Self-assembled multicompartment liquid crystalline lipid carriers for protein, peptide, and nucleic acid drug delivery

Alignment of lyotropic liquid crystals using magnetic nanoparticles improves ionic transport through built-in peptide ion channels

HYPOTHESIS

We hypothesize that simultaneous incorporation of ion channel peptides (in this case, potassium channel as a model) and hydrophobic magnetite Fe3O4 nanoparticles (hFe3O4NPs) within lipidic hexagonal mesophases, and aligning them using an external magnetic field can significantly enhance ion transport through lipid membranes.

EXPERIMENTS

In this study, we successfully characterized the incorporation of gramicidin membrane ion channels and hFe3O4NPs in the lipidic hexagonal structure using SAXS and cryo-TEM methods. Additionally, we thoroughly investigated the conductive characteristics of freestanding films of lipidic hexagonal mesophases, both with and without gramicidin potassium channels, utilizing a range of electrochemical techniques, including impedance spectroscopy, normal pulse voltammetry, and chronoamperometry.

FINDINGS

Our research reveals a state-of-the-art breakthrough in enhancing ion transport in lyotropic liquid crystals as matrices for integral proteins and peptides. We demonstrate the remarkable efficacy of membranes composed of hexagonal lipid mesophases embedded with K+ transporting peptides. This enhancement is achieved through doping with hFe3O4NPs and exposure to a magnetic field. We investigate the intricate interplay between the conductive properties of the lipidic hexagonal structure, hFe3O4NPs, gramicidin incorporation, and the influence of Ca2+ on K+ channels. Furthermore, our study unveils a new direction in ion channel studies and biomimetic membrane investigations, presenting a versatile model for biomimetic membranes with unprecedented ion transport capabilities under an appropriately oriented magnetic field. These findings hold promise for advancing membrane technology and various biotechnological and biomedical applications of membrane proteins.

Protocrystallinity of Monodispersed Ultra-Small Templated Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles

Monodisperse and semi-faceted ultra-small templated mesoporous silica nanoparticles (US-MSNs) of 20-25 nm were synthesized using short-time hydrolysis of tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) at room temperature, followed by a dilution for nucleation quenching. According to dynamic light scattering (DLS), a two-step pH adjustment was necessary for growth termination and colloidal stabilization. The pore size was controlled by cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), and a tiny amount of neutral surfactant F127 was added to minimize the coalescence between US-MSNs and to favor the transition towards internal ordering. Flocculation eventually occurred, allowing us to harvest a powder by centrifugation (~60% silica yield after one month). Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and 3D high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (3D HR-TEM) images revealed that the US-MSNs are partially ordered. The 2D FT transform images provide evidence for the coexistence of four-, five-, and sixfold patterns characterizing an "on-the-edge" crystallization step between amorphous raspberry and hexagonal pore array morphologies, typical of a protocrystalline state. Calcination preserved this state and yielded a powder characterized by packing, developing a hierarchical porosity centered at 3.9 ± 0.2 (internal pores) and 68 ± 7 nm (packing voids) of high potential for support for separation and catalysis.

Liposomes to Cubosomes: The Evolution of Lipidic Nanocarriers and Their Cutting-Edge Biomedical Applications

Lipidic nanoparticles have undergone extensive research toward the exploration of their diverse therapeutic applications. Although several liposomal formulations are in the clinic (e.g., DOXIL) for cancer therapy, there are many challenges associated with traditional liposomes. To address these issues, modifications in liposomal structure and further functionalization are desirable, leading to the emergence of solid lipid nanoparticles and the more recent liquid lipid nanoparticles. In this context, "cubosomes", third-generation lipidic nanocarriers, have attracted significant attention due to their numerous advantages, including their porous structure, structural adaptability, high encapsulation efficiency resulting from their extensive internal surface area, enhanced stability, and biocompatibility. Cubosomes offer the potential for both enhanced cellular uptake and controlled release of encapsulated payloads. Beyond cancer therapy, cubosomes have demonstrated effectiveness in wound healing, antibacterial treatments, and various dermatological applications. In this review, the authors provide an overview of the evolution of lipidic nanocarriers, spanning from conventional liposomes to solid lipid nanoparticles, with a special emphasis on the development and application of cubosomes. Additionally, it delves into recent applications and preclinical trials associated with cubosome formulations, which could be of significant interest to readers from backgrounds in nanomedicine and clinicians.

Simple Scattering: Lipid nanoparticle structural data repository

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are being intensively researched and developed to leverage their ability to safely and effectively deliver therapeutics. To achieve optimal therapeutic delivery, a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between formulation, structure, and efficacy is critical. However, the vast chemical space involved in the production of LNPs and the resulting structural complexity make the structure to function relationship challenging to assess and predict. New components and formulation procedures, which provide new opportunities for the use of LNPs, would be best identified and optimized using high-throughput characterization methods. Recently, a high-throughput workflow, consisting of automated mixing, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and cellular assays, demonstrated a link between formulation, internal structure, and efficacy for a library of LNPs. As SAXS data can be rapidly collected, the stage is set for the collection of thousands of SAXS profiles from a myriad of LNP formulations. In addition, correlated LNP small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) datasets, where components are systematically deuterated for additional contrast inside, provide complementary structural information. The centralization of SAXS and SANS datasets from LNPs, with appropriate, standardized metadata describing formulation parameters, into a data repository will provide valuable guidance for the formulation of LNPs with desired properties. To this end, we introduce Simple Scattering, an easy-to-use, open data repository for storing and sharing groups of correlated scattering profiles obtained from LNP screening experiments. Here, we discuss the current state of the repository, including limitations and upcoming changes, and our vision towards future usage in developing our collective knowledge base of LNPs.

Angiopep-2-Functionalized Lipid Cubosomes for Blood-Brain Barrier Crossing and Glioblastoma Treatment

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an aggressive brain cancer with high malignancy and resistance to conventional treatments, resulting in a bleak prognosis. Nanoparticles offer a way to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and deliver precise therapies to tumor sites with reduced side effects. In this study, we developed angiopep-2 (Ang2)-functionalized lipid cubosomes loaded with cisplatin (CDDP) and temozolomide (TMZ) for crossing the BBB and providing targeted glioblastoma therapy. Developed lipid cubosomes showed a particle size of around 300 nm and possessed an internal ordered inverse primitive cubic phase, a high conjugation efficiency of Ang2 to the particle surface, and an encapsulation efficiency of more than 70% of CDDP and TMZ. In vitro models, including BBB hCMEC/D3 cell tight monolayer, 3D BBB cell spheroid, and microfluidic BBB/GBM-on-a-chip models with cocultured BBB and glioblastoma cells, were employed to study the efficiency of the developed cubosomes to cross the BBB and showed that Ang2-functionalized cubosomes can penetrate the BBB more effectively. Furthermore, Ang2-functionalized cubosomes showed significantly higher uptake by U87 glioblastoma cells, with a 3-fold increase observed in the BBB/GBM-on-a-chip model as compared to that of the bare cubosomes. Additionally, the in vivo biodistribution showed that Ang2 modification could significantly enhance the brain accumulation of cubosomes in comparison to that of non-functionalized particles. Moreover, CDDP-loaded Ang2-functionalized cubosomes presented an enhanced toxic effect on U87 spheroids. These findings suggest that the developed Ang2-cubosomes are prospective for improved BBB crossing and enhanced delivery of therapeutics to glioblastoma and are worth pursuing further as a potential application of nanomedicine for GBM treatment.

Surface-Modified Lyotropic Crystalline Nanoconstructs Bearing Doxorubicin and Buparvaquone Target Sigma Receptors through pH-Sensitive Charge Conversion to Improve Breast Cancer Therapy

In the current study, we aimed to develop lyotropic crystalline nanoconstructs (LCNs) based on poly(l-glutamic acid) (PLG) with a two-tier strategy. The first objective was to confer pH-responsive charge conversion properties to facilitate the delivery of both doxorubicin (DOX) and buparvaquone (BPQ) in combination (B + D@LCNs) to harness their synergistic effects. The second goal was to achieve targeted delivery to sigma receptors within the tumor tissues. To achieve this, we designed a pH-responsive charge conversion system using a polymer consisting of poly(ethylenimine), poly(l-lysine), and poly(l-glutamic acid) (PLG), which was then covalently coupled with methoxybenzamide (MBA) for potential sigma receptor targeting. The resulting B + D@LCNs were further modified by surface functionalization with PLG-MBA to confer both sigma receptor targeting and pH-responsive charge conversion properties. Our observations indicated that at physiological pH 7.4, P/B + D-MBA@LCNs exhibited a negative charge, while under acidic conditions (pH 5.5, characteristic of the tumor microenvironment), they acquired a positive charge. The particle size of P/B + D-MBA@LCNs was determined to be 168.23 ± 2.66 nm at pH 7.4 and 201.23 ± 1.46 nm at pH 5.5. The crystalline structure of the LCNs was confirmed through small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) diffraction patterns. Receptor-mediated endocytosis, facilitated by P/B + D-MBA@LCNs, was confirmed using confocal laser scanning microscopy and flow cytometry. The P/B + D-MBA@LCNs formulation demonstrated a higher rate of G2/M phase arrest (55.20%) compared to free B + D (37.50%) and induced mitochondrial depolarization (59.39%) to a greater extent than P/B + D@LCNs (45.66%). Pharmacokinetic analysis revealed significantly improved area under the curve (AUC) values for both DOX and BPQ when administered as P/B + D-MBA@LCNs, along with enhanced tumor localization. Tumor regression studies exhibited a substantial reduction in tumor size, with P/B + D-MBA@LCNs leading to 3.2- and 1.27-fold reductions compared to B + D and nontargeted P/B + D@LCNs groups, respectively. In summary, this two-tier strategy demonstrates substantial promise for the delivery of a drug combination through the prototype formulation. It offers a potential chemotherapeutic option by minimizing toxic effects on healthy cells while maximizing therapeutic efficacy.

Sustained CREB phosphorylation by lipid-peptide liquid crystalline nanoassemblies

Cyclic-AMP-response element-binding protein (CREB) is a leucine zipper class transcription factor that is activated through phosphorylation. Ample CREB phosphorylation is required for neurotrophin expression, which is of key importance for preventing and regenerating neurological disorders, including the sequelae of long COVID syndrome. Here we created lipid-peptide nanoassemblies with different liquid crystalline structural organizations (cubosomes, hexosomes, and vesicles) as innovative nanomedicine delivery systems of bioactive PUFA-plasmalogens (vinyl ether phospholipids with polyunsaturated fatty acid chains) and a neurotrophic pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP). Considering that plasmalogen deficiency is a potentially causative factor for neurodegeneration, we examined the impact of nanoassemblies type and incubation time in an in vitro Parkinson's disease (PD) model as critical parameters for the induction of CREB phosphorylation. The determined kinetic changes in CREB, AKT, and ERK-protein phosphorylation reveal that non-lamellar PUFA-plasmalogen-loaded liquid crystalline lipid nanoparticles significantly prolong CREB activation in the neurodegeneration model, an effect unattainable with free drugs, and this effect can be further enhanced by the cell-penetrating peptide PACAP. Understanding the sustained CREB activation response to neurotrophic nanoassemblies might lead to more efficient use of nanomedicines in neuroregeneration.

An injectable MB/BG@LG sustained release lipid gel with antibacterial and osteogenic properties for efficient treatment of chronic periodontitis in rats

Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the colonization of pathogenic microorganisms and the loss of periodontal supporting tissue. However, the existing local drug delivery system for periodontitis has some problems including subpar antibacterial impact, easy loss, and unsatisfactory periodontal regeneration. In this study, a multi-functional and sustained release drug delivery system (MB/BG@LG) was developed by encapsulating methylene blue (MB) and bioactive glass (BG) into the lipid gel (LG) precursor by Macrosol technology. The properties of MB/BG@LG were characterized using a scanning electron microscope, a dynamic shear rotation rheometer, and a release curve. The results showed that MB/BG@LG could not only sustained release for 16 days, but also quickly fill the irregular bone defect caused by periodontitis through in situ hydration. Under 660 ​nm light irradiation, methylene blue-produced reactive oxygen species (ROS) can reduce local inflammatory response by inhibiting bacterial growth. In addition, in vitro and vivo experiments have shown that MB/BG@LG can effectively promote periodontal tissue regeneration by reducing inflammatory response, promoting cell proliferation and osteogenic differentiation. In summary, MB/BG@LG exhibited excellent adhesion properties, self-assembly properties, and superior drug release control capabilities, which improved the clinical feasibility of its application in complex oral environments.

Supramolecular design of CO2-responsive lipid nanomaterials

HYPOTHESIS

Stimuli-responsive materials can innovate in various fields, including food and pharmaceutical sciences. Their response to a specific stimulus can be utilized to release loaded bioactive molecules or sense their presence. The biocompatibility and abundance of CO₂ in the environment make it an exciting stimulus for such applications. We hypothesize the formation of CO₂-responsive self-assemblies of oleyl-amidine in water. Their integration into glycerol-monooleate-based (GMO) dispersions is further thought to form CO₂-switchable liquid crystalline nanoparticles. The switch from an non-charged acetamidine surfactant to its cationic amidinium form triggers curvature changes that ultimately induces phase transitions.

EXPERIMENTS

The CO₂-switchable lipid (E)-N,N-dimethyl-N-((Z)-octadec-9-en1-yl)acetimidamide (OAm) is synthesized and formulated into emulsions and dispersed liquid crystals with GMO. The supramolecular structure and its response to CO₂ are characterized using small angle X-ray scattering, dynamic light scattering, ζ-potential measurements and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy.

FINDINGS

Depending on the composition, OAm is discovered to self-assemble into a variety of CO₂-responsive lyotropic liquid crystalline structures that can be dispersed in excess water. CO₂-triggered colloidal transformations from unstructured OAm-in-water emulsions to direct micelles; dispersed inverse hexagonal phase to direct rod-like micelles, and sponge phase to vesicles are discovered. These structural changes are driven by the reaction of OAm's amidine headgroup with CO₂. The results provide a fundamental understanding of CO₂-triggered functional nanomaterials and may guide their future design into delivery platforms and biosensors.

Effect of Cholesterol on Biomimetic Membrane Curvature and Coronavirus Fusion Peptide Encapsulation

Biomimetic cubic phases can be used for protein encapsulation in a variety of applications such as biosensors and drug delivery. Cubic phases with a high concentration of cholesterol and phospholipids were obtained herein. It is shown that the cubic phase structure can be maintained with a higher concentration of biomimetic membrane additives than has been reported previously. Opposing effects on the curvature of the membrane were observed upon the addition of phospholipids and cholesterol. Furthermore, the coronavirus fusion peptide significantly increased the negative curvature of the biomimetic membrane with cholesterol. We show that the viral fusion peptide can undergo structural changes leading to the formation of hydrophobic α-helices that insert into the lipid bilayer. This is of high importance, as a fusion peptide that induces increased negative curvature as shown by the formation of inverse hexagonal phases allows for greater contact area between two membranes, which is required for viral fusion to occur. The cytotoxicity assay showed that the toxicity toward HeLa cells was dramatically decreased when the cholesterol or peptide level in the nanoparticles increased. This suggests that the addition of cholesterol can improve the biocompatibility of the cubic phase nanoparticles, making them safer for use in biomedical applications. As the results, this work improves the potential for the biomedical end-use applications of the nonlamellar lipid nanoparticles and shows the need of systematic formulation studies due to the complex interplay of all components.

Prolonged local delivery of doxorubicin to cancer cells using lipid liquid crystalline system

Exploring efficient strategies to eradicate the tumor tissue and enhance patient outcomes still remained a serious challenge. Systemic toxicity of the current chemotherapeutics and their low concentration in the tumor site limited reaching a practical approach in their administration and combinational therapy. Besides, complicated delivery platforms could not receive the marketing approval due to difficulties in scale up procedures. To this aim, we developed a simple injectable local delivery platform which provided a sufficient dose of the chemotherapeutic in the cancerous tissue with sustained release properties. Herein, various injectable in situ forming LLC formulations loaded with doxorubicin (DOX) were developed. Although there were many previous studies on lipid liquid crystal (LLC) based formulations, their performance as an injectable intratumoral depot system for local chemotherapy has not been extensively investigated yet. In the current study we developed 18 formulations of DOX loaded LLCs using Box-Behnken method via different ratios of phosphatidyl choline: sorbitan monooleate (PC: SMO), N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), and tween 80. The physicochemical properties of the formulations were investigated and their in vivo tumor inhibition efficiencies in C26 tumor bearing mouse model was further studied. The results indicated that DOX loaded PC: SMO/NMP/Tween 80 (50:50/50/2 w/w%) and DOX loaded PC: SMO/NMP (50:50/50 w/w%) formulations were syringeable with pseudoplastic behavior. Also, they could release the cargo in a sustained manner for 60 days. Compared to intravascular administration of DOX, intratumoral injection of the developed formulations led to a significant decrease in tumor volume and enhancement of the survival rate in murine tumor model. Additionally, animal imaging studies proved their prolonged accumulation in the tumor site. Histopathological studies showed that treatment with the DOX-loaded LLC formulations did not cause any systemic toxicity to vital organs. Taken together, we believe that the developed simple and efficient local delivery platform can be further used in combinational therapies and treatment of various solid tumors.

Enhancing the photoluminescence and cellular uptake of fluorescent carbon nanodots via cubosome lipid nanocarriers

Carbon nanodots (C-dots) have attracted much attention for their use in the fields of bioimaging, drug delivery, and sensing due to their excellent fluorescent and photoluminescent properties, photostability, biocompatibility, and amenability to surface modification. Herein, we report a nanocomposite formulation of C-dots (<5 nm) encapsulated in lipid-based lyotropic liquid crystalline nanoparticles (∼250 nm) via either passive diffusion or electrostatic mechanisms. The physicochemical properties of the nanocomposite formulation including particle size, surface charge, internal cubic nanostructures, and pH-dependent fluorescent properties were characterised. Upon loading of C-dots into lipid nanoparticles, the highly ordered inverse bicontinuous cubic mesophase existed in the internal phase of the nanoparticles, demonstrated by synchrotron small angle X-ray scattering, molecular dynamic simulation and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy. The pH-dependent fluorescent property of the C-dots was modified via electrostatic interaction between the C-dots and cationic lipid nanoparticles, which further enhanced the brightness of C-dots through self-quenching prevention. The cytotoxicity and cellular uptake efficiency of the developed nanocomposites were also examined in an epithelial gastric adenocarcinoma cell line (AGS) and a macrophage cell line (stimulated THP-1). Compared to free C-dots, the uptake and cell imaging potential of the C-dot nanocomposites was significantly improved, by several orders of magnitude as demonstrated by cytoplasmic fluorescent intensities using confocal microscopy. Loading C-dots into mesoporous lipid nanocarriers presents a new way of modifying C-dot physicochemical and fluorescent properties, alternative to direct chemical surface modification, and advances the bioimaging potential of C-dots by enhancing cellular uptake efficiency and converging C-dot light emission.

Nanomaterials: small particles show huge possibilities for cancer immunotherapy

With the economy's globalization and the population's aging, cancer has become the leading cause of death in most countries. While imposing a considerable burden on society, the high morbidity and mortality rates have continuously prompted researchers to develop new oncology treatment options. Anti-tumor regimens have evolved from early single surgical treatment to combined (or not) chemoradiotherapy and then to the current stage of tumor immunotherapy. Tumor immunotherapy has undoubtedly pulled some patients back from the death. However, this strategy of activating or boosting the body's immune system hardly benefits most patients. It is limited by low bioavailability, low response rate and severe side effects. Thankfully, the rapid development of nanotechnology has broken through the bottleneck problem of anti-tumor immunotherapy. Multifunctional nanomaterials can not only kill tumors by combining anti-tumor drugs but also can be designed to enhance the body's immunity and thus achieve a multi-treatment effect. It is worth noting that the variety of nanomaterials, their modifiability, and the diversity of combinations allow them to shine in antitumor immunotherapy. In this paper, several nanobiotics commonly used in tumor immunotherapy at this stage are discussed, and they activate or enhance the body's immunity with their unique advantages. In conclusion, we reviewed recent advances in tumor immunotherapy based on nanomaterials, such as biological cell membrane modification, self-assembly, mesoporous, metal and hydrogels, to explore new directions and strategies for tumor immunotherapy.

Polyphenol-Functionalized Cubosomes as Thrombolytic Drug Carriers

The safe administration of thrombolytic agents is a challenge for the treatment of acute thrombosis. Lipid-based nanoparticle drug delivery technologies present opportunities to overcome the existing clinical limitations and deliver thrombolytic therapy with enhanced therapeutic outcomes and safety. Herein, lipid cubosomes are examined as nanocarriers for the encapsulation of thrombolytic drugs. The lipid cubosomes are loaded with the thrombolytic drug urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) and coated with a low-fouling peptide that is incorporated within a metal-phenolic network (MPN). The peptide-containing MPN (pep-MPN) coating inhibits the direct contact of uPA with the surrounding environment, as assessed by an in vitro plasminogen activation assay and an ex vivo whole blood clot degradation assay. The pep-MPN-coated cubosomes prepared with 22 wt% peptide demonstrate a cell membrane-dependent thrombolytic activity, which is attributed to their fusogenic lipid behavior. Moreover, compared with the uncoated lipid cubosomes, the uPA-loaded pep-MPN-coated cubosomes demonstrate significantly reduced nonspecific cell association (<10% of the uncoated cubosomes) in the whole blood assay, a prolonged circulating half-life, and reduced splenic uPA accumulation in mice. These studies confirm the preserved bioactivity and cell membrane-dependent release of uPA within pep-MPN-coated lipid cubosomes, highlighting their potential as a delivery vehicle for thrombolytic drugs.

Lyotropic liquid crystals for parenteral drug delivery

The necessity for long-term treatments of chronic diseases has encouraged the development of novel long-acting parenteral formulations intending to improve drug pharmacokinetics and therapeutic efficacy. Lately, one of the novel approaches has been developed based on lipid-based liquid crystals. The lyotropic liquid crystal (LLC) systems consist of amphiphilic molecules and are formed in presence of solvents with the most common types being cubic, hexagonal and lamellar mesophases. LC injectables have been recently developed based on polar lipids that spontaneously form liquid crystal nanoparticles in aqueous tissue environments to create the in-situ long-acting sustained-release depot to provide treatment efficacy over extended periods. In this manuscript, we have consolidated and summarized the various type of liquid crystals, recent formulation advancements, analytical evaluation, and therapeutic application of lyotropic liquid crystals in the field of parenteral sustained release drug delivery.

Guanidinium-rich lipopeptide functionalized bacteria-absorbing sponge as an effective trap-and-kill system for the elimination of focal bacterial infection

Focal bacterial infections are often difficult to treat due to the rapid emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, high risk of relapse, and severe inflammation at local lesions. To address multidrug-resistant skin and soft tissue infections, a bacteria-absorbing sponge was prepared to involve a "trap-and-kill" mechanism. The system describes a guanidinium-rich lipopeptide functionalized lyotropic liquid-crystalline hydrogel with bicontinuous cubic networks. Amphiphilic lipopeptides can be spontaneously anchored to the lipid-water interface, exposing their bacterial targeting sequences to enhance antibacterial trapping/killing activity. Computational simulations supported our structural predictions, and the sponge was confirmed to successfully remove ∼98.8% of the bacteria in the medium. Release and degradation behavior studies indicated that the bacteria-absorbing sponge could degrade, mediate enzyme-responsive lipopeptide release, or generate ∼200 nm lipopeptide nanoparticles with environmental erosion. This implies that the sponge can effectively capture and isolate high concentrations of bacteria at the infected site and then sustainably release antimicrobial lipopeptides into deep tissues for the eradication of residual bacteria. In the animal experiment, we found that the antibacterial performance of the bacterial-absorbing sponge was significant, which demonstrated not only a long-term inhibition effect to disinfect and avoid bacterial rebound, but also a unique advantage to protect tissue from bacterial attack. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Host defense peptides/peptidomimetics (HDPs) have shown potential for the elimination of focal bacterial infections, but the application of their topical formulations suffers from time-consuming preparation processes, indistinctive toxicity reduction effects, and inefficient bacterial capture ability. To explore new avenues for the development of easily prepared, low-toxicity and high-efficiency topical antimicrobials, a guanidinium-rich lipopeptide was encapsulated in a lyotropic liquid-crystalline hydrogel (denoted as "bacteria-absorbing sponge") to achieve complementary superiorities. The superior characteristic of the bacteria-absorbing sponge involves a "trap-and-kill" mechanism, which undergoes not only a long-term inhibition effect to disinfect and avoid bacterial rebound, but also effective bacterial capture and isolating action to confine bacterial diffusion and protect tissues from bacterial attack.

A lipidic mesophase with tunable release properties for the local delivery of macromolecules: the apoferritin nanocage, a case study

Lipid mesophases are able to incorporate and release a plethora of molecules, spanning from hydrophobic drugs to small hydrophilic proteins and therefore they have been widely used as drug delivery systems. However, their 3-5 nm water channels do not allow the release of large hydrophilic molecules such as monoclonal antibodies and therapeutic proteins. To overcome this major geometrical constraint, we designed a gel by mixing monoacylglycerol lipids, generally recognized as safe for human and/or animal use by FDA, and phospholipids, to obtain a material with swollen water channels suitable to host and further release macromolecules. Apoferritin, a 12 nm nanocage protein with intrinsic tumor-targeting properties able to incorporate several molecules, was selected here as the hydrophilic model protein to be embedded in the biocompatible gel. When immersed completely in the release media, mesophases with a swollen water channel of 22 nm, composed of monoolein and doped with 5 mole% of DOPS and 10 mole% of Chol allowed us to achieve a protein release of 60%, which is 120 times higher with respect to that obtained by employing non swollen-LMPs composed only of monoolein. Thus, the formulation can be administered locally to the rectal or vaginal mucosa, reducing the drawbacks often associated with the parenteral administration of bio-therapeutics. This approach would pave the way for the local application of other biomacromolecules (including human ferritin, monoclonal antibodies and antibody drug-conjugates) in those diseases easily reachable by a local application such as rectal or vaginal cancer.

Methotrexate-Lactoferrin Targeted Exemestane Cubosomes for Synergistic Breast Cancer Therapy

While the treatment regimen of certain types of breast cancer involves a combination of hormonal therapy and chemotherapy, the outcomes are limited due to the difference in the pharmacokinetics of both treatment agents that hinders their simultaneous and selective delivery to the cancer cells. Herein, we report a hybrid carrier system for the simultaneous targeted delivery of aromatase inhibitor exemestane (EXE) and methotrexate (MTX). EXE was physically loaded within liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNPs), while MTX was chemically conjugated to lactoferrin (Lf) by carbodiimide reaction. The anionic EXE-loaded LCNPs were then coated by the cationic MTX–Lf conjugate via electrostatic interactions. The Lf-targeted dual drug-loaded LCNPs exhibited a particle size of 143.6 ± 3.24 nm with a polydispersity index of 0.180. It showed excellent drug loading with an EXE encapsulation efficiency of 95% and an MTX conjugation efficiency of 33.33%. EXE and MTX showed synergistic effect against the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line with a combination index (CI) of 0.342. Furthermore, the Lf-targeted dual drug-loaded LCNPs demonstrated superior synergistic cytotoxic activity with a combination index (CI) of 0.242 and a dose reduction index (DRI) of 34.14 and 4.7 for EXE and MTX, respectively. Cellular uptake studies demonstrated higher cellular uptake of Lf-targeted LCNPs into MCF-7 cancer cells than non-targeted LCNPs after 4 and 24 h. Collectively, the targeted dual drug-loaded LCNPs are a promising candidate offering combinational hormonal therapy/chemotherapy for breast cancer.

A vibrational in vitro approach to evaluate the potential of monoolein nanoparticles as isofuranodiene carrier in MDA-MB 231 breast cancer cell line: New insights from Infrared and Raman microspectroscopies

Isofuranodiene (IFD) is a sesquiterpene occurring in several plant species, which proved to have multiple anticancer activities. IFD has a lipophilic nature and, hence, a very low water solubility and a poor bioavailability; moreover, it is not stable, undergoing the "Cope rearrangement" to the less active curzerene. The use of appropriate delivery systems can thus be considered as a valid tool to enhance IFD bioavailability, solubility, stability and at the same time also to improve its intracellular uptake and pharmacological activity. Within this frame, monoolein (GMO) nanoparticles loaded with IFD were prepared and their enhanced anticancer activity, compared to pristine IFD, was assessed. In this study, for the first time, an in vitro Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman Microspectroscopy approaches were exploited to evaluate the effects of IFD, alone and loaded in GMO nanoparticles, on MDA-MB 231 breast cancer cell line. The anti-cancer effects of IFD were evidenced by both the spectroscopic techniques and discriminated from the GMO-induced changes in the culture environment; moreover, a synergistic effect of IFD and GMO administration can be envisaged by the experimental results.

An Injectable In Situ Depot-Forming Lipidic Lyotropic Liquid Crystal System for Localized Intratumoral Drug Delivery

To address the need for localized chemotherapy against unresectable solid tumors, an injectable in situ depot-forming lipidic lyotropic liquid crystal system (L3CS) is explored that can provide spatiotemporal control over drug delivery. Although liquid crystals have been studied extensively before but their application as an injectable intratumoral depot system for locoregional chemotherapy has not been explored yet. The developed L3CS in the present study is a low-viscosity injectable fluid having a lamellar phase, which transforms into a hexagonal mesophase depot system on subcutaneous or intratumoral injection. The transformed depot system can be preprogrammed to provide tailored drug release intratumorally, over a period of one week to one month. To establish the efficacy of the developed L3CS, doxorubicin is used as a model drug. The drug release mechanism is studied in detail both in vitro and in vivo, and the efficacy of the developed system is investigated in the murine 4T1 tumor model. The direct intratumoral injection of the L3CS provided localized delivery of doxorubicin inside the tumor and restricted its access within the tumor only for a sustained period of time. This led to an over 10-fold reduction in tumor burden, reduced cardiotoxicity, and a significant increase in the median survival rate, compared to the control group. The developed L3CS thus provides an efficient strategy for localized chemotherapy against unresectable solid tumors with a great degree of spatial and temporal control over drug delivery.

Use of cubic structure with primitive nanochannels for fabrication of free standing 3D nanowire network of Pt withPm3msymmetry

In this work, we developed a lipid mixture based on phytantriol / polyoxyethylene surfactant (Brij-56) that forms aIm3msymmetry bicontinuous cubic phase based on the Schwartz primitive surface (Q_II^P), from which we templated highly ordered 3D nanoporous platinum with a novel 'single primitive' morphology (Pm3msymmetry). TheQ_II^Ptemplate phase is obtained by incorporation of 17.5% w/w Brij-56 (C₁₆EO₁₀) (a type-I surfactant) into phytantriol under excess hydration conditions. Phytantriol alone forms the double diamondQ_II^D(Pn3m) phase, and in previous studies incorporating Brij-56 at different compositions the cubic phase maintained this morphology, but increased its lattice parameter; mesoporous metals templated from theseQ_II^Dlipid templates all exhibited the 'single diamond' (Fd3m) morphology. In contrast, the current paper presents the availability of ourQ_II^Pcubic phases to template nanoporous materials of single primitivePm3mmorphology via chemical and electrochemical methods. To explore the structure porosity and morphological features of the templated Pt material, x-ray scattering and transmission electron microscopy are used. The resulting 3D nanoporous Pt materials are found to exhibit a regular network of Pt nanowires of ∼4 nm in diameter with a unit cell dimension of 14.8 ± 0.8 nm, reflecting the aqueous network within theQ_II^Ptemplate.

Hydrogels and Cubic Liquid Crystals for Non-Invasive Sampling of Low-Molecular-Weight Biomarkers—An Explorative In Vivo Study

The molecular composition of human skin is altered due to diseases, which can be utilized for non-invasive sampling of biomarkers and disease diagnostics. For this to succeed, it is crucial to identify a sampling formulation with high extraction efficiency and reproducibility. Highly hydrated skin is expected to be optimal for increased diffusion of low-molecular-weight biomarkers, enabling efficient extraction as well as enhanced reproducibility as full hydration represents a well-defined endpoint. Here, the aim was to explore water-based formulations with high water activities, ensuring satisfactory skin hydration, for non-invasive sampling of four analytes that may serve as potential biomarkers, namely tryptophan, tyrosine, phenylalanine, and kynurenine. The included formulations consisted of two hydrogels (chitosan and agarose) and two different liquid crystalline cubic phases based on the polar lipid glycerol monooleate, which were all topically applied for 2 h on 35 healthy subjects in vivo. The skin status of all sampling sites was assessed by electrical impedance spectroscopy and transepidermal water loss, enabling explorative correlations between biophysical properties and analyte abundancies. Taken together, all formulations resulted in the successful and reproducible collection of the investigated biomarkers. Still, the cubic phases had an extraction capacity that was approximately two times higher compared to the hydrogels.

Liquid Crystals: Versatile Self-Organized Smart Soft Materials

Smart soft materials are envisioned to be the building blocks of the next generation of advanced devices and digitally augmented technologies. In this context, liquid crystals (LCs) owing to their responsive and adaptive attributes could serve as promising smart soft materials. LCs played a critical role in revolutionizing the information display industry in the 20th century. However, in the turn of the 21st century, numerous beyond-display applications of LCs have been demonstrated, which elegantly exploit their controllable stimuli-responsive and adaptive characteristics. For these applications, new LC materials have been rationally designed and developed. In this Review, we present the recent developments in light driven chiral LCs, i.e., cholesteric and blue phases, LC based smart windows that control the entrance of heat and light from outdoor to the interior of buildings and built environments depending on the weather conditions, LC elastomers for bioinspired, biological, and actuator applications, LC based biosensors for detection of proteins, nucleic acids, and viruses, LC based porous membranes for the separation of ions, molecules, and microbes, living LCs, and LCs under macro- and nanoscopic confinement. The Review concludes with a summary and perspectives on the challenges and opportunities for LCs as smart soft materials. This Review is anticipated to stimulate eclectic ideas toward the implementation of the nature's delicate phase of matter in future generations of smart and augmented devices and beyond.

A self-assembled amphiphilic polysaccharide-based co-delivery system for egg white derived peptides and curcumin with oral bioavailability enhancement

Egg white derived peptides (EWDP) and curcumin are well known for diverse biological activities, but the combinational usage of the two natural nutraceuticals is extremely limited by their low oral bioavailability and distinctly different polarities. Therefore, this study aimed to exploit a facile self-assembled amphiphilic system for oral co-delivery of hydrophilic egg white derived peptides (EWDP) and hydrophobic curcumin. The hydrophobic curcumin was first loaded into the hydrophobic cavity of β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) as a core. Then, the hydrophilic EWDP was absorbed into the region between the core and the N-[(2-hydroxy-3-trimethyl ammonium) propyl] chitosan (HTCC) shell to form the amphiphilic nanoparticles (NPs) via layer-by-layer self-assembly. The resulting NPs showed ideal oral applicability with excellent colloidal properties and encapsulation capacity for EWDP and curcumin at pH 2.0-7.0. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H NMR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results indicated that hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interaction were the main driving force for the formation of amphiphilic NPs. Upon combination with HTCC, EWDP (both shell material and core nutraceuticals) could facilitate curcumin loading into the deeper β-CD cavity site with admirable solubility improvement. Moreover, EWDP and curcumin after co-delivery exhibited superior bioavailability (especially for bioactivity and cellular absorption) than the simple mixture and conventional curcumin inclusion complex. Overall, these findings are enlightening for the rational peptide based oral co-delivery system formulations for a broader range of hydrophilic and hydrophobic nutraceuticals (initially synergistic or not) in the food and related health-promoting fields.

Novel Peptide Therapeutic Approaches for Cancer Treatment

Peptides are increasingly being developed for use as therapeutics to treat many ailments, including cancer. Therapeutic peptides have the advantages of target specificity and low toxicity. The anticancer effects of a peptide can be the direct result of the peptide binding its intended target, or the peptide may be conjugated to a chemotherapy drug or radionuclide and used to target the agent to cancer cells. Peptides can be targeted to proteins on the cell surface, where the peptide–protein interaction can initiate internalization of the complex, or the peptide can be designed to directly cross the cell membrane. Peptides can induce cell death by numerous mechanisms including membrane disruption and subsequent necrosis, apoptosis, tumor angiogenesis inhibition, immune regulation, disruption of cell signaling pathways, cell cycle regulation, DNA repair pathways, or cell death pathways. Although using peptides as therapeutics has many advantages, peptides have the disadvantage of being easily degraded by proteases once administered and, depending on the mode of administration, often have difficulty being adsorbed into the blood stream. In this review, we discuss strategies recently developed to overcome these obstacles of peptide delivery and bioavailability. In addition, we present many examples of peptides developed to fight cancer.

Balanced lipase interactions for degradation-controlled paclitaxel release from lipid cubic phase formulations

Lipid cubic phase (LCP) formulations enhance the intestinal solubility and bioavailability of hydrophobic drugs by reducing precipitation and facilitating their mass transport to the intestinal surface for absorption. LCPs with an ester linkage connecting the acyl chain to the glycerol backbone (monoacylglycerols), are susceptible to chemical digestion by several lipolytic enzymes including lipases, accelerating the release of hydrophobic agents from the lipid bilayers of the matrix. Unlike regular enzymes that transform soluble substrates, lipolytic enzymes act at the interface of water and insoluble lipid. Therefore, compounds that bind to this interface can enhance or inhibit the activity of enzymes to varying extent. Here, we explore how the lipolysis rate can be tuned by the interfacial interaction of porcine pancreatic lipase with monoolein LCPs containing a known lipase inhibitor, tetrahydrolipstatin. Release of the Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS) class IV drug, paclitaxel, from the inhibitor-modified LCP was examined in the presence of lipase and its effectors colipase and calcium. By combining experimental dynamic digestion studies, thermodynamic measurements and molecular dynamics simulations of the competitive inhibition of lipase by tetrahydrolipstatin, we reveal the role and mode of action of lipase effectors in creating a precisely-balanced degradation-controlled LCP release system for the poorly soluble paclitaxel drug.

Cubic and Hexagonal Mesophases for Protein Encapsulation: Structural Effects of Insulin Confinement

Monoolein-based cubic and hexagonal mesophases were investigated as matrices for insulin loading, at low pH, as a function of temperature and in the presence of increasing amounts of oleic acid, as a structural stabilizer for the hexagonal phase. Synchrotron small angle X-ray diffraction, rheological measurements, and attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy were used to study the effects of insulin loading on the lipid mesophases and of the effect of protein confinement in the 2D- and 3D-lipid matrix water channels on its stability and unfolding behavior. We found that insulin encapsulation has only little effects both on the mesophase structures and on the viscoelastic properties of lipid systems, whereas protein confinement affects the response of the secondary structure of insulin to thermal changes in a different manner according to the specific mesophase: in the cubic structure, the unfolding toward an unordered structure is favored, while the prevalence of parallel β-sheets, and nuclei for fibril formation, is observed in hexagonal structures.

pH-responsive aminolipid nanocarriers for antimicrobial peptide delivery

HYPOTHESIS

pH-responsive aminolipid self-assemblies are promising platforms for the targeted delivery of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), with the potential to improve their therapeutic efficiency and physico-chemical stability.

EXPERIMENTS

pH-sensitive nanocarriers based on dispersed self-assemblies of 1,2-dioleoyl-3-dimethylammonium-propane (DODAP) with the human cathelicidin LL-37 in excess water were characterized at different pH values using small-angle X-ray scattering, cryogenic transmission electron microscopy, and dynamic light scattering. Fluorescence and electrophoretic mobility measurements were used to probe the encapsulation efficiency of LL-37 and the nanocarriers' surface potential.

FINDINGS

Upon decreasing pH in the DODAP/water systems, normal oil-in-water emulsions at pH ≥ 5.0 transitioned to emulsions encapsulating inverse hexagonal and cubic structures at pH between 4.5 and 4.0, and mostly positively-charged vesicles at pH < 4.0. These colloidal transformations are driven by the protonation of DODAP upon pH decrease. The larger lipid-water interfacial area provided by the DODAP self-assemblies at pH ≤ 4.5 allowed for an adequate encapsulation efficiency of LL-37, favouring the formation of vesicles in a concentration-dependent manner. Contrary, LL-37 was found to dissociate from the emulsion droplets at pH 6.0. The knowledge on the pH-triggered self-assembly of LL-37 and DODAP, combined with the results on peptide release from the structures contribute to the fundamental understanding of lipid/peptide self-assembly. The results can guide the rational design of future pH-responsive AMP delivery systems.

Bioinspired Antimicrobial Coatings from Peptide-Functionalized Liquid Crystalline Nanostructures

Surface-associated microbial infections and contaminations are a major challenge in various fields including the food and health sectors. This study demonstrates the design of antimicrobial coatings based on the self-assembly of the food-grade amphiphilic lipid glycerol monooleate with the human cathelicidin-derived antimicrobial peptide LL-37. Structural properties of the coating and their alterations with composition were studied using advanced experimental methods including synchrotron grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering and ellipsometry. The integration of the LL-37 and its potential release from the nanostructured films into the surrounding solution was characterized with confocal Raman microscopy. Additional biological evaluation studies with clinically relevant bacterial strains, namely, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Gram-negative) and Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive), were performed to investigate the antimicrobial activity of the coatings. Significant killing activity of the coating was found against both bacterial strains. The presented findings contribute to the fundamental understanding of lipid-peptide self-assembly on the surface and may open up a promising strategy for designing simple, sustainable antimicrobial coatings for medical and food applications.

Reduction of enzymatic degradation of insulin via encapsulation in a lipidic bicontinuous cubic phase

Oral delivery of the protein drug insulin is not currently possible due to rapid degradation of the secondary structure in low pH conditions in the stomach and under the influence of digestive enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract. Effective oral delivery of insulin and other protein- or peptide-based drugs will, therefore, require encapsulation in a material or nanoparticle. Herein we investigate the ability of the lipid bicontinuous cubic phase formed by two lipids, monoolein (MO) and phytantriol (PT), to protect encapsulated insulin from degradation by the enzyme chymotrypsin, typically found in the small intestine. High encapsulation efficiency (>80%) was achieved in both lipid cubic phases with retention of the underlying cubic nanostructure. Release of insulin from the cubic matrix was shown to be diffusion-controlled; the release rate was dependent on the cubic nanostructure and consistent with measured diffusion coefficients for encapsulated insulin. Encapsulation was shown to significantly retard enzymatic degradation relative to that in water, with the protective effect lasting up to 2 h, exemplifying the potential of these materials to protect the encapsulated protein payload during oral delivery.

Novel Amphiphilic Block Copolymers for the Formation of Stimuli-Responsive Non-Lamellar Lipid Nanoparticles

Non-lamellar lyotropic liquid crystalline (LLC) lipid nanoparticles contain internal multidimensional nanostructures such as the inverse bicontinuous cubic and the inverse hexagonal mesophases, which can respond to external stimuli and have the potential of controlling drug release. To date, the internal LLC mesophase responsiveness of these lipid nanoparticles is largely achieved by adding ionizable small molecules to the parent lipid such as monoolein (MO), the mixture of which is then dispersed into nanoparticle suspensions by commercially available poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide) block copolymers. In this study, the Reversible Addition-Fragmentation chain Transfer (RAFT) technique was used to synthesize a series of novel amphiphilic block copolymers (ABCs) containing a hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) block, a hydrophobic block and one or two responsive blocks, i.e., poly(4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)benzyl acrylate) (PTBA) and/or poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA). High throughput small angle X-ray scattering studies demonstrated that the synthesized ABCs could simultaneously stabilize a range of LLC MO nanoparticles (vesicles, cubosomes, hexosomes, inverse micelles) and provide internal particle nanostructure responsiveness to changes of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) concentrations, pH and temperature. It was found that the novel functional ABCs can substitute for the commercial polymer stabilizer and the ionizable additive in the formation of next generation non-lamellar lipid nanoparticles. These novel formulations have the potential to control drug release in the tumor microenvironment with endogenous H2O2 and acidic pH conditions.

Delivery of antimicrobial peptides to model membranes by cubosome nanocarriers

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), which typically disrupt the bacterial wall prompting leakage or lysis of the cell, form a growing contingent in the arsenal against antibiotic resistant bacteria. The effectiveness of AMPs is, however, hampered by their low solubility, general chemical and physical instability, and short half-life in vivo. Lipid nanocarriers such as cubosomes are effective at encapsulating and protecting proteins while simultaneously showing promise in delivery applications. Here, the efficacy of cubosome mediated delivery of AMPs is evaluated by the in-situ surface characterization of model membranes with varying composition. The cubosomes were observed to initially fuse with the membranes, with subsequent membrane disruption observed after approximately 20 - 60 min. The time for the disruption was sensitive to the charge of the cubosome as well as the composition of the bilayer. More physiologically relevant bilayers including lipids with phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) (PG) or phosphoethanolamine (PE) headgroups were more vulnerable than those of neat phosphocholine (PC). Notably, disruption to the bilayer occurred an order of magnitude faster for encapsulated AMP compared to free AMP.

Recent advances in drug delivery applications of cubosomes, hexosomes, and solid lipid nanoparticles

The use of lipid nanocarriers for drug delivery applications is an active research area, and a great interest has particularly been shown in the past two decades. Among different lipid nanocarriers, ISAsomes (Internally self-assembled somes or particles), including cubosomes and hexosomes, and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) have unique structural features, making them attractive as nanocarriers for drug delivery. In this contribution, we focus exclusively on recent advances in formation and characterization of ISAsomes, mainly cubosomes and hexosomes, and their use as versatile nanocarriers for different drug delivery applications. Additionally, the advantages of SLNs and their application in oral and pulmonary drug delivery are discussed with focus on the biological fates of these lipid nanocarriers in vivo. Despite the demonstrated advantages in in vitro and in vivo evaluations including preclinical studies, further investigations on improved understanding of the interactions of these nanoparticles with biological fluids and tissues of the target sites is necessary for efficient designing of drug nanocarriers and exploring potential clinical applications.

Plasmalogen-Based Liquid Crystalline Multiphase Structures Involving Docosapentaenoyl Derivatives Inspired by Biological Cubic Membranes

Structural properties of plasmenyl-glycerophospholipids (plasmalogens) have been scarcely studied for plasmalogens with long polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) chains, despite of their significance for the organization and functions of the cellular membranes. Elaboration of supramolecular assemblies involving PUFA-chain plasmalogens in nanostructured mixtures with lyotropic lipids may accelerate the development of nanomedicines for certain severe pathologies (e.g., peroxisomal disorders, cardiometabolic impairments, and neurodegenerative Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases). Here, we investigate the spontaneous self-assembly of bioinspired, custom-produced docosapentaenoyl (DPA) plasmenyl (ether) and ester phospholipids in aqueous environment (pH 7) by synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM). A coexistence of a liquid crystalline primitive cubic Im3m phase and an inverted hexagonal (H_II) phase is observed for the DPA-ethanolamine plasmalogen (C16:1p-22:5n6 PE) derivative. A double-diamond cubic Pn3m phase is formed in mixed assemblies of the phosphoethanolamine plasmalogen (C16:1p-22:5n6 PE) and monoolein (MO), whereas a coexistence of cubic and lamellar liquid crystalline phases is established for the DPA-plasmenyl phosphocholine (C16:1p-22:5n6 PC)/MO mixture at ambient temperature. The DPA-diacyl phosphoinositol (22:5n6-22:5n6 PI) ester lipid displays a propensity for a lamellar phase formation. Double membrane vesicles and multilamellar onion topologies with inhomogeneous distribution of interfacial curvature are formed upon incorporation of the phosphoethanolamine plasmalogen (C16:1p-22:5n6 PE) into dioleoylphosphocholine (DOPC) bilayers. Nanoparticulate formulations of plasmalogen-loaded cubosomes, hexosomes, and various multiphase cubosome- and hexosome-derived architectures and mixed type nano-objects (e.g., oil droplet-embedding vesicles or core-shell particles with soft corona) are produced with PUFA-chain phospholipids and lipophilic antioxidant-containing membrane compositions that are characterized by synchrotron SAXS and cryo-TEM imaging. The obtained multiphase nanostructures reflect the changes in the membrane curvature induced by the inclusion of DPA-based PE and PC plasmalogens, as well as DPA-PI ester derivative, and open new opportunities for exploration of these bioinspired nanoassemblies.

Triply Periodic Minimal Surfaces (TPMS) for the Generation of Porous Architectures Using Stereolithography

A new generation of sophisticated tissue engineering scaffolds are developed using the periodicity of trigonometric equations to generate triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS). TPMS architectures display minimal surface energy that induce typical pore features and surface curvatures. Here we described a series of TPMS geometries and developed a procedure to build such scaffolds by stereolithography using biocompatible and biodegradable photosensitive resins.

Meloxicam encapsulated nanostructured colloidal self-assembly for evaluating antitumor and anti-inflammatory efficacy in 3D printed scaffolds

Nanostructured colloidal self-assembly (NCS) is one of the most promising drug delivery carriers in cancer treatment. The present research work aimed towards synthesizing meloxicam (MLX) loaded NCS for its improved circulation half-life and increased cellular internalization. NCS was formulated using glyceryl monoolein, Pluronic® F127, and MLX. Quality by Design experiments with a quadratic model was subjected to optimization of the formulation. The optimized NCS with an average particle size of 185.5 ± 3.02 nm showed higher MLX encapsulation (94.74 ± 3.41%) and sustained release behavior of MLX up to 24 hr. in vitro cytotoxicity of the developed NCS with MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cell lines confirmed lower cell viability and a higher rate of cell growth inhibition. This MLX loaded NCS showed dual activity as an antitumor and anti-inflammatory in highly invasive estrogen-dependent MDA-MB-231 cells due to the high expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Besides, an activity of the MLX-NCS was also observed in 3D printed MCF-7 cells. This investigation shows the possible use of MLX-NCS as an efficient cancer drug delivery system with excellent colloidal stability, sustained release of MLX, enhanced antitumor and anti-inflammatory efficacy in 3D printed scaffolds. In contrast to toxicity study in 2D culture, the 3D constructs revealed the activity of the MLX via COX-2 independent mechanism and demonstrated that the relationship between COX-2 expression and antitumor activity of inhibitors is limited. In conclusion, the overall observations and results of this study strengthen the hypothesized development of NCS as a next-generation therapeutics regimen for cancer therapy.

Injectable Liquid Crystal Formation System for Reshaping Tumor Immunosuppressive Microenvironment to Boost Antitumor Immunity: Postoperative Chemoimmunotherapy

Exploring optimal strategies to improve patient outcome postoperatively is still under challenge. Cancer immunotherapy has great potential to prevent the postoperative tumor recurrence and metastasis, which could be further strengthened by re-education of tumor microenvironment (TME). Herein, a local and sustained drug delivery system of liquid crystal formation system (LCFS) co-loaded with doxorubicin (DOX) and resiquimod (R848) (D/R@LCFS) is reported to confer effective chemoimmunotherapy with reduced systematic toxicity. After local administration, D/R@LCFS turns tumor into in situ vaccine via DOX-triggered immunogenic cell death effect accompanied with immunostimulatory effect of R848. Meanwhile, combination treatment of D/R@LCFS facilitates the recruitment of effector CD8⁺ T cells and the polarization of myeloid-derived suppressor cells and immunosuppressive type 2-polarized macrophages to tumoricidal antigen-presenting cells, favoring antigen-specific T cell immune response and inducing more immunogenic phenotypes in tumors. The generated in situ vaccine as well as reshaped TME by D/R@LCFS elicited systematic immune response and long term immune-memory effect in combination with immune checkpoint blockade to significantly prevent postoperative B16F10 or 4T1 tumor recurrence and metastasis. Therefore, this combination strategy of spatiotemporal TME modulation is expected to provide a clinical available option for effective postoperative chemoimmunotherapy.

Liquid Organic Frameworks: A Liquid Crystalline 8-Connected Network with Body-Centered Cubic Symmetry

Liquid state self-assembly is important for the understanding of the complex structures developed in abiogenesis and biogenesis as well as for numerous potential technological applications. Herein we report the first body-centered cubic liquid crystalline phase with 8-connected network topology and open octahedral network structure. It is formed by dynamic soft self-assembly of X-shaped polyphiles with oligo(para-phenylene-ethynylene) cores. The π-conjugated rods with perfluorinated inner benzene rings form networks conjoined by eight-way junctions, which are formed by nano-segregated spheres involving hydrogen-bonded polar end groups, while the branched aliphatic chains at opposite sides of the cores fill the continuum. This novel cubic phase is based on the I-WP minimal surface separating the frameworks of polyaromatic cores from the most disordered chain segments. It can also be considered as a dense sphere packing. Such liquid organic frameworks, representing hybrids of sphere packings and networks could be of interest for organic photonics and other technologies.

Hexaarylbiimidazoles(HABI)-functionalized lyotropic liquid crystalline systems as visible light-responsive materials

Hexaarylbiimidazoles (HABIs) are a promising class of photoswitchable molecule that have received little attention in the literature. Among them, (2,2'-dimethoxydiphenylimidazole)-1,1'-binaphthyl (HABI1) displays unusual negative photochromism and is responsive to green light. This study investigates the potential of HABIs to serve as photo-responsive actuators controlling the structure of lyotropic liquid crystalline (LLC) materials. HABI1 with four methyl chains and HABI2 with four dodecyl chains were synthesized. Time resolved small angle X-ray scattering was used to characterize the potential disruptive effects of HABIs on the nanostructure of LLC systems. HABIs underwent rapid isomerization under irradiation, with a very slow reversion in the dark in toluene and in the LLC matrix, demonstrating excellent stability and photo-fatigue resistant. HABIs completely triggered phase transitions in the phytantriol-based materials, and HABI2 generated a greater disruption than HABI1 on the lipid packing due to the enhanced steric influence. Tuning the lipid composition yielded systems that transitioned from a "slow release" lamellar phase to a "burst release" bicontinuous cubic phase upon light irradiation. Such systems therefore may exhibit a triggered release behavior upon a short time of irradiation, showing great potential in "on demand" drug delivery.

Nature-Inspired Emerging Chiral Liquid Crystal Nanostructures: From Molecular Self-Assembly to DNA Mesophase and Nanocolloids

Liquid crystals (LCs) are omnipresent in living matter, whose chirality is an elegant and distinct feature in certain plant tissues, the cuticles of crabs, beetles, arthropods, and beyond. Taking inspiration from nature, researchers have recently devoted extensive efforts toward developing chiral liquid crystalline materials with self-organized nanostructures and exploring their potential applications in diverse fields ranging from dynamic photonics to energy and safety issues. In this review, an account on the state of the art of emerging chiral liquid crystalline nanostructured materials and their technological applications is provided. First, an overview on the significance of chiral liquid crystalline architectures in various living systems is given. Then, the recent significant progress in different chiral liquid crystalline systems including thermotropic LCs (cholesteric LCs, cubic blue phases, achiral bent-core LCs, etc.) and lyotropic LCs (DNA LCs, nanocellulose LCs, and graphene oxide LCs) is showcased. The review concludes with a perspective on the future scope, opportunities, and challenges in these truly advanced functional soft materials and their promising applications.

Self-assembly of mitochondria-specific peptide amphiphiles amplifying lung cancer cell death through targeting the VDAC1-hexokinase-II complex

Mitochondria-targeting peptides represent an emergent tool for cancer inhibition. Here supramolecular assemblies of novel amphiphilic cell-penetrating peptides for targeting cancer cell mitochondria are reported. The employed strategy aims at amplifying the apoptotic stimuli by weakening the mitochondrial VDAC1 (voltage-dependent anion channel-1)-hexokinase-II (HK-II) interaction. Peptide engineering is performed with the N-terminus of the HK-II protein, which binds to VDAC1. First, a designed positively charged segment (pKV) is anchored to the specific 15 amino acid sequence (MIASHLLAYFFTELN) to yield a cell-penetrating peptide (pHK-pKV). Second, a lipid chain (Pal) is conjugated to the N-terminus of pHK-pKV in order to enhance the intracellular delivery of the HK-II scaffold. The self-assembly properties of these two synthetic peptides are investigated by synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering (BioSAXS) and cryogenic transmission electron (cryo-TEM) imaging, which evidence the formation of nanoassemblies of ellipsoid-like shapes. Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy demonstrates the induction of partial α-helical structures in the amphiphilic peptides. Confocal microscopy reveals the specific mitochondrial location of Pal-pHK-pKV assemblies in human non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) A549 cells. The cytotoxicity and apoptotic studies indicate the enhanced bioactivity of Pal-pHK-pKV self-assembled reservoirs, which cause massive A549 cell death with regard to pHK-pKV. Of significance, Pal-pHK-pKV treatment of non-cancerous NCM460 cells resulted in substantially lower cytotoxicity. The results demonstrate the potential of self-assembled lipo-peptide (HK-II-derived) conjugates as a promising strategy in cancer therapy.

A structurally diverse library of glycerol monooleate/oleic acid non-lamellar liquid crystalline nanodispersions stabilized with nonionic methoxypoly(ethylene glycol) (mPEG)-lipids showing variable complement activation properties

Pluronic F127-stabilized non-lamellar liquid crystalline aqueous nanodispersions are promising injectable platforms for drug and contrast agent delivery. These nanodispersions, however, trigger complement activation in the human blood, where the extent of complement activation and opsonization processes may compromise their biological performance and safety. Here, we introduce a broad family of nanodispersions from glycerol monooleate (GMO) and oleic acid (OA) in different weight ratios, and stabilized with a plethora of nonionic methoxypoly(ethylene glycol) (mPEG)-lipids of different PEG chain length and variable lipid moiety (monounsaturated or saturated diglycerides or D-α-tocopheryl succinate). Through an integrated biophysical approach involving dynamic light scattering, synchrotron small-angle scattering, and cryo-transmission electron microscopy, we examine the impact of nonionic mPEG-lipid stabilization on size, internal self-assembled architecture, and gross morphological characteristics of nanodispersions. The results show how the nonionic mPEG-lipid type and concentration, and dependent on GMO/OA weight ratio, can variably modulate the internal architectures of nanoparticles. Assessment of complement profiling from selected nanodispersions with diverse structural heterogeneity further suggests a variable modulatory role for the lipid type of the nonionic mPEG-lipid in the extent of complement activation, which span from no activation to moderate to high levels. We comment on plausible mechanisms driving the observed complement activation variability and discuss the potential utility of these nanodispersions for future development of injectable nanopharmaceuticals.