specific serum components. This review highlights the importance of understanding protein corona formation across different patient backgrounds and its implications for NP design, including sex, ancestry, age, environment, and disease state. By exploring these variables, we aim to advance the development of personalized nanomedicine, improving therapeutic efficacy and patient outcomes.

Sex Influences the Safety and Therapeutic Efficacy of Cardiac Nanomedicine Technologies

Nanomedicine technologies are being developed for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cardiovascular disease (CVD), which is the leading cause of death worldwide. Before delving into the nuances of cardiac nanomedicine, it is essential to comprehend the fundamental sex-specific differences in cardiovascular health. Traditionally, CVDs have been more prevalent in males, but it is increasingly evident that females also face significant risks, albeit with distinct characteristics. Females tend to develop CVDs at a later age, exhibit different clinical symptoms, and often experience worse outcomes compared to males. These differences indicate the need for sex-specific approaches in cardiac nanomedicine. This Perspective discusses the importance of considering sex in the safety and therapeutic efficacy of nanomedicine approaches for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of CVD.

Evaluating the breadth of nucleic acid-based payloads delivered in lipid nanoparticles to establish fundamental differences in development

INTRODUCTION

Nucleic acid (NA)-based therapeutics have shown great potential for downregulating or augmenting gene expression, and for promising applications, e.g., protein-replacement therapy and vaccination, a comprehensive understanding of the requirements for their targeted delivery to specific tissues or cells is needed.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we discuss clinical applications of four representative types of NA-based therapeutics, i.e. antisense oligonucleotides, small interfering RNA, messenger RNA, and circular RNA, with a focus on the lipid nanoparticle (LNP) technology used for intracellular delivery. The in vivo fate of LNPs is discussed to improve the understanding of trafficking of nanomedicines at the systemic and cellular levels. In addition, NA-based vaccines are discussed, focusing on targeting antigen-presenting cells and immune activation.

EXPERT OPINION

Optimization of delivery systems for NA-based therapeutics is mainly focused on the standard requirements of prolonged systemic circulation and enhancing endosomal escape. Depending on the final destination in specific target tissues or cells, strategies should be adjusted to achieve the desired biodistribution of NA-based payloads. More studies relating to the pharmacokinetics of both cargo and carrier are encouraged, because their in vivo fates may differ, considering the possibility of premature cargo release before reaching the target.

Understanding nanoparticle-liver interactions in nanomedicine

INTRODUCTION

Understanding the interactions between administered nanoparticles and the liver is crucial for developing safe and effective nanomedicines. As the liver can sequester up to 99% of these particles due to its major phagocytic role, understanding these interactions is vital for clinical translation.

AREAS COVERED

This review highlights recent studies on nanoparticle-liver interactions, including the influence of nanoparticle physicochemical properties on delivery, strategies to enhance delivery efficiency by modulating liver Kupffer cells, and their potential for treating certain hepatic diseases. Additionally, we discuss how aging impacts the liver's phagocytic functions.

EXPERT OPINION

While liver accumulation can hinder nanomedicine safety and effectiveness, it also presents opportunities for treating certain liver diseases. A thorough understanding of nanoparticle-liver interactions is essential for advancing the clinical application of nanomedicines.

Nanocarriers address intracellular barriers for efficient drug delivery, overcoming drug resistance, subcellular targeting and controlled release

The cellular barriers are major bottlenecks for bioactive compounds entering into cells to accomplish their biological functions, which limits their biomedical applications. Nanocarriers have demonstrated high potential and benefits for encapsulating bioactive compounds and efficiently delivering them into target cells by overcoming a cascade of intracellular barriers to achieve desirable therapeutic and diagnostic effects. In this review, we introduce the cellular barriers ahead of drug delivery and nanocarriers, as well as summarize recent advances and strategies of nanocarriers for increasing internalization with cells, promoting intracellular trafficking, overcoming drug resistance, targeting subcellular locations and controlled drug release. Lastly, the future perspectives of nanocarriers for intracellular drug delivery are discussed, which mainly focus on potential challenges and future directions. Our review presents an overview of intracellular drug delivery by nanocarriers, which may encourage the future development of nanocarriers for efficient and precision drug delivery into a wide range of cells and subcellular targets.

Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Enhancing Bone Regeneration

The treatment of bone defects has been a long-standing challenge in clinical practice. Among the various bone tissue engineering approaches, there has been substantial progress in the development of drug delivery systems based on functional drugs and appropriate carrier materials owing to technological advances in recent years. A large number of materials based on functional nanocarriers have been developed and applied to improve the complex osteogenic microenvironment, including for promoting osteogenic activity, inhibiting osteoclast activity, and exerting certain antibacterial effects. This Review discusses the physicochemical properties, drug loading mechanisms, advantages and disadvantages of nanoparticles (NPs) used for constructing drug delivery systems. In addition, we provide an overview of the osteogenic microenvironment regulation mechanism of drug delivery systems based on nanoparticle (NP) carriers and the construction strategies of drug delivery systems. Finally, the advantages and disadvantages of NP carriers are summarized along with their prospects and future research trends in bone tissue engineering. This Review thus provides advanced strategies for the design and application of drug delivery systems based on NPs in the treatment of bone defects.

Investigation of sex-based differences in the immunotoxicity of silver nanoparticles

The growing application of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in consumer, healthcare, and industrial products has raised concern over potential health implications due to increasing exposure. The evaluation of the immune response to nanomaterials is one of the key criteria to assess their biocompatibility. There are well-recognized sex-based differences in innate and adaptive immune responses. However, there is limited information available using human models. The aim was to investigate the potential sex-based differences in immune functions after exposure to AgNPs using human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and plasma from healthy donors. These functions include inflammasome activation, cytokine expression, leukocyte proliferation, chemotaxis, plasma coagulation, and complement activation. AgNPs were characterized by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy. Inflammasome activation by AgNPs was measured after 6- and 24-hours incubations. AgNPs-induced inflammasome activation was significantly higher in the females, especially for the 6-hour exposure. No sex-based differences were observed for Ag ions controls. Younger donors exhibited significantly more inflammasome activation than older donors after 24-hours exposure. IL-10 was significantly suppressed in males and females after exposure. AgNPs suppressed leukocyte proliferation similarly in males and females. No chemoattractant effects, no alterations in plasma coagulation, or activation of the complement were observed after AgNPs exposure. In conclusion, the results highlight that there are distinct sex-based differences in inflammasome activation after exposure to AgNPs in human PBMCs. The results highlight the importance of considering sex-based differences in inflammasome activation induced by exposure to AgNPs in any future biocompatibility assessment for products containing AgNPs.

Sex-specific considerations in nanomedicine: highlighting the impact of the menstrual cycle on drug development

Tweetable abstract The female menstrual cycle is one of the most overlooked sex-specific factors in drug distribution and response. Unlocking the potential of nanomedicine demands a fundamental understanding of the impact biological sex has on drug distribution, efficacy and adverse effects.

Acute brain injury and nanomedicine: sex as a biological variable

Sex as a biological variable has been recognized for decades to be a critical aspect of the drug development process, as differences in drug pharmacology and toxicity in female versus male subjects can drive the success or failure of new therapeutics. These concepts in development of traditional drug systems have only recently begun to be applied for advancing nanomedicine systems that are designed for drug delivery or imaging in the central nervous system (CNS). This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of two fields of research - nanomedicine and acute brain injury-centering on sex as a biological variable. We highlight areas of each field that provide foundational understanding of sex as a biological variable in nanomedicine, brain development, immune response, and pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury and stroke. We describe current knowledge on female versus male physiology as well as a growing number of empirical reports that directly address sex as a biological variable in these contexts. In sum, the data make clear two key observations. First, the manner in which sex affects nanomedicine distribution, toxicity, or efficacy is important, complex, and depends on the specific nanoparticle system under considerations; second, although field knowledge is accumulating to enable us to understand sex as a biological variable in the fields of nanomedicine and acute brain injury, there are critical gaps in knowledge that will need to be addressed. We anticipate that understanding sex as a biological variable in the development of nanomedicine systems to treat acute CNS injury will be an important determinant of their success.

Efficacy and Mechanism of a Biomimetic Nanosystem Carrying Doxorubicin and an IDO Inhibitor for Treatment of Advanced Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Introduction

Chemotherapy is still the treatment of choice for advanced triple-negative breast cancer. Chemotherapy combined with immunotherapy is being tried in patients with triple-negative breast cancer. As a kind of "cold tumor", triple-negative breast cancer has a bottleneck in immunotherapy. Indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase-1 inhibitors can reverse the immunosuppressive state and enhance the immune response.

Methods

In this study, mesoporous silica nanoparticles were coated with the chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin and indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase 1 inhibitor 1-Methyl-DL-tryptophan (1-MT), and then encapsulate the surfaces of a triple-negative breast cancer cell membrane to construct the tumor dual-targeted delivery system CDIMSN for chemotherapy and immunotherapy, and to investigate the immunogenic death effect of CDIMSN.

Results and discussion

The CDIMSN could target the tumor microenvironment. Doxorubicin induced tumor immunogenic death, while 1-MT reversed immunosuppression. In vivo findings showed that the tumor size in the CDIMSN group was 2.66-fold and 1.56-fold smaller than that in DOX and DIMSN groups, respectively. CDIMSN group was better than naked DIMSN in stimulating CD8+T cells, CD4+T cells and promoting Dendritic Cells(DC) maturation. In addition, blood analysis, biochemical analysis and Hematoxylin staining analysis of mice showed that the bionic nanoparticles had good biological safety.

Exploring the Effects of Various Capping Agents on Zinc Sulfide Quantum Dot Characteristics and In-vitro Fate

The choice of capping agents used during the synthesis process of quantum dots (QDs) can significantly influence their fate and fundamental properties. Hence, choosing an appropriate capping agent is a critical step in both synthesis and biomedical application of QDs. In this research, ZnS QDs were synthesized via chemical precipitation process and three commonly employed capping agents, namely mercaptoethanol (ME), mercaptoacetic acid (MAA), and cysteamine (CA), were used to stabilize the QDs. This study was aimed to examine how these capping agents impact the physicochemical and optical characteristics of ZnS QDs, as well as their interactions with biological systems. The findings revealed that the capping agents had considerable effects on the behavior and properties of ZnS QDs. MAA-QD exhibited superior crystal lattice, smaller size, and significant quantum yield (QY). In contrast, CA-QDs demonstrated the lowest QY and the highest tendency for aggregation. ME-QDs exhibited intermediate characteristics, along with an acceptable level of cytotoxicity, rapid uptake by cells, and efficient escape from lysosomes. Consequently, it is advisable to select capping agents in accordance with the specific objectives of the research.

Sex as a Biological Variable in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

Although sex differences have been noted in cellular function and behavior, therapy efficacy, and disease incidence and outcomes, the adoption of sex as a biological variable in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine remains limited. Furthering the development of personalized, precision medicine requires considering biological sex at the bench and in the clinic. This review provides the basis for considering biological sex when designing tissue-engineered constructs and regenerative therapies by contextualizing sex as a biological variable within the tissue engineering triad of cells, matrices, and signals. To achieve equity in biological sex within medicine requires a cultural shift in science and engineering research, with active engagement by researchers, clinicians, companies, policymakers, and funding agencies.

Lysosomal nanotoxicity: Impact of nanomedicines on lysosomal function

Although several nanomedicines got clinical approval over the past two decades, the clinical translation rate is relatively small so far. There are many post-surveillance withdrawals of nanomedicines caused by various safety issues. For successful clinical advancement of nanotechnology, it is of unmet need to realize cellular and molecular foundation of nanotoxicity. Current data suggest that lysosomal dysfunction caused by nanoparticles is emerging as the most common intracellular trigger of nanotoxicity. This review analyzes prospect mechanisms of lysosomal dysfunction-mediated toxicity induced by nanoparticles. We summarized and critically assessed adverse drug reactions of current clinically approved nanomedicines. Importantly, we show that physicochemical properties have great impact on nanoparticles interaction with cells, excretion route and kinetics, and subsequently on toxicity. We analyzed literature on adverse reactions of current nanomedicines and hypothesized that adverse reactions might be linked with lysosomal dysfunction caused by nanomedicines. Finally, from our analysis it becomes clear that it is unjustifiable to generalize safety and toxicity of nanoparticles, since different particles possess distinct toxicological properties. We propose that the biological mechanism of the disease progression and treatment should be central in the optimization of nanoparticle design.

Toxicity evaluation of silica nanoparticles for delivery applications

Silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) are being explored as nanocarriers for therapeutics delivery, which can address a number of intrinsic drawbacks of therapeutics. To translate laboratory innovation into clinical application, their potential toxicity has been of great concern. This review attempts to comprehensively summarize the existing literature on the toxicity assessment of SiNPs. The current data suggest that the composition of SiNPs, their physicochemical properties, their administration route, their frequency and duration of administration, and the sex of animal models are related to their tissue and blood toxicity, immunotoxicity, and genotoxicity. However, the correlation between in vitro and in vivo toxicity has not been well established, mainly because both the in vitro and the in vivo-dosed quantities are unrealistic. This article also discusses important factors to consider in the toxicology of SiNPs and current approaches to reducing their toxicity. The aim is to give readers a better understanding of the toxicology of silica nanoparticles and to help identify key gaps in knowledge and techniques.

Sex-Specific Silica Nanoparticle Protein Corona Compositions Exposed to Male and Female BALB/c Mice Plasmas

As various nanoparticles (NPs) are increasingly being used in nanomedicine products for more effective and less toxic therapy and diagnosis of diseases, there is a growing need to understand their biological fate in different sexes. Herein, we report a proof-of-concept result of sex-specific protein corona compositions on the surface of silica NPs as a function of their size and porosity upon incubation with plasma proteins of female and male BALB/c mice. Our results demonstrate substantial differences between male and female protein corona profiles on the surface of silica nanoparticles. By comparing protein abundances between male and female protein coronas of mesoporous silica nanoparticles and Stöber silica nanoparticles of ∼100, 50, and 100 nm in diameter, respectively, we detected 17, 4, and 4 distinct proteins, respectively, that were found at significantly different concentrations for these constructs. These initial findings demonstrate that animal sex can influence protein corona formation on silica NPs as a function of the physicochemical properties. A more thorough consideration of the role of plasma sex would enable nanomedicine community to design and develop safer and more efficient diagnostic and therapeutic nanomedicine products for both sexes.

Physiological relevance of in-vitro cell-nanoparticle interaction studies as a predictive tool in cancer nanomedicine research

Cell uptake study is a routine experiment used as a surrogate to predict in vivo response in cancer nanomedicine research. Cell culture conditions should be designed in such a way that it emulates 'real' physiological conditions and avoid artefacts. It is critical to dissect the steps involved in cellular uptake to understand the physical, chemical, and biological factors responsible for particle internalization. The two-dimensional model (2D) of cell culture is overly simplistic to mimic the complexity of cancer tissues that exist in vivo. It cannot simulate the critical tissue-specific properties like cell-cell interaction and cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) interaction and its influences on the temporal and spatial distribution of nanoparticles (NPs). The three dimensional model organization of heterogenous cancer and normal cells with the ECM acts as a formidable barrier to NP penetration and cellular uptake. The three dimensional cell culture (3D) technology is a breakthrough in this direction that can mimic the barrier properties of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Herein, we discuss the physiological factors that should be considered to bridge the translational gap between in and vitro cell culture studies and in-vivo studies in cancer nanomedicine.

Integration of In Vitro and In Vivo Models to Predict Cellular and Tissue Dosimetry of Nanomaterials Using Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling

Nanomaterials (NMs) have been increasingly used in a number of areas, including consumer products and nanomedicine. Target tissue dosimetry is important in the evaluation of safety, efficacy, and potential toxicity of NMs. Current evaluation of NM efficacy and safety involves the time-consuming collection of pharmacokinetic and toxicity data in animals and is usually completed one material at a time. This traditional approach no longer meets the demand of the explosive growth of NM-based products. There is an emerging need to develop methods that can help design safe and effective NMs in an efficient manner. In this review article, we critically evaluate existing studies on in vivo pharmacokinetic properties, in vitro cellular uptake and release and kinetic modeling, and whole-body physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling studies of different NMs. Methods on how to simulate in vitro cellular uptake and release kinetics and how to extrapolate cellular and tissue dosimetry of NMs from in vitro to in vivo via PBPK modeling are discussed. We also share our perspectives on the current challenges and future directions of in vivo pharmacokinetic studies, in vitro cellular uptake and kinetic modeling, and whole-body PBPK modeling studies for NMs. Finally, we propose a nanomaterial in vitro to in vivo extrapolation via physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling (Nano-IVIVE-PBPK) framework for high-throughput screening of target cellular and tissue dosimetry as well as potential toxicity of different NMs in order to meet the demand of efficient evaluation of the safety, efficacy, and potential toxicity of a rapidly increasing number of NM-based products.

Interview: insights from a career researching the protein corona and combating academic bullying

M Mahmoudi is an assistant professor in the Department of Radiology and Precision Health Program at Michigan State University (MI, USA). His research group has three broad lines of enquiry: nanomedicine, regenerative medicine and academic bullying and harassment. In the field of nanomedicine, the lab focuses on understanding the protein corona - the mix of biomolecules that binds to the surface of a nanoparticle when it interacts with biological fluids - and the complications this brings to reproducibility and data interpretation in the field of nanomedicine. In regenerative medicine, his lab works on cardiac regeneration and wound healing. His lab is also very active in the social sciences, specifically in the fields of gender disparity in the sciences and academic harassment. In addition to his academic postings, M Mahmoudi is a cofounder and director of the Academic Parity Movement (a nonprofit organization); a cofounder of NanoServ, Targets' Tip and Partners in Global Wound Care; and a member of the Nanomedicine editorial board.

Advanced Research in Cellular Pharmacokinetics and its Cutting-edge Technologies

Pharmacokinetics (PK), as a significant part of pharmacology, runs through the overall process of the preclinical and clinical research on drugs and plays a significant role in determining the material basis of efficacy and mechanism research. However, due to the limitations of classical PK, cellular PK was put forward and developed rapidly. Many novel and original technologies have been innovatively applied to cellular PK research, thereby providing powerful technical support. As a novel field of PK research, cellular PK expands the research object and enriches the theoretical framework of PK. It provides a new perspective for elucidating the mechanism of drug action and the dynamic process of drug in the body. Furthermore, it provides a scientific basis and guiding significance for the development of new drugs and clinical rational drug use. Cellular PK can explain the dynamic process of certain drugs (e.g., antineoplastic drugs and antibiotics) and the disposition kinetics characteristics in some specific tissues (e.g., brain and tumor) in a clearer and more accurate manner. It is a beneficial supplement and the perfection of traditional PK. In the future, traditional and cellular PKs will complement each other well and improve into an all-around research system in drug developments. Briefly, this paper reviews the conceptual development of cellular PK and key associated technologies, explores its main functions and applications, and looks forward to the important pioneering significance and promising value for the development of PK.

3D bioprinting of nanoparticle-laden hydrogel scaffolds with enhanced antibacterial and imaging properties

Biomaterial-associated microbial contaminations in biologically conducive three-dimensional (3D) tissue-engineered constructs have significantly limited the clinical applications of scaffold systems. To prevent such infections, antimicrobial biomaterials are rapidly evolving. Yet, the use of such materials in bioprinting-based approaches of scaffold fabrication has not been examined. This study introduces a new generation of bacteriostatic gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA)-based bioinks, incorporated with varying doses of antibacterial superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs). The SPION-laden GelMA scaffolds showed significant resistance against the Staphylococcus aureus growth, while providing a contrast in magnetic resonance imaging. We simulated the bacterial contamination of cellular 3D GelMA scaffolds in vitro and demonstrated the significant effect of functionalized scaffolds in inhibiting bacterial growth, while maintaining cell viability and growth. Together, these results present a new promising class of functionalized bioinks to 3D bioprint tissue-engineered scaffold with markedly enhanced properties for the use in a variety of in vitro and clinical applications.

Engineering nano-drug biointerface to overcome biological barriers toward precision drug delivery

The rapid advancement of nanomedicine and nanoparticle (NP) materials presents novel solutions potentially capable of revolutionizing health care by improving efficacy, bioavailability, drug targeting, and safety. NPs are intriguing when considering medical applications because of their essential and unique qualities, including a significantly higher surface to mass ratio, quantum properties, and the potential to adsorb and transport drugs and other compounds. However, NPs must overcome or navigate several biological barriers of the human body to successfully deliver drugs at precise locations. Engineering the drug carrier biointerface can help overcome the main biological barriers and optimize the drug delivery in a more personalized manner. This review discusses the significant heterogeneous biological delivery barriers and how biointerface engineering can promote drug carriers to prevail over hurdles and navigate in a more personalized manner, thus ushering in the era of Precision Medicine. We also summarize the nanomedicines' current advantages and disadvantages in drug administration, from natural/synthetic sources to clinical applications. Additionally, we explore the innovative NP designs used in both non-personalized and customized applications as well as how they can attain a precise therapeutic strategy.

An update on dual targeting strategy for cancer treatment

The key issue in the treatment of solid tumors is the lack of efficient strategies for the targeted delivery and accumulation of therapeutic cargoes in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Targeting approaches are designed for more efficient delivery of therapeutic agents to cancer cells while minimizing drug toxicity to normal cells and off-targeting effects, while maximizing the eradication of cancer cells. The highly complicated interrelationship between the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles, and the physiological and pathological barriers that are required to cross, dictates the need for the success of targeting strategies. Dual targeting is an approach that uses both purely biological strategies and physicochemical responsive smart delivery strategies to increase the accumulation of nanoparticles within the TME and improve targeting efficiency towards cancer cells. In both approaches, either one single ligand is used for targeting a single receptor on different cells, or two different ligands for targeting two different receptors on the same or different cells. Smart delivery strategies are able to respond to triggers that are typical of specific disease sites, such as pH, certain specific enzymes, or redox conditions. These strategies are expected to lead to more precise targeting and better accumulation of nano-therapeutics. This review describes the classification and principles of dual targeting approaches and critically reviews the efficiency of dual targeting strategies, and the rationale behind the choice of ligands. We focus on new approaches for smart drug delivery in which synthetic and/or biological moieties are attached to nanoparticles by TME-specific responsive linkers and advanced camouflaged nanoparticles.

Artificial engineering of the protein corona at bio-nano interfaces for improved cancer-targeted nanotherapy

Nanoparticles (NPs) have been demonstrated in numerous applications as anticancer, antibacterial and antioxidant agents. Artificial engineering of protein interactions with NPs in biological systems is crucial to develop potential NPs for drug delivery and cancer nanotherapy. The protein corona (PC) on the NP surface, displays an interface between biomacromolecules and NPs, governing their pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Upon interaction of proteins with the NP surface, their surface features are modified and they can easily be removed from the circulation by the mononuclear phagocytic system (MPS). PC properties heavily depend on the biological microenvironment and NP surface physicochemical parameters. Based on this context, we have surveyed different approaches that have been used for artificial engineering of the PC composition on NP surfaces. We discuss the effects of NP size, shape, surface modifications (PEGylation, self-peptide, other polymers), and protein pre-coating on the PC properties. Additionally, other factors including protein source and structure, intravenous injection and the subsequent shear flow, plasma protein gradients, temperature and local heat transfer, and washing media are considered in the context of their effects on the PC properties and overall target cellular effects. Moreover, the effects of NP-PC complexes on cancer cells based on cellular interactions, organization of intracellular PC (IPC), targeted drug delivery (TDD) and regulation of burst drug release profile of nanoplatforms, enhanced biocompatibility, and clinical applications were discussed followed by challenges and future perspective of the field. In conclusion, this paper can provide useful information to manipulate PC properties on the NP surface, thus trying to provide a literature survey to shorten their shipping from preclinical to clinical trials and to lay the basis for a personalized PC.

Exposure to atmospheric Ag, TiO2, Ti and SiO2 engineered nanoparticles modulates gut inflammatory response and microbiota in mice

The development of nanotechnologies is leading to greater abundance of engineered nanoparticles (EN) in the environment, including in the atmospheric air. To date, it has been shown that the most prevalent EN found in the air are silver (Ag), titanium dioxide (TiO₂), titanium (Ti), and silicon dioxide (SiO₂). As the intestinal tract is increasingly recognized as a target for adverse effects induced by inhalation of air particles, the aim of this study was to assess the impact of these 4 atmospheric EN on intestinal inflammation and microbiota. We assessed the combined toxicity effects of Ag, Ti, TiO₂, and SiO₂ following a 28-day inhalation protocol in male and female mice. In distal and proximal colon, and in jejunum, EN mixture inhalation did not induce overt histological damage, but led to a significant modulation of inflammatory cytokine transcript abundance, including downregulation of Tnfα, Ifnγ, Il1β, Il17a, Il22, IL10, and Cxcl1 mRNA levels in male jejunum. A dysbiosis was observed in cecal microbiota of male and female mice exposed to the EN mixture, characterized by sex-dependent modulations of specific bacterial taxa, as well as sex-independent decreased abundance of the Eggerthellaceae family. Under dextran sodium sulfate-induced inflammatory conditions, exposure to the EN mixture increased the development of colitis in both male and female mice. Moreover, the direct dose-response effects of individual and mixed EN on gut organoids was studied and Ag, TiO₂, Ti, SiO₂, and EN mixture were found to generate specific inflammatory responses in the intestinal epithelium. These results indicate that the 4 most prevalent atmospheric EN could have the ability to disturb intestinal homeostasis through direct modulation of cytokine expression in gut epithelium, and by altering the inflammatory response and microbiota composition following inhalation.

Advantages and prospects of stem cells in nanotoxicology

Nanomaterials have been widely used in many fields, especially in biomedical and stem cell therapy. However, the potential risks associated with nanomaterials applications are also gradually increasing. Therefore, effective and robust toxicology models are critical to evaluate the developmental toxicity of nanomaterials. The development of stem cell research provides a new idea of developmental toxicology. Recently, many researchers actively investigated the effects of nanomaterials with different sizes and surface modifications on various stem cells (such as embryonic stem cells (ESCs), adult stem cells, etc.) to study the toxic effects and toxic mechanisms. In this review, we summarized the effects of nanomaterials on the proliferation and differentiation of ESCs, mesenchymal stem cells and neural stem cells. Moreover, we discussed the advantages of stem cells in nanotoxicology compared with other cell lines. Finally, combined with the latest research methods and new molecular mechanisms, we analyzed the application of stem cells in nanotoxicology.

An update on the applications and characteristics of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

In the field of drug delivery, controlling the release of therapeutic substances at localized targets has become a primary focus of medical research, especially in the field of cancer treatment. Magnetic nanoparticles are one of the most promising drug carriers thanks to their biocompatibility and (super)paramagnetic properties. These properties allow for the combination between imaging modalities and specific release of drugs at target sites using either local stimulus (i.e. pH, conjugation of biomarkers, …) or external stimulus (i.e. external magnetic field).

AREAS COVERED

This review provides an update on recent advances with the development of targeted drug delivery systems based on magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs). This overview focuses on active targeting strategies and systems combining both imaging and therapeutic modalities (i.e. theranostics). If most of the examples concern the particular case of cancer therapy, the possibility of using MNPs for other medical applications is also discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

The development of clinically relevant drug delivery systems based on magnetic nanoparticles is driven by advantages stemming from their remarkable properties (i.e. easy preparation, facile chemical functionalization, biocompatibility, low toxicity and superior magnetic responsiveness). This literature review shows that drug carriers based on magnetic nanoparticles can be efficiently used for the controlled release of drug at targeted locations mediated by various stimuli. Advances in the field should lead to the implementation of such systems into clinical trials, especially systems enabling drug tracking in the body.

Physiology, pathology and the biomolecular corona: the confounding factors in nanomedicine design

The biomolecular corona that forms on nanomedicines in different physiological and pathological environments confers a new biological identity. How the recipient biological system's state can potentially affect nanomedicine corona formation, and how this can be modulated, remains obscure. With this perspective, this review summarizes the current knowledge about the content of biological fluids in various compartments and how they can be affected by pathological states, thus impacting biomolecular corona formation. The content of representative biological fluids is explored, and the urgency of integrating corona formation, as an essential component of nanomedicine designs for effective cargo delivery, is highlighted.

Nanotechnology-based therapeutic applications: in vitro and in vivo clinical studies for diabetic wound healing

Diabetic wounds often indicate chronic complications that are difficult to treat. Unfortunately, existing conventional treatment modalities often cause unpremeditated side effects, given the need to develop alternative therapeutic phenotypes that are safe or have minimal side effects and risks. Nanotechnology-based platforms, including nanotherapeutics, nanoparticles (NPs), nanofibers, nanohydrogels, and nanoscaffolds, have garnered attention for their groundbreaking potential to decipher the biological environment and offer personalized treatment methods for wound healing. These nanotechnology-based platforms can successfully overcome the impediments posed by drug toxicity, existing treatment modalities, and the physiology and complexity of the wound sites. Furthermore, studies have shown that they play an essential role in influencing angiogenesis, collagen production, and extracellular matrix (ECM) synthesis, which are integral in skin repair mechanisms. In this review, we emphasized the importance of various nanotechnology-based platforms for healing diabetic wounds and report on the innovative preclinical and clinical outcomes of different nanotechnology-based platforms. This review also outlined the limitations of existing conventional treatment modalities and summarized the physiology of acute and chronic diabetic wounds.

Nanotechnology for Targeted Detection and Removal of Bacteria: Opportunities and Challenges

The emergence of nanotechnology has created unprecedented hopes for addressing several unmet industrial and clinical issues, including the growing threat so-termed "antibiotic resistance" in medicine. Over the last decade, nanotechnologies have demonstrated promising applications in the identification, discrimination, and removal of a wide range of pathogens. Here, recent insights into the field of bacterial nanotechnology are examined that can substantially improve the fundamental understanding of nanoparticle and bacteria interactions. A wide range of developed nanotechnology-based approaches for bacterial detection and removal together with biofilm eradication are summarized. The challenging effects of nanotechnologies on beneficial bacteria in the human body and environment and the mechanisms of bacterial resistance to nanotherapeutics are also reviewed.

Corona protein impacts on alternating current biosusceptometry signal and circulation times of differently coated MnFe2O4 nanoparticles

Background: We evaluated the impacts of corona protein (CP) formation on the alternating current biosusceptometry (ACB) signal intensity and in vivo circulation times of three differently coated magnetic nanoparticles (MNP): bare, citrate-coated and bovine serum albumin-coated MNPs. Methods: We employed the ACB system, gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry analysis. Results: Higher CP formation led to a greater reduction in the in vitro ACB signal intensity and circulation time. We found fewer proteins forming the CP for the bovine serum albumin-coated MNPs, which presented the highest circulation time in vivo among the MNPs studied. Conclusion: These data showed better biocompatibility, stability and magnetic signal uniformity in biological media for bovine serum albumin-coated MNPs than for citrate-coated MNPs and bare MNPs.

Cancer-Nano-Interaction: From Cellular Uptake to Mechanobiological Responses

With the advancement of nanotechnology, the nano-bio-interaction field has emerged. It is essential to enhance our understanding of nano-bio-interaction in different aspects to design nanomedicines and improve their efficacy for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Many researchers have extensively studied the toxicological responses of cancer cells to nano-bio-interaction, while their mechanobiological responses have been less investigated. The mechanobiological properties of cells such as elasticity and adhesion play vital roles in cellular functions and cancer progression. Many studies have noticed the impacts of cellular uptake on the structural organization of cells and, in return, the mechanobiology of human cells. Mechanobiological changes induced by the interactions of nanomaterials and cells could alter cellular functions and influence cancer progression. Hence, in addition to biological responses, the possible mechanobiological responses of treated cells should be monitored as a standard methodology to evaluate the efficiency of nanomedicines. Studying the cancer-nano-interaction in the context of cell mechanics takes our knowledge one step closer to designing safe and intelligent nanomedicines. In this review, we briefly discuss how the characteristic properties of nanoparticles influence cellular uptake. Then, we provide insight into the mechanobiological responses that may occur during the nano-bio-interactions, and finally, the important measurement techniques for the mechanobiological characterizations of cells are summarized and compared. Understanding the unknown mechanobiological responses to nano-bio-interaction will help with developing the application of nanoparticles to modulate cell mechanics for controlling cancer progression.

The role of sex as a biological variable in the efficacy and toxicity of therapeutic nanomedicine

Males and females have physiological, hormonal, and genetic differences that can cause different responses to medicinal treatments. The role of sex in the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs is well established in the literature. However, researchers have yet to robustly and consistently consider the impact of sex differences on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of nanomedicine formulations when designing nanomedicine therapeutics and/or constructing clinical trials. In this review, we highlight the physiological and anatomical differences between sexes and discuss how these differences can influence the therapeutic efficacy, side effects, and drug delivery safety of nanomedicine products. A deep understanding of the effects of sex on nano-based drug delivery agents will robustly improve the risk assessment process, resulting in safer formulations, successful clinical translation, and improved therapeutic efficacies for both sexes.

Environmental dimensions of the protein corona

The adsorption of biomolecules to the surface of engineered nanomaterials, known as corona formation, defines their biological identity by altering their surface properties and transforming the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the particles. In the first decade since the term protein corona was coined, studies have focused primarily on biomedical applications and human toxicity. The relevance of the environmental dimensions of the protein corona is still emerging. Often referred to as the eco-corona, a biomolecular coating forms upon nanomaterials as they enter the environment and may include proteins, as well as a diverse array of other biomolecules such as metabolites from cellular activity and/or natural organic matter. Proteins remain central in studies of eco-coronas because of the ease of monitoring and structurally characterizing proteins, as well as their crucial role in receptor engagement and signalling. The proteins within the eco-corona are optimal targets to establish the biophysicochemical principles of corona formation and transformation, as well as downstream impacts on nanomaterial uptake, distribution and impacts on the environment. Moreover, proteins appear to impart a biological identity, leading to cellular or organismal recognition of nanomaterials, a unique characteristic compared with natural organic matter. We contrast insights into protein corona formation from clinical samples with those in environmentally relevant systems. Principles specific to the environment are also explored to gain insights into the dynamics of interaction with or replacement by other biomolecules, including changes during trophic transfer and ecotoxicity. With many challenges remaining, we also highlight key opportunities for method development and impactful systems on which to focus the next phase of eco-corona studies. By interrogating these environmental dimensions of the protein corona, we offer a perspective on how mechanistic insights into protein coronas in the environment can lead to more sustainable, environmentally safe nanomaterials, as well as enhancing the efficacy of nanomaterials used in remediation and in the agri-food sector.

Focused role of nanoparticles against COVID-19: Diagnosis and treatment

The 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV; severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)) has witnessed a rapid and global proliferation since its early identification in patients with severe pneumonia in Wuhan, China. As of 27th May 2020, 2019-nCoV cases have risen to >5 million, with confirmed deaths of 350,000. However, Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) diagnostic and treatment measures are yet to be fully unraveled, given the novelty of this particular coronavirus. Therefore, existing antiviral agents used for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) were repurposed for COVID-19, taking their biological features into consideration. This study provides a concise review of the current and emerging detection and supervision technologies for SARS-CoV-2, which is the viral etiology of COVID19, and their performance characteristics, with emphasis on the novel Nano-based diagnostic tests (protein corona sensor array and magnetic levitation) and treatment measures (treatment protocols based on nano-silver colloids) for COVID-19.

Sex as an important factor in nanomedicine

Nanomedicine has demonstrated substantial potential to improve the quality and efficacy of healthcare systems. Although the promise of nanomedicine to transform conventional medicine is evident, significant numbers of therapeutic nanomedicine products have failed in clinical trials. Most studies in nanomedicine have overlooked several important factors, including the significance of sex differences at various physiological levels. This report attempts to highlight the importance of sex in nanomedicine at cellular and molecular level. A more thorough consideration of sex physiology, among other critical variations (e.g., health status of individuals), would enable researchers to design and develop safer and more-efficient sex-specific diagnostic and therapeutic nanomedicine products.

Interdependency of influential parameters in therapeutic nanomedicine

Introduction:Current challenges to successful clinical translation of therapeutic nanomedicine have discouraged many stakeholders, including patients. Significant effort has been devoted to uncovering the reasons behind the less-than-expected success, beyond failures or ineffectiveness, of therapeutic nanomedicine products (e.g. cancer nanomedicine). Until we understand and address the factors that limit the safety and efficacy of NPs, both individually and in combination, successful clinical development will lag.Areas covered:This review highlights the critical roles of interdependent factors affecting the safety and therapeutic efficacy of therapeutic NPs for drug delivery applications.Expert opinion:Deep analysis of the current nanomedical literature reveals ahistory of unanticipated complexity by awide range of stakeholders including researchers. In the manufacture of nanomedicines themselves, there have been persistent difficulties with reproducibility and batch-to-batch variation. The unanticipated complexity and interdependency of nano-bio parameters has delayed our recognition of important factors affecting the safety and therapeutic efficacy of nanomedicine products. These missteps have had many factors including our lack of understanding of the interdependency of various factors affecting the biological identity and fate of NPs and biased interpretation of data. All these issues could raise significant concern regarding the reproducibility- or even the validity- of past publications that in turn formed the basis of many clinical trials of therapeutic nanomedicines. Therefore, the individual and combined effects of previously overlooked factors on the safety and therapeutic efficacy of NPs need to be fully considered in nanomedicine reports and product development.

Nanomaterials and hepatic disease: toxicokinetics, disease types, intrinsic mechanisms, liver susceptibility, and influencing factors

The widespread use of nanomaterials (NMs) has raised concerns that exposure to them may introduce potential risks to the human body and environment. The liver is the main target organ for NMs. Hepatotoxic effects caused by NMs have been observed in recent studies but have not been linked to liver disease, and the intrinsic mechanisms are poorly elucidated. Additionally, NMs exhibit varied toxicokinetics and induce enhanced toxic effects in susceptible livers; however, thus far, this issue has not been thoroughly reviewed. This review provides an overview of the toxicokinetics of NMs. We highlight the possibility that NMs induce hepatic diseases, including nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), fibrosis, liver cancer, and metabolic disorders, and explore the underlying intrinsic mechanisms. Additionally, NM toxicokinetics and the potential induced risks in the livers of susceptible individuals, including subjects with liver disease, obese individuals, aging individuals and individuals of both sexes, are summarized. To understand how NM type affect their toxicity, the influences of the physicochemical and morphological (PCM) properties of NMs on their toxicokinetics and toxicity are also explored. This review provides guidance for further toxicological studies on NMs and will be important for the further development of NMs for applications in various fields.

Exploration and insights into the cellular internalization and intracellular fate of amphiphilic polymeric nanocarriers

The beneficial or deleterious effects of nanomedicines emerge from their complex interactions with intracellular pathways and their subcellular fate. Moreover, the dynamic nature of plasma membrane accounts for the movement of these nanocarriers within the cell towards different organelles thereby not only influencing their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties but also bioavailability, therapeutic efficacy and toxicity. Therefore, an in-depth understanding of underlying parameters controlling nanocarrier endocytosis and intracellular fate is essential. In order to direct nanoparticles towards specific sub-cellular organelles the physicochemical attributes of nanocarriers can be manipulated. These include particle size, shape and surface charge/chemistry. Restricting the particle size of nanocarriers below 200 nm contributes to internalization via clathrin and caveolae mediated pathways. Similarly, a moderate negative surface potential confers endolysosomal escape and targeting towards mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi. This review aims to provide an insight into these physicochemical attributes of nanocarriers fabricated using amphiphilic graft copolymers affecting cellular internalization. Fundamental principles understood from experimental studies have been extrapolated to draw a general conclusion for the designing of optimized nanoparticulate drug delivery systems and enhanced intracellular uptake via specific endocytic pathway.

Chitosan Nanomedicine in Cancer Therapy: Targeted Delivery and Cellular Uptake

Nanomedicine has gained much attention for the management and treatment of cancers due to the distinctive physicochemical properties of the drug-loaded particles. Chitosan's cationic nature is attractive for the development of such particles for drug delivery, transfection, and controlled release. The particle properties can be improved by modification of the polymer or the particle themselves. The physicochemical properties of chitosan particles are analyzed in 126 recent studies, which allows to highlight their impact on passive and active targeted drug delivery, cellular uptake, and tumor growth inhibition (TGI). From 2012 to 2019, out of 40 in vivo studies, only 4 studies are found reporting a reduction in tumor size by using chitosan particles while all other studies reported tumor growth inhibition relative to controls. A total of 23 studies are analyzed for cellular uptake including 12 studies reporting cellular uptake mechanisms. Understanding and exploiting the processes involved in targeted delivery, endocytosis, and exocytosis by controlling the physicochemical properties of chitosan particles are important for the development of safe and efficient nanomedicine. It is concluded based on the recent literature available on chitosan particles that combination therapies can play a pivotal role in transformation of chitosan nanomedicine from bench to bedside.

Drug delivery platforms for neonatal brain injury

Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), initiated by the interruption of oxygenated blood supply to the brain, is a leading cause of death and lifelong disability in newborns. The pathogenesis of HIE involves a complex interplay of excitotoxicity, inflammation, and oxidative stress that results in acute to long term brain damage and functional impairments. Therapeutic hypothermia is the only approved treatment for HIE but has limited effectiveness for moderate to severe brain damage; thus, pharmacological intervention is explored as an adjunct therapy to hypothermia to further promote recovery. However, the limited bioavailability and the side-effects of systemic administration are factors that hinder the use of the candidate pharmacological agents. To overcome these barriers, therapeutic molecules may be packaged into nanoscale constructs to enable their delivery. Yet, the application of nanotechnology in infants is not well examined, and the neonatal brain presents unique challenges. Novel drug delivery platforms have the potential to magnify therapeutic effects in the damaged brain, mitigate side-effects associated with high systemic doses, and evade mechanisms that remove the drugs from circulation. Encouraging pre-clinical data demonstrates an attenuation of brain damage and increased structural and functional recovery. This review surveys the current progress in drug delivery for treating neonatal brain injury.

In vitro and in vivo models for anti-amyloidosis nanomedicines

Amyloid diseases are global epidemics characterized by the accumulative deposits of cross-beta amyloid fibrils and plaques. Despite decades of intensive research, few solutions are available for the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of these debilitating diseases. Since the early work on the interaction of human β₂-microglobulin and nanoparticles by Linse et al. in 2007, the field of amyloidosis inhibition has gradually evolved into a new frontier in nanomedicine offering numerous interdisciplinary research opportunities, especially for materials, chemistry and biophysics. In this review we summarise, for the first time, the in vitro and in vivo models employed thus far in the field of anti-amyloidosis nanomedicines. Based on this systematic summary, we bring forth the notion that, due to the complex and often overlapping physiopathologies of amyloid diseases, there is a crucial need for the appropriate use of in vitro and in vivo models for validating novel anti-amyloidosis nanomedicines, and there is a crucial need for the development of new animal models that reflect the behavioural, symptomatic and cross-talk hallmarks of amyloid diseases such as Alzheimer's (AD), Parkinson's (PD) diseases and type 2 diabetes (T2DM).

Engineering precision nanoparticles for drug delivery

In recent years, the development of nanoparticles has expanded into a broad range of clinical applications. Nanoparticles have been developed to overcome the limitations of free therapeutics and navigate biological barriers - systemic, microenvironmental and cellular - that are heterogeneous across patient populations and diseases. Overcoming this patient heterogeneity has also been accomplished through precision therapeutics, in which personalized interventions have enhanced therapeutic efficacy. However, nanoparticle development continues to focus on optimizing delivery platforms with a one-size-fits-all solution. As lipid-based, polymeric and inorganic nanoparticles are engineered in increasingly specified ways, they can begin to be optimized for drug delivery in a more personalized manner, entering the era of precision medicine. In this Review, we discuss advanced nanoparticle designs utilized in both non-personalized and precision applications that could be applied to improve precision therapies. We focus on advances in nanoparticle design that overcome heterogeneous barriers to delivery, arguing that intelligent nanoparticle design can improve efficacy in general delivery applications while enabling tailored designs for precision applications, thereby ultimately improving patient outcome overall.

Emerging Biomolecular Testing to Assess the Risk of Mortality from COVID-19 Infection

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19) has produced an unprecedented global pandemic. Though the death rate from COVID-19 infection is ∼2%, many infected people recover at home. Among patients for whom COVID-19 is deadly are those with pre-existing comorbidities. Therefore, identification of populations at highest risk of COVID-19 mortality could significantly improve the capacity of healthcare providers to take early action and minimize the possibility of overwhelming care centers, which in turn would save many lives. Although several approaches have been used/developed (or are being developed/suggested) to diagnose COVID-19 infection, no approach is available/proposed for fast diagnosis of COVID-19 infections likely to be fatal. The central aim of this short perspective is to suggest a few possible nanobased technologies (i.e., protein corona sensor array and magnetic levitation) that could discriminate COVID-19-infected people while still in the early stages of infection who are at high risk of death. Such discrimination technologies would not only be useful in protecting health care centers from becoming overwhelmed but would also provide a powerful tool to better control possible future pandemics with a less social and economic burden.

Considerations for designing preclinical cancer immune nanomedicine studies

Immunotherapy is known to be clinically beneficial for cancer patients and in many cases represents the new standard of care. Because of this success, the interest in integrating nanomedicine with cancer immunotherapy to further improve clinical response and toxicity profiles has grown. However, unlike conventional systemic therapies, which are directly cytotoxic to tumour cells, cancer immunotherapy relies on the host's immune system to generate tumouricidal effects. As such, proper design of cancer immune nanomedicine requires scrutiny of tumours' intrinsic and extrinsic factors that may impact host antitumour immunity. Here, we highlight key parameters that differentiate cancer immunotherapy from conventional cytotoxic agents, and we discuss their implications for designing preclinical cancer immune nanomedicine studies. We emphasize that these factors, including intratumoural genomic heterogeneity, commensal diversity, sexual dimorphism and biological ageing, which were largely ignored in traditional cancer nanomedicine experiments, should be carefully considered and incorporated into cancer immune nanomedicine investigations given their critical involvement in shaping the body's antitumour immune responses.