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Guo Q, Chen X, Yang K, Yu J, Liang F, Wang C, Yang B, Chen T, Li Z, Li X, Ding C. Identification and evaluation of fishy odorants produced by four algae separated from drinking water source during low temperature period: Insight into odor characteristics and odor contribution of fishy odor-producing algae. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 324:138328. [PMID: 36889477 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Disgusting fishy odor could break out inside oligotrophic drinking waterbody in winter with low temperature. Nevertheless, fishy odor-producing algae and corresponding fishy odorants were not very clear, odor contribution of fishy odorant and odor-producing algae to overall odor profile were also not well understood. In this study, the fishy odorants, produced by four algae separated from Yanlong Lake, were identified simultaneously. Odor contribution of identified odorant, separated algae to overall fishy odor profile were both evaluated. The results indicated Yanlong Lake was mainly associated with fishy odor (flavor profile analysis (FPA) intensity: 6), eight, five, five and six fishy odorants were identified and determined in Cryptomonas ovate, Dinobryon sp., Synura uvella, Ochromonas sp., respectively, which were separated and cultured from water source. Totally sixteen odorants with concentration range of 90-880 ng/L, including hexanal, heptanal, 2,4-heptadienal, 1-octen-3-one, 1-octen-3-ol, octanal, 2-octenal, 2,4-octadienal, nonanal, 2-nonenal, 2,6-nonadienal, decanal, 2-decenal, 2,4-decadienal, undecanal, 2-tetradecanone, were verified in separated algae and associated with fishy odor. Although more odorants' odor activity value (OAV) were lower than one, approximately 89%, 91%, 87%, 90% of fishy odor intensities could be explained by reconstituting identified odorants for Cryptomonas ovate, Dinobryon sp., Synura uvella, Ochromonas sp., respectively, suggesting synergistic effect could exist among identified odorants. By calculating and evaluating total odorant production, total odorant OAV and cell odorant yield of separated algae, odor contribution rank to overall fishy odor should be Cryptomonas ovate (28.19%), Dinobryon sp. (27.05%), Synura uvella (24.27%), Ochromonas sp. (20.49%). This is the first study for identifying fishy odorants from four actually separated odor-producing algae simultaneously, this is also for the first time evaluating and explaining odor contribution of identified odorant, separated algae to overall odor profile comprehensively, this study will supply more understanding for controlling and managing fishy odor in drinking water treatment plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingyuan Guo
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China
| | - Xiao Chen
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China
| | - Kai Yang
- China MCC5 Group Limited Corporation, Chengdu, 610023, China
| | - Jianwei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Feng Liang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; National Engineering Research Center of Industrial Wastewater Detoxication and Resource Recovery, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China.
| | - Chunmiao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Bairen Yang
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China
| | - Tianming Chen
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China
| | - Zhaoxia Li
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China
| | - Xuan Li
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China
| | - Cheng Ding
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China.
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Akcaalan R, Devesa-Garriga R, Dietrich A, Steinhaus M, Dunkel A, Mall V, Manganelli M, Scardala S, Testai E, Codd GA, Kozisek F, Antonopoulou M, Ribeiro ARL, Sampaio MJ, Hiskia A, Triantis TM, Dionysiou DD, Puma GL, Lawton L, Edwards C, Andersen HR, Fatta-Kassinos D, Karaolia P, Combès A, Panksep K, Zervou SK, Albay M, Köker L, Chernova E, Iliakopoulou S, Varga E, Visser PM, Gialleli AI, Zengin Z, Deftereos N, Miskaki P, Christophoridis C, Paraskevopoulou A, Lin TF, Zamyadi A, Dimova G, Kaloudis T. Water taste and odor (T&O): Challenges, gaps and solutions from a perspective of the WaterTOP network. CHEMICAL ENGINEERING JOURNAL ADVANCES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ceja.2022.100409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
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Wang C, Yu J, Chen Y, Dong Y, Su M, Dong H, Wang Z, Zhang D, Yang M. Co-occurrence of odor-causing dioxanes and dioxolanes with bis(2-chloro-1-methylethyl) ether in Huangpu River source water and fates in O 3-BAC process. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 430:128435. [PMID: 35183052 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, dioxanes and dioxolanes have been intermittently detected in water environment and have caused several offensive drinking water odor incidents worldwide. In this study, the co-occurrence of eight dioxanes, twelve dioxolanes and bis(2-chloro-1-methylethyl) ether was investigated in Huangpu River watershed to explore potential sources and contributions to septic/chemical odor. Totally 8 dioxanes and dioxolanes were detected in river, with 1,4-dioxane (212 -8310 ng/L) and 2,5,5-trimethyl-1,3-dioxane (n.d.-133 ng/L) as the dominated dioxanes, 2-methyl-1,3-dioxolane (49.5 -2278 ng/L), 2-ethy-4-methyl-1,3-dioxolane (n.d.-167 ng/L) and 1,3-dioxolane (n.d.-225 ng/L) as the major dioxolanes. Bis(2-chloro-1-methylethyl) ether was detected (n.d.-1094 ng/L) with significant correlation with dioxanes and dioxolanes, illustrating their similar polyester resin-related industrial origins. 2-Ethy-4-methyl-1,3-dioxolane, 2,5,5-trimethyl-1,3-dioxane and bis(2-chloro-1-methylethyl) ether with individual maximum odor activity value above 1, should contribute to septic/chemical odor in Huangpu River water. The increased concentrations of these chemicals in the downstream of some industrial areas illustrated the association with industrial discharge. Fates in a waterworks using the river water as source water were further explored. The adopting ozone-biological activated carbon treatment could permit a relatively high removal for bis(2-chloro-1-methylethyl) ether and 2,5,5-trimethyl-1,3-dioxane (> 80%), while limited removal for other chemicals. This study provides valuable information for the management of drinking source water and water environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunmiao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Jianwei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Yi Chen
- Wuxi Water Group Co., Ltd., Wuxi 214031, China.
| | - Yunxing Dong
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Ming Su
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Huiyu Dong
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Zheng Wang
- Shanghai National Engineering Research Center of Urban Water Resources Co., Ltd., Shanghai 200082, China.
| | - Dong Zhang
- Shanghai National Engineering Research Center of Urban Water Resources Co., Ltd., Shanghai 200082, China.
| | - Min Yang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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Guo Q, Li Z, Chen T, Yang B, Ding C. Implications for emergency response to the severe odor incident occurred in source water: Potential odorants and control strategy. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:67022-67031. [PMID: 34244936 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-15218-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Sudden odor incidents occurring in the source water have been a severe problem for water suppliers. In order to apply emergency control measures effectively, it is necessary to identify the target compounds responsible for odor incidents rapidly. The present work identified the odorants and explored emergency disposal mechanisms for sudden and severe odors in the QT River's drinking water source (HZ city, China). Medicinal, chemical, septic, and musty odors with strong intensities were detected in the source water. The effect of conventional treatments of drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) on odors' removal was limited, which was evident by the presence of medicinal, chemical, and musty odors with moderate intensities in the effluent of DWTP. Total seventeen odorants were identified successfully in the source water of QT River and the effluent of DWTP. The measured OAVs and reconstituting the identified odorants explained 87, 87, 89, and 94% of medicinal, chemical, septic, and musty odors, respectively, in the source water of the QT River and 90, 87, and 88% of medicinal, chemical, and musty odors in the effluent. Styrene, phenol, 2-chlorophenol, 2-tert-butylphenol, and 2-methylphenol were associated with the medicinal odor, while propyl sulfide, diethyl disulfide, propyl disulfide, and indole were related to the septic odor. Geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (2-MIB) were responsible for the musty odor, and cyclohexanone, 1,4-dichlorobenzene, and nitrobenzene were involved with the chemical odor. Based on the characteristics of identified odorants, powdered activated carbon (PAC) was applied to control the odors in the QT River. The results indicated that the medicinal, chemical, septic, and musty odors could be removed entirely after adding 15 mg/L PAC, which effectively controlled emergency odor problems. Overall, the study would offer a scientific basis and operational reference for emergency odor management and control in DWTP with similar complicated odor incidents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingyuan Guo
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China.
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China.
| | - Zhaoxia Li
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China
| | - Tianming Chen
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China
| | - Bairen Yang
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China
| | - Cheng Ding
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China.
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Alexander WA. Methyl-Cyclohexane Methanol (MCHM) Isomer-Dependent Binding on Amorphous Carbon Surfaces. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26113411. [PMID: 34200015 PMCID: PMC8200209 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26113411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In January 2014, over 10,000 gallons of methyl-cyclohexane methanol (MCHM) leaked into the Elk River in West Virginia, in a chemical spill incident that contaminated a large portion of the state’s water supply and left over 300,000 residents without clean water for many days and weeks. Initial efforts to remove MCHM at the treatment plant centered on the use of granulated activated carbon (GAC), which removed some of the chemical from the water, but MCHM levels were not lowered to a “non-detect” status until well after the chemical plume had moved downstream of the intake. Months later, MCHM was again detected at the outflow (but not the inflow) at the water treatment facility, necessitating the full and costly replacement of all GAC in the facility. The purpose of this study is to investigate the hypothesis that preferential absorbance of one of the two MCHM isomers, coupled with seasonal variations in water temperature, explain this contrary observation. Calculated intermolecular potentials between ovalene (a large planar polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon) and the MCHM isomers were compared to physisorption potentials of MCHM onto an amorphous carbon model. While a molecular mechanics (MM) force field predicts no difference in the average interaction potentials between the cis- and trans-MCHM with the planar ovalene structure, MM predicts that the trans isomer binds stronger than the cis isomer to the amorphous carbon surface. Semi-empirical and density functional theory also predict stronger binding of trans-MCHM on both the planar and amorphous surfaces. The differences in the isomer binding strengths on amorphous carbon imply preferential absorbance of the trans isomer onto activated charcoal filter media. Considering seasonal water temperatures, simple Arrhenius kinetics arguments based on these predicted binding energies help explain the environmental observations of MCHM leeching from the GAC filters months after the spill. Overall, this work shows the important implications that can arise from detailed interfacial chemistry investigations.
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Yao W, Gallagher DL, Dietrich AM. An overlooked route of inhalation exposure to tap water constituents for children and adults: Aerosolized aqueous minerals from ultrasonic humidifiers. WATER RESEARCH X 2020; 9:100060. [PMID: 32793876 PMCID: PMC7408721 DOI: 10.1016/j.wroa.2020.100060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Fine particulates and aerosols emitted by commonly used, room-sized ultrasonic humidifiers may pose adverse health effects to children and adults. The literature documents adverse effects for children exposed to minerals emitted from humidifiers. This study performs novel and comprehensive characterization of bivariate particle size and element concentrations of emitted airborne aerosols and particles from ultrasonic humidifiers filled with tap water, including size distribution from 0.014 to 10 μm by scanning mobility particle sizer and AeroTrak; corresponding metal and elemental concentrations as a function of particle size by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer; and calculations of deposition fraction in human lungs for age-specific groups using the multi-path particle dosimetry model (MPPD). Deposition fraction is the ratio of mass deposited to total mass inhaled. When filled with tap water, water evaporated from emitted aerosols to form submicron particles that became essentially "dried tap water" with median size 146 nm and mean concentration of 211 μg-total elements/m3-air including 35 μg-calcium/m3-air in a room of 33.5 m3 and air exchange rate at ∼0.8 hr-1. Approximately 90% of emitted particles deposited in human lungs were <1 μm as shown by MPPD model. The smaller particles contained little water and higher concentration of minerals, while larger particles of >1 μm consisted of lower elemental concentrations and more water due to low evaporation. Deposition fraction in pulmonary region was ∼2-fold higher, and deposited particulate mass was 3.5-fold higher for children than adults, indicating greater inhalation exposure to children compared to adults. Modeled data of total particles mass per body weight (BW) that will deposit in adult and child lungs after 8-h humidifier exposure were respectively 2.8 μg/kg-BW and 9.8 μg/kg-BW, where calcium contributes 0.4 μg/kg-BW and 1.6 μg/kg-BW. This comprehensive study of bivariate inorganic chemical composition as a function of particle size expanded, quantified, and modeled exposure for children and adults to aerosolized calcium and other inorganic constituents in water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenchuo Yao
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Daniel L. Gallagher
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Andrea M. Dietrich
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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Wang C, Yu J, Gallagher DL, Byrd J, Yao W, Wang Q, Guo Q, Dietrich AM, Yang M. Pyrazines: A diverse class of earthy-musty odorants impacting drinking water quality and consumer satisfaction. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 182:115971. [PMID: 32554269 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.115971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The presence of earthy-musty odors in drinking water is a major concern for water suppliers and consumers worldwide. While geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol are the most studied earthy-musty odor-causing compounds, pyrazine and its alkyl and methoxy compounds possess similar odors and are widely distributed in nature, foods, and beverages. In this study, odor characteristics of pyrazines and their presence in natural and treated waters were determined. Pyrazine, 2,6-dimethyl-pyrazine (DMP), 2,3,5-trimethyl-pyrazine (TrMP), 2-ethyl-5(6)-methyl-pyrazine (EMP), 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-pyrazine (TeMP), 2-isobutyl-3-methoxy-pyrazine (IBMP) and 2-isopropyl-3-methoxy-pyrazine (IPMP) were measured in source and finished drinking water across China. 2-Methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyrazine (MDMP), IBMP, and IPMP were investigated in rivers in Virginia, USA. The results showed that "musty" and "sweet" were the most common descriptors for pyrazine, DMP, MDMP, TrMP, and TeMP. While IBMP and IPMP were never detected in 140 source or drinking water samples from across China, pyrazine, DMP, MDMP, TrMP, and TeMP occurred throughout with concentrations of n.d.-62.2 ng/L-aq in source water and n.d.-39.6 ng/L-aq in finished water. IBMP, IPMP, and MDMP were present in two Virginia rivers; MDMP occurred in 18% of the samples with concentrations of n.d.-4.4 ng/L, many of which were above the aqueous odor threshold of 0.043 ng/L MDMP. The removal efficiencies through conventional water treatment were poor, ranging from negative removals to ∼10%. Advanced oxidation water treatment could only remove EMP and TrMP. The widespread presence of earthy-musty-sweet pyrazines in source and drinking waters on two continents, their poor removal during water treatment, and ng/L odor threshold concentrations confirm their potential to be T&O issues for consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunmiao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jianwei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Daniel L Gallagher
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, 413 Durham Hall, Virginia Tech, 1145 Perry Street, MC 0246, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States
| | - Julia Byrd
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, 413 Durham Hall, Virginia Tech, 1145 Perry Street, MC 0246, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States
| | - Wenchuo Yao
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, 413 Durham Hall, Virginia Tech, 1145 Perry Street, MC 0246, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States
| | - Qi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Qingyuan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Andrea M Dietrich
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, 413 Durham Hall, Virginia Tech, 1145 Perry Street, MC 0246, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States.
| | - Min Yang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
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Guo Q, Yu J, Li X, Chen T, Wang C, Li Z, Ma W, Ding C, Yang M. A systematic study on the odorants characterization and evaluation in a plain reservoir with wetlands ecosystem. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 393:122404. [PMID: 32169813 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2019] [Revised: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The odor problems in plain reservoirs are more complex compared to valley reservoirs and ground water reservoirs. Just as YL Reservoir with wetlands ecosystem in Lixiahe Plain, Jiangsu Province has been suffering from complex odors, however, the odorants were unclear. In this study, a systematic study on odorants characterization and evaluation of plain YL reservoir was accomplished. Totally musty, septic, fishy, chemical and grassy odors were first identified simultaneously, twenty-four odorants were identified correspondingly. According to odor activity value ranking, 2-methylisoborneol and geosmin, with odor activity values of 14-18 and 2.5-3.8, were major musty odorants, while bis(2-chloroisopropyl) ether, dimethyl disulfide, dimethyl trisulfide, pentanethiol and indole, with odor activity values of 15.3-18.8, 1-1.3, 1.5-2.3, 2-3 and 0.7-0.9, were major septic compounds. Fishy and grassy odors were associated with 2,4-decadienal, hexanal, nonanal, decanal, benzaldehyde and β-cyclocitral, while chemical odor was related to indane, eucalyptol, 2-nitrophenol, 2-methylphenol, tetramethylpyrazine, 1,4-dichlorobenzene, p-xylene and ethylbenzene. By reconstituting tests, 98, 95, 88, 85 and 81 % of musty, septic, fishy, chemical and grassy characteristics in source water could be explained. It was notable that wetlands ecosystem has almost no effect on odor removal. This study would offer more understandings and supports for odors's control in such source waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingyuan Guo
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China
| | - Jianwei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Xuan Li
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China
| | - Tianming Chen
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China
| | - Chunmiao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Zhaoxia Li
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China
| | - Weixing Ma
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China
| | - Cheng Ding
- College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 224051, China.
| | - Min Yang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
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Wang C, An W, Guo Q, Jia Z, Wang Q, Yu J, Yang M. Assessing the hidden social risk caused by odor in drinking water through population behavioral responses using economic burden. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 172:115507. [PMID: 31986398 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.115507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Unpleasant odor in drinking water is a worldwide substantial issue for consumers and water utilities. However, its hidden social impact has been ignored as there are no apparent direct health effects compared with other pollutants. In this study, we developed a method to characterize the adverse effects of a typical odorant based on behavioral responses with the corresponding economic burden, illustrated by 2-methylisoborneol (2-MIB). The dose-response based on behavioral responses to odors using a questionnaire was established in consideration of the bandwagon effect. Results showed that about half of consumers adopted averting behaviors after detecting even very weak odor (but generally recognizable) in drinking water. Total economic burden was determined to be 290690 ± 27427 ¥ per million people per day by the surcharges arising from consumer averting behavior or additional treatment of drinking water odor, among which about 13% of surcharge originated from insensitive people because of bandwagon effect. This is the first study to quantify odor hidden risk based on people's behavioral responses using economic burden, which provides a useful tool to comparing the risks of different types of pollutants in drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunmiao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Wei An
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; Department of Mathematical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
| | - Qingyuan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, 224051, China
| | - Zeyu Jia
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jianwei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Min Yang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
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Gallagher JE, Ser SL, Ayers MC, Nassif C, Pupo A. The Polymorphic PolyQ Tail Protein of the Mediator Complex, Med15, Regulates the Variable Response to Diverse Stresses. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21051894. [PMID: 32164312 PMCID: PMC7094212 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21051894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2020] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Mediator is composed of multiple subunits conserved from yeast to humans and plays a central role in transcription. The tail components are not required for basal transcription but are required for responses to different stresses. While some stresses are familiar, such as heat, desiccation, and starvation, others are exotic, yet yeast can elicit a successful stress response. 4-Methylcyclohexane methanol (MCHM) is a hydrotrope that induces growth arrest in yeast. We found that a naturally occurring variation in the Med15 allele, a component of the Mediator tail, altered the stress response to many chemicals in addition to MCHM. Med15 contains two polyglutamine repeats (polyQ) of variable lengths that change the gene expression of diverse pathways. The Med15 protein existed in multiple isoforms and its stability was dependent on Ydj1, a protein chaperone. The protein level of Med15 with longer polyQ tracts was lower and turned over faster than the allele with shorter polyQ repeats. MCHM sensitivity via variation of Med15 was regulated by Snf1 in a Myc-tag-dependent manner. Tagging Med15 with Myc altered its function in response to stress. Genetic variation in transcriptional regulators magnified genetic differences in response to environmental changes. These polymorphic control genes were master variators.
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11
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Yao W, Gallagher DL, Marr LC, Dietrich AM. Emission of iron and aluminum oxide particles from ultrasonic humidifiers and potential for inhalation. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 164:114899. [PMID: 31377524 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.114899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 06/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Ultrasonic humidifier use is a potential source of human exposure to inhalable particulates. This research evaluated the behavior of insoluble iron oxide and aluminum oxide particles in water used to fill room-sized ultrasonic humidifiers. Solutions of 10 mg/L Fe, as iron oxide particles, or 5 mg/L Al, as aluminum oxide suspension, were added into tap water used to fill ultrasonic humidifiers. The humidifiers were operated for 14 h; samples were obtained over time and monitored for soluble and particulate Fe and Al, as well as particle sizes in the humidifier reservoir and emitted in aerosols. Denser, settleable particles of approximately 1.5 μm diameter of iron or aluminum oxides accumulated at the bottom of the humidifier reservoir. Smaller, suspended metal oxide particles of 0.22-0.57 μm diameter were emitted as aerosols from the humidifier. Soluble anions and cations in tap water were also present in the aerosols emitted from humidifiers. The results indicate that a typical 1.6 MHz ultrasonic humidifier can emit 0.22-0.57 μm particles and dissolved minerals from fill water into breathable air.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenchuo Yao
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Virginia, 24061, United States
| | - Daniel L Gallagher
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Virginia, 24061, United States
| | - Linsey C Marr
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Virginia, 24061, United States
| | - Andrea M Dietrich
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Virginia, 24061, United States.
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Quintana J, Hernández A, Ventura F, Devesa R, Boleda MR. Identification of 3-(trifluoromethyl)phenol as the malodorous compound in a pollution incident in the water supply in Catalonia (N.E. Spain). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:16076-16084. [PMID: 30968295 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-04635-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
A study of organic compounds that caused a serious taste and odor episode of water supply in two residential areas in Catalonia (N.E. Spain) was carried out. Sweet and paint/solvent odor were the main descriptors used by consumers. Some cases of sickness and nausea were also associated with drinking water consumption by the consumers. Closed-loop stripping analysis (CLSA) combined with sensory gas chromatography and gas chromatography mass spectrometry detection were used to study the problem. As a result, 3-(trifluoromethyl)phenol (CAS number 98-17-9) was for the first time identified as a responsible of an odor incident in drinking water. Concentration levels of this compound were up to 17,000 ng/L in groundwater and up to 600 ng/L in distributed water. Odor threshold in water for 3-(trifluoromethyl)phenol was determined as 13 ng/L (45 °C).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Quintana
- Aigües de Barcelona, Empresa Metropolitana de Gestió del Cicle Integral de l'Aigua, S.A., General Batet, 1-7, 08028, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Alejandra Hernández
- Aigües de Barcelona, Empresa Metropolitana de Gestió del Cicle Integral de l'Aigua, S.A., General Batet, 1-7, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francesc Ventura
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research - Spanish Council for Scientific Research (IDAEA-CSIC, Jordi Girona 18, 08034, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ricard Devesa
- Aigües de Barcelona, Empresa Metropolitana de Gestió del Cicle Integral de l'Aigua, S.A., General Batet, 1-7, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria Rosa Boleda
- Aigües de Barcelona, Empresa Metropolitana de Gestió del Cicle Integral de l'Aigua, S.A., General Batet, 1-7, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
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Wang C, Yu J, Guo Q, Sun D, Su M, An W, Zhang Y, Yang M. Occurrence of swampy/septic odor and possible odorants in source and finished drinking water of major cities across China. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 249:305-310. [PMID: 30901644 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Revised: 03/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Swampy/septic odors are one of the most important odor types in drinking water. However, few studies have specifically focused on it compared to the extensive reported musty/earthy odor problems, even though the former is much more offensive. In this study, an investigation covering the odor characteristics, algal distribution and possible odorants contributing to swampy/septic odor, including dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), dimethyl trisulfide (DMTS), diisopropyl sulfide (DIPS), dipropyl sulfide (DPS), dibutyl sulfide (DBS), 2-methylisoborneol (2-MIB) and geosmin (GSM), was performed in source and finished water of 56 drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) in 31 cities across China. While the musty/earthy and swampy/septic odors were dominant odor descriptors, the river source water exhibited a higher proportion of swampy/septic odor (38.5%) compared to much higher detection rate of musty/earthy odor (50.0%) in the lake/reservoir source water. The occurrence of swampy/septic odor, which was much easier to remove by conventional drinking water treatment processes compared to musty/earthy odors, was decreased by 62.9% and 46.3% in river and lake/reservoir source water respectively. Statistical analysis showed that thioethers might be responsible for the swampy/septic odor in source water (R2 = 0.75, p < 0.05). Specifically, two thioethers, DMDS and DMTS were detected, and other thioethers were not found in all water samples. DMDS was predominant with a maximum odor activity value (OAV) of 2.0 in source water and 1.3 in finished water. The distribution of the thioethers exhibited a marked regional characteristics with higher concentrations being detected in the east and south parts of China. The high concentrations of thioethers in lake/reservoir source water samples could be partly interpreted as the bloom of the cyanobacteria. This study provides basic information for swampy/septic odor occurrence in drinking water and will be helpful for further water quality management in water industry in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunmiao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jianwei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Qingyuan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng, 224051, China
| | - Daolin Sun
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Ming Su
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Wei An
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Min Yang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
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14
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Wang C, Yu J, Guo Q, Zhao Y, Cao N, Yu Z, Yang M. Simultaneous quantification of fifty-one odor-causing compounds in drinking water using gas chromatography-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry. J Environ Sci (China) 2019; 79:100-110. [PMID: 30784435 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2018.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Revised: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
A wide range of compounds with various structural features can cause taste and odor (T&O) problems in drinking water. It would be desirable to determine all of these compounds using a simple analytical method. In this paper, a sensitive method combining liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) with gas chromatography-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) was established to simultaneously analyze 51 odor-causing compounds in drinking water, including organic sulfides, aldehydes, benzenes, phenols, ethers, esters, ketones, nitrogenous heterocyclic compounds, 2-methylisoborneol and geosmin. Three deuterated analogs of target analytes, dimethyl disulfide-d6, benzaldehyde-d6 and o-cresol-3,4,5,6-d4, were used to correct the variations in recovery, and five isotope-labeled internal standards (4-chlorotoluene-d4, 1, 4-dichlorobenzene-d4, naphthalene-d8, acenaphthene-d10, phenanthrene-d10 respectively) were used prior to analysis to correct the variations arising from instrument fluctuations and injection errors. The calibration curves of the target compounds showed good linearity (R2 > 0.99, level = 7), and method detection limits (MDLs) below 1/10 of the odor threshold concentrations were achieved for most of the odorants (0.10-20.55 ng/L). The average recoveries of most of the analytes in tap water samples were between 70% and 120%, and the method was reproducible (RSD < 20%, n = 7). Additionally, concentrations of odor-causing compounds in water samples collected from three drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) were analyzed by this method. According to the results, dimethyl trisulfide, dimethyl disulfide and indole were considered to be the key odorants responsible for the swampy/septic odor. 2-Methylisoborneol and geosmin were detected as the main odor-causing compounds for musty/earthy odor in DWTP B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunmiao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jianwei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Qingyuan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng 224051, China
| | - Yu Zhao
- Beijing Waterworks Group, Beijing 100031, China
| | - Nan Cao
- Beijing Waterworks Group, Beijing 100031, China
| | - Zhiyong Yu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Min Yang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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15
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Burlingame GA, Doty RL. Important Considerations for Estimating Odor Threshold Concentrations of Contaminants Found in Water Supplies. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/awwa.1147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gary A. Burlingame
- Bureau of Laboratory Services; Philadelphia Water Department; Philadelphia Pa
| | - Richard L. Doty
- Perelman School of Medicine; University of Pennsylvania Smell and Taste Center; Philadelphia Pa
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Stöckel S, Cordes J, Stoffels B, Wildanger D. Scents in the stack: olfactometric proficiency testing with an emission simulation apparatus. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:24787-24797. [PMID: 29926329 PMCID: PMC6133125 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-2515-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Olfactometry is globally acknowledged as a technique to determine odor concentrations, which are used to characterize odors for regulatory purposes, e.g., to protect the general public against harmful effects of air pollution. Although the determination procedure for odor concentrations is standardized in some countries, continued research is required to understand uncertainties of odor monitoring and prediction. In this respect, the present paper strives to provide answers of paramount importance in olfactometry. To do so, a wealth of measurement data originating from six large-scale olfactometric stack emission proficiency tests conducted from 2015 to 2017 was retrospectively analyzed. The tests were hosted at a unique emission simulation apparatus-a replica of an industry chimney with 23 m in height-so that for the first time, conventional proficiency testing (no sampling) with real measurements (no reference concentrations) was combined. Surprisingly, highly variable recovery rates of the odorants were observed-no matter, which of the very different odorants was analyzed. Extended measurement uncertainties with roughly 30-300% up to 20-520% around a single olfactometric measurement value were calculated, which are way beyond the 95% confidence interval given by the widely used standard EN 13725 (45-220%) for assessment and control of odor emissions. Also, no evidence has been found that mixtures of odorants could be determined more precisely than single-component odorants. This is an important argument in the intensely discussed topic, whether n-butanol as current reference substance in olfactometry should be replaced by multi-component odorants. However, based on our data, resorting to an alternative reference substance will not solve the inherent problem of high uncertainty levels in dynamic olfactometry. Finally, robust statistics allowed to calculate reliable odor thresholds, which are an important prerequisite to convert mass concentrations to odor concentrations and vice versa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Stöckel
- Department I3 (Air Pollution Control, Emission), Hessian Agency for Nature Conservation, Environment and Geology, Kassel, Germany
| | - Jens Cordes
- Department I3 (Air Pollution Control, Emission), Hessian Agency for Nature Conservation, Environment and Geology, Kassel, Germany
| | - Benno Stoffels
- Department I3 (Air Pollution Control, Emission), Hessian Agency for Nature Conservation, Environment and Geology, Kassel, Germany
| | - Dominik Wildanger
- Department I3 (Air Pollution Control, Emission), Hessian Agency for Nature Conservation, Environment and Geology, Kassel, Germany.
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17
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Cozzarelli IM, Akob DM, Baedecker MJ, Spencer T, Jaeschke J, Dunlap DS, Mumford AC, Poret-Peterson AT, Chambers DB. Degradation of Crude 4-MCHM (4-Methylcyclohexanemethanol) in Sediments from Elk River, West Virginia. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:12139-12145. [PMID: 28942635 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b03142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
In January 2014, approximately 37 800 L of crude 4-methylcyclohexanemethanol (crude MCHM) spilled into the Elk River, West Virginia. To understand the long-term fate of 4-MCHM, we conducted experiments under environmentally relevant conditions to assess the potential for the 2 primary compounds in crude MCHM (1) to undergo biodegradation and (2) for sediments to serve as a long-term source of 4-MCHM. We developed a solid phase microextraction (SPME) method to quantify the cis- and trans-isomers of 4-MCHM. Autoclaved Elk River sediment slurries sorbed 17.5% of cis-4-MCHM and 31% of trans-4-MCHM from water during the 2-week experiment. Sterilized, impacted, spill-site sediment released minor amounts of cis- and up to 35 μg/L of trans-4-MCHM into water, indicating 4-MCHM was present in sediment collected 10 months post spill. In anoxic microcosms, 300 μg/L cis- and 150 μg/L trans-4-MCHM degraded to nondetectable levels in 8-13 days in both impacted and background sediments. Under aerobic conditions, 4-MCHM isomers degraded to nondetectable levels within 4 days. Microbial communities at impacted sites differed in composition compared to background samples, but communities from both sites shifted in response to crude MCHM amendments. Our results indicate that 4-MCHM is readily biodegradable under environmentally relevant conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle M Cozzarelli
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Research Program, Reston, Virginia 20192 United States
| | - Denise M Akob
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Research Program, Reston, Virginia 20192 United States
| | - Mary Jo Baedecker
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Research Program, Reston, Virginia 20192 United States
| | - Tracey Spencer
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Research Program, Reston, Virginia 20192 United States
| | - Jeanne Jaeschke
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Research Program, Reston, Virginia 20192 United States
| | - Darren S Dunlap
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Research Program, Reston, Virginia 20192 United States
| | - Adam C Mumford
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Research Program, Reston, Virginia 20192 United States
| | | | - Douglas B Chambers
- U.S. Geological Survey, Virginia-West Virginia Water Science Center, Charleston, West Virginia 25301 United States
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18
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Benson SM, Ruestow P, Keeton KA, Novick RM, Marsh GM, Paustenbach DJ. The 2014 crude 4-methylcyclohexanemethanol chemical release and birth outcomes in West Virginia. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL & OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH 2017; 73:292-301. [PMID: 28692341 DOI: 10.1080/19338244.2017.1350132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Approximately 10,000 gallons of crude 4-methylcyclohexanemethanol and propylene glycol phenyl ether were accidentally released into the Elk River upstream from a water treatment facility in West Virginia. The objective of this study was to use logistic and Poisson regression analyses to determine the effect potential exposures had on adverse birth outcomes (birth weight, small for gestational age, and abnormal Apgar score). We adjusted for confounding factors and assessed prevalence of adverse birth outcomes by residential location and timing of the pregnancy. There were no statistically significant interactions between residential location and timing of the pregnancy (range of p values: .157-.806). Changes in the prevalence of birth outcomes were consistent before and after the spill regardless of residential location. There was no evidence of an association between adverse birth outcomes and potential exposure to the released chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Gary M Marsh
- a Cardno ChemRisk , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , USA
- d University of Pittsburgh , Center for Occupational Biostatistics & Epidemiology , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , USA
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Burrer SL, Fechter-Leggett E, Bayleyegn T, Mark-Carew M, Thomas C, Bixler D, Noe RS, Hsu J, Haddy L, Wolkin A. Assessment of Impact and Recovery Needs in Communities Affected by the Elk River Chemical Spill, West Virginia, April 2014. Public Health Rep 2017; 132:188-195. [PMID: 28182514 DOI: 10.1177/0033354916689606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In January 2014, 4-methylcyclohexanemethanol spilled into the Elk River near Charleston, West Virginia, contaminating the water supply for about 120 000 households. The West Virginia American Water Company (WVAWC) issued a "do not use" water order for 9 counties. After the order was lifted (10 days after the spill), the communities' use of public water systems, information sources, alternative sources of water, and perceived impact of the spill on households were unclear to public health officials. To assist in recovery efforts, the West Virginia Bureau for Public Health and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention conducted a Community Assessment for Public Health Emergency Response (CASPER). METHODS We used the CASPER 2-stage cluster sampling design to select a representative sample of households to interview, and we conducted interviews in 171 households in April 2014. We used a weighted cluster analysis to generate population estimates in the sampling frame. RESULTS Before the spill, 74.4% of households did not have a 3-day alternative water supply for each household member and pet. Although 83.6% of households obtained an alternative water source within 1 day of the "do not use" order, 37.4% of households reportedly used WVAWC water for any purpose. Nearly 3 months after the spill, 36.1% of households believed that their WVAWC water was safe, and 33.5% reported using their household water for drinking. CONCLUSIONS CASPER results identified the need to focus on basic public health messaging and household preparedness efforts. Recommendations included (1) encouraging households to maintain a 3-day emergency water supply, (2) identifying additional alternative sources of water for future emergencies, and (3) increasing community education to address ongoing concerns about water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherry L Burrer
- 1 Division of Environmental Hazards and Health Effects, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Chamblee, GA, USA
| | - Ethan Fechter-Leggett
- 2 Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Public Health Scientific Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Tesfaye Bayleyegn
- 1 Division of Environmental Hazards and Health Effects, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Chamblee, GA, USA
| | - Miguella Mark-Carew
- 3 Office of Epidemiology and Prevention Services, West Virginia Bureau for Public Health, Charleston, WV, USA
| | - Carrie Thomas
- 3 Office of Epidemiology and Prevention Services, West Virginia Bureau for Public Health, Charleston, WV, USA
| | - Danae Bixler
- 3 Office of Epidemiology and Prevention Services, West Virginia Bureau for Public Health, Charleston, WV, USA
| | - Rebecca S Noe
- 1 Division of Environmental Hazards and Health Effects, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Chamblee, GA, USA
| | - Joy Hsu
- 2 Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Public Health Scientific Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Loretta Haddy
- 3 Office of Epidemiology and Prevention Services, West Virginia Bureau for Public Health, Charleston, WV, USA
| | - Amy Wolkin
- 1 Division of Environmental Hazards and Health Effects, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Chamblee, GA, USA
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Ma X, Deng J, Feng J, Shanaiah N, Smiley E, Dietrich AM. Identification and characterization of phenylacetonitrile as a nitrogenous disinfection byproduct derived from chlorination of phenylalanine in drinking water. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 102:202-210. [PMID: 27344251 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Unregulated disinfection byproducts (DBPs), including nitrogenous disinfection byproducts (N-DBPs), originating from chlorination of the precursor amino acid phenylalanine in aqueous systems, were identified in laboratory reactions and distributed tap. The major N-DBP identified was phenylacetonitrile, and minor DBPs of benzyl chloride, phenylacetaldehyde, 2-chlorobenzyl cyanide, and 2, 6-diphenylpyridine were also formed. Phenylacetonitrile was generated through decarboxylation, dechlorination and/or hydrolysis processes. With an aromatic structure, phenylacetonitrile has an unpleasant odor of various descriptors and an odor threshold concentration of 0.2 ppt-v as measured through gas chromatography-olfactometry. The half-life of phenylacetonitrile in reagent water and chlorinated water at 19 °C were 121 h and 792 h, respectively. The occurrence of phenylacetonitrile as an N-DBP in tap water was investigated for the first time; the results revealed that μg/L concentrations were present in nine different distributed drinking waters in China and the United States. Phenylacetonitrile deteriorates the aesthetic quality of drinking water and may present risk due to its prolonged existence in drinking water, especially in the presence of residual chlorine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyan Ma
- College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China.
| | - Jing Deng
- College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Jiao Feng
- College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Narasimhamurthy Shanaiah
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Elizabeth Smiley
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Andrea M Dietrich
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
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21
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Weidhaas JL, Dietrich AM, DeYonker NJ, Ryan Dupont R, Foreman WT, Gallagher D, Gallagher JEG, Whelton AJ, Alexander WA. Enabling Science Support for Better Decision-Making when Responding to Chemical Spills. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2016; 45:1490-1500. [PMID: 27695739 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2016.03.0090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Chemical spills and accidents contaminate the environment and disrupt societies and economies around the globe. In the United States there were approximately 172,000 chemical spills that affected US waterbodies from 2004 to 2014. More than 8000 of these spills involved non-petroleum-related chemicals. Traditional emergency responses or incident command structures (ICSs) that respond to chemical spills require coordinated efforts by predominantly government personnel from multiple disciplines, including disaster management, public health, and environmental protection. However, the requirements of emergency response teams for science support might not be met within the traditional ICS. We describe the US ICS as an example of emergency-response approaches to chemical spills and provide examples in which external scientific support from research personnel benefitted the ICS emergency response, focusing primarily on nonpetroleum chemical spills. We then propose immediate, near-term, and long-term activities to support the response to chemical spills, focusing on nonpetroleum chemical spills. Further, we call for science support for spill prevention and near-term spill-incident response and identify longer-term research needs. The development of a formal mechanism for external science support of ICS from governmental and nongovernmental scientists would benefit rapid responders, advance incident- and crisis-response science, and aid society in coping with and recovering from chemical spills.
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Paustenbach DJ, Winans B, Novick RM, Green SM. The toxicity of crude 4-methylcyclohexanemethanol (MCHM): review of experimental data and results of predictive models for its constituents and a putative metabolite. Crit Rev Toxicol 2016; 45 Suppl 2:1-55. [PMID: 26509789 DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2015.1076376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Crude 4-methylcyclohexanemethanol (MCHM) is an industrial solvent used to clean coal. Approximately 10 000 gallons of a liquid mixture containing crude MCHM were accidently released into the Elk River in West Virginia in January 2014. Because of the proximity to a water treatment facility, the contaminated water was distributed to approximately 300 000 residents. In this review, experimental data and computational predictions for the toxicity for crude MCHM, distilled MCHM, its other components and its putative metabolites are presented. Crude MCHM, its other constituents and its metabolites have low to moderate acute and subchronic oral toxicity. Crude MCHM has been shown not to be a skin sensitizer below certain doses, indicating that at plausible human exposures it does not cause an allergic response. Crude MCHM and its constituents cause slight to moderate skin and eye irritation in rodents at high concentrations. These chemicals are not mutagenic and are not predicted to be carcinogenic. Several of the constituents were predicted through modeling to be possible developmental toxicants; however, 1,4-cyclohexanedimethanol, 1,4-cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid and dimethyl 1,4-cyclohexanedicarboxylate did not demonstrate developmental toxicity in rat studies. Following the spill, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommended a short-term health advisory level of 1 ppm for drinking water that it determined was unlikely to be associated with adverse health effects. Crude MCHM has an odor threshold lower than 10 ppb, indicating that it could be detected at concentrations at least 100-fold less than this risk criterion. Collectively, the findings and predictions indicate that crude MCHM poses no apparent toxicological risk to humans at 1 ppm in household water.
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23
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Jeter TS, Sarver EA, McNair HM, Rezaee M. 4-MCHM sorption to and desorption from granular activated carbon and raw coal. CHEMOSPHERE 2016; 157:160-165. [PMID: 27219291 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.04.125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Revised: 04/08/2016] [Accepted: 04/30/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
4-Methylcyclohexanemethanol (4-MCHM) is a saturated higher alicyclic primary alcohol that is used in the froth flotation process for cleaning coal. In early 2014, a large spill of crude chemical (containing primarily 4-MCHM) to the Elk River near Charleston, WV contaminated the local water supply. Carbon filters at the affected water treatment facility quickly became saturated, and the contaminated water was distributed to nearby homes and businesses. Sorption of 4-MCHM to granular activated carbon (GAC) was studied in the laboratory using head space (HS) analysis via gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID). Sorption to raw coal was also investigated, since this material may be of interest as a sorbent in the case of an on-site spill. As expected, sorption to both materials increased with decreased particle size and with increased exposure time; although exposure time proved to be much more important in the case of GAC than for coal. Under similar conditions, GAC sorbed more 4-MCHM than raw coal (e.g., 84.9 vs. 63.1 mg/g, respectively, for 20 × 30 mesh particles exposed to 860 mg/L 4-MCHM solution for 24 h). Desorption from both materials was additionally evaluated. Interestingly, desorption of 4-MCHM on a mass per mass basis was also higher for GAC than for raw coal. Overall, results indicated that GAC readily sorbs 4-MCHM but can also readily release a portion of the chemical, whereas coal sorbs somewhat less 4-MCHM but holds it tightly.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Scott Jeter
- Mining & Minerals Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, United States.
| | - Emily A Sarver
- Mining & Minerals Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, United States
| | - Harold M McNair
- Chemistry Department, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, United States
| | - Mohammad Rezaee
- Mining & Minerals Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, United States
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24
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Phetxumphou K, Dietrich AM, Shanaiah N, Smiley E, Gallagher DL. Subtleties of human exposure and response to chemical mixtures from spills. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2016; 214:618-626. [PMID: 27131822 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.04.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Worldwide, chemical spills degrade drinking water quality and threaten human health through ingestion and inhalation. Spills are often mixtures of chemicals; thus, understanding the interaction of chemical and biological properties of the major and minor components is critical to assessing human exposure. The crude (4-methylcyclohexyl)methanol (MCHM) spill provides an opportunity to assess such subtleties. This research determined the relative amounts, volatilization, and biological odor properties of minor components cis- and trans-methyl-4-methylcyclohexanecarboxylate (MMCHC) isomers and major components cis- and trans-4-MCHM, then compared properties and human exposure differences among them. (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance and chromatography revealed that the minor MMCHC isomers were about 1% of the major MCHM isomers. At typical showering temperature of 40 °C, Henry's law constants were 1.50 × 10(-2) and 2.23 × 10(-2) for cis- and trans-MMCHC, respectively, which is 20-50 fold higher than for 4-MCHM isomers. The odor thresholds were 1.83 and 0.02 ppb-v air for cis- and trans-MMCHC, which were both described as predominantly sweet. These data are compared to the higher 120 ppb-v air and 0.06 ppb-v odor thresholds for cis- and trans-4-MCHM, for which the trans-isomer had a dominant licorice descriptor. Application of a shower model demonstrated that while MMCHC isomers are only about 1% of the MCHM isomers, during showering, the MMCHC isomers are 13.8% by volume (16.3% by mass) because of their higher volatility. Trans-4-MCHM contributed about 82% of the odor because of higher volatility and lower odor threshold, trans-MMCHC, which represents 0.3% of the mass, contributed 18% of the odor. This study, with its unique human sensory component to assess exposure, reaffirmed that hazard assessment must not be based solely on relative concentration, but also consider the chemical fate, transport, and biological properties to determine the actual levels of exposure across different media.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Phetxumphou
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, 413 Durham Hall, MC0246, 1145 Perry Street, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
| | - Andrea M Dietrich
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, 413 Durham Hall, MC0246, 1145 Perry Street, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
| | | | - Elizabeth Smiley
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, 413 Durham Hall, MC0246, 1145 Perry Street, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
| | - Daniel L Gallagher
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, 413 Durham Hall, MC0246, 1145 Perry Street, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
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25
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DeYonker NJ, Charbonnet KA, Alexander WA. Dipole moments of trans- and cis-(4-methylcyclohexyl)methanol (4-MCHM): obtaining the right conformer for the right reason. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2016; 18:17856-67. [PMID: 27218124 DOI: 10.1039/c5cp05952f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Accurate computational estimates of fundamental physical properties can be used as inputs in the myriad of extant models employed to predict toxicity, transport, and fate of contaminants. However, as molecular complexity of contaminants increases, it becomes increasingly difficult to determine the magnitude of the errors introduced by ignoring the 3D conformational space averaging within group-additivity and semi-empirical approaches. The importance of considering 3D molecular structure is exemplified for the dipole moments of cis and trans isomers of (4-methylcyclohexyl)methanol (4-MCHM). When 10 000 gallons of 4-MCHM was spilled into the Elk River in January 2014, a lack of toxicological data and environmental partitioning coefficients hindered the immediate protection of human health and the local water supply in West Virginia, USA. Post-spill analysis of the contaminants suggested that the cis and trans isomers had observably different partitioning coefficients and solubility, and thus differing environmental fates. Obtaining high-quality dipole moments using ab initio quantum chemical methods for the isomeric pair was crucial in validating their experimental differences in solubility [Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett., 2015, 2, 127]. The use of first principles electronic structure theory is further explored here to obtain accurate conformer relative energies and dipole moments of cis- and trans-4-MCHM. Overall, the MP2 aug-cc-pVDZ level of theory affords the best balance between accuracy and computational cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan J DeYonker
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Memphis, 213 Smith Chemistry Building, Memphis, TN 38152, USA.
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26
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Yuan L, Zhi W, Liu Y, Smiley E, Gallagher D, Chen X, Dietrich AM, Zhang H. Degradation of cis- and trans-(4-methylcyclohexyl) methanol in activated sludge. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2016; 306:247-256. [PMID: 26745518 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Revised: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/11/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Crude (4-methylcyclohexyl)methanol (MCHM) caused extensive contamination of drinking water, wastewater, and the environment during the 2014 West Virginia Chemical Spill. However, information related to the environmental degradation of cis- and trans-4-MCHM, the main components of the crude 4-MCHM mixture, remains largely unknown. This study is among the first to investigate the degradation kinetics and transformation of 4-MCHM isomers in activated sludge. The 4-MCHM loss was mainly due to biodegradation to form carbon dioxide (CO2), plus acetic, propionic, isobutyric, and isovaleric acids with little contribution from adsorption. The biodegradation of 4-MCHM isomers followed the first-order kinetic model with half-lives higher than 0.50 days. Nitrate augmented the degradation of 4-MCHM isomers, while glucose and acetate decreased their degradation. One 4-MCHM-degrading bacterium isolated from activated sludge was identified as Acinetobacter bouvetii strain EU40 based on 16S rRNA gene sequences. This study will enhance the prediction of the environmental fate of 4-MCHM in water treatment systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Yuan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg 24061, USA; College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Wei Zhi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg 24061, USA
| | - Yangsheng Liu
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Elizabeth Smiley
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg 24061, USA
| | - Daniel Gallagher
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg 24061, USA
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering, Columbia University, New York 10027, USA
| | - Andrea M Dietrich
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg 24061, USA
| | - Husen Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg 24061, USA.
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27
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Phetxumphou K, Roy S, Davy BM, Estabrooks PA, You W, Dietrich AM. Assessing clarity of message communication for mandated USEPA drinking water quality reports. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2016; 14:223-235. [PMID: 27105408 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2015.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The United States Environmental Protection Agency mandates that community water systems (CWSs), or drinking water utilities, provide annual consumer confidence reports (CCRs) reporting on water quality, compliance with regulations, source water, and consumer education. While certain report formats are prescribed, there are no criteria ensuring that consumers understand messages in these reports. To assess clarity of message, trained raters evaluated a national sample of 30 CCRs using the Centers for Disease Control Clear Communication Index (Index) indices: (1) Main Message/Call to Action; (2) Language; (3) Information Design; (4) State of the Science; (5) Behavioral Recommendations; (6) Numbers; and (7) Risk. Communication materials are considered qualifying if they achieve a 90% Index score. Overall mean score across CCRs was 50 ± 14% and none scored 90% or higher. CCRs did not differ significantly by water system size. State of the Science (3 ± 15%) and Behavioral Recommendations (77 ± 36%) indices were the lowest and highest, respectively. Only 63% of CCRs explicitly stated if the water was safe to drink according to federal and state standards and regulations. None of the CCRs had passing Index scores, signaling that CWSs are not effectively communicating with their consumers; thus, the Index can serve as an evaluation tool for CCR effectiveness and a guide to improve water quality communications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Phetxumphou
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, 418 Durham Hall, 1145 Perry St., Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA E-mail:
| | - Siddhartha Roy
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, 418 Durham Hall, 1145 Perry St., Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA E-mail:
| | - Brenda M Davy
- Department of Human Nutrition, Foods, and Exercise, Virginia Tech, 221 Wallace Hall, 295 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Paul A Estabrooks
- Department of Family and Community Medicine (and Department of Human Nutrition, Foods, and Exercise), Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, VT Riverside, 1 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA 24016, USA
| | - Wen You
- Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, Virginia Tech, 321A Hutcheson Hall, 250 Drillfield Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Andrea M Dietrich
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, 418 Durham Hall, 1145 Perry St., Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA E-mail:
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28
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Yuan L, Zhi W, Liu Y, Smiley E, Gallagher D, Chen X, Dietrich A, Zhang H. Aerobic and anaerobic microbial degradation of crude (4-methylcyclohexyl)methanol in river sediments. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 547:78-86. [PMID: 26780132 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Revised: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 12/29/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Cyclohexane and some of its derivatives have been a major concern because of their significant adverse human health effects and widespread occurrence in the environment. The 2014 West Virginia chemical spill has raised public attention to (4-methylcyclohexyl)methanol (4-MCHM), one cyclohexane derivative, which is widely used in coal processing but largely ignored. In particular, the environmental fate of its primary components, cis- and trans-4-MCHM, remains largely unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the degradation kinetics and mineralization of cis- and trans-4-MCHM by sediment microorganisms under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. We found the removal of cis- and trans-4-MCHM was mainly attributed to biodegradation with little contribution from sorption. A nearly complete aerobic degradation of 4-MCHM occurred within 14 days, whereas the anaerobic degradation was reluctant with residual percentages of 62.6% of cis-4-MCHM and 85.0% of trans-4-MCHM after 16-day incubation. The cis-4-MCHM was degraded faster than the trans under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions, indicating an isomer-specific degradation could occur during the 4-MCHM degradation. Nitrate addition enhanced 4-MCHM mineralization by about 50% under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Both cis- and trans-4-MCHM fit well with the first-order kinetic model with respective degradation rates of 0.46-0.52 and 0.19-0.31 day(-)(1) under aerobic condition. Respective degradation rates of 0.041-0.095 and 0.013-0.052 day(-)(1) occurred under anaerobic condition. One bacterial strain capable of effectively degrading 4-MCHM isomers was isolated from river sediments and identified as Bacillus pumilus at the species level based on 16S rRNA gene sequence and 97% identity. Our findings will provide critical information for improving the prediction of the environmental fate of 4-MCHM and other cyclohexane derivatives with similar structure as well as enhancing the development of feasible treatment technologies to mitigate these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Yuan
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Haidian District, Beijing 100871, China; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States; Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, United States
| | - Wei Zhi
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Haidian District, Beijing 100871, China; John and Willie Leone Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, United States
| | - Yangsheng Liu
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Haidian District, Beijing 100871, China.
| | - Elizabeth Smiley
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States
| | - Daniel Gallagher
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, United States
| | - Andrea Dietrich
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States
| | - Husen Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States.
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29
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Quintana J, Vegué L, Martín-Alonso J, Paraira M, Boleda MR, Ventura F. Odor Events in Surface and Treated Water: The Case of 1,3-Dioxane Related Compounds. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:62-69. [PMID: 26592899 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b03409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A study has been carried out to identify the origin of the odorous compounds at trace levels detected in surface waters and in Barcelona's tap water (NE Spain) which caused consumer complaints. The malodorous compounds were 2,5,5-trimethyl-1,3-dioxane (TMD) and 2-ethyl-5,5-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane (2EDD) which impart a distinctive sickening or olive-oil odor to drinking water at low ng/L levels. Flavor profile analysis (FPA) or threshold odor number (TON) were used for organoleptic purposes. Levels up to 749 ng/L for TMD and 658 ng/L for 2EDD were measured at the entrance of the drinking water treatment plant. Three wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) using industrial byproducts coming from resin manufacturing plants to promote codigestion were found to be the origin of the event. Corrective measures were applied, including the prohibition to use these byproducts for codigestion in the WWTPs involved. A similar event was already recorded in the same area 20 years ago.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Quintana
- Aigües de Barcelona , Empresa Metropolitana de Gestió del Cicle Integral de l'Aigua, S.A. General Batet, 1-7, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lídia Vegué
- Aigües de Barcelona , Empresa Metropolitana de Gestió del Cicle Integral de l'Aigua, S.A. General Batet, 1-7, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Martín-Alonso
- Aigües de Barcelona , Empresa Metropolitana de Gestió del Cicle Integral de l'Aigua, S.A. General Batet, 1-7, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miquel Paraira
- Aigües de Barcelona , Empresa Metropolitana de Gestió del Cicle Integral de l'Aigua, S.A. General Batet, 1-7, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - M Rosa Boleda
- Aigües de Barcelona , Empresa Metropolitana de Gestió del Cicle Integral de l'Aigua, S.A. General Batet, 1-7, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francesc Ventura
- Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research-Spanish Council for Scientific Research (IDAEA-CSIC) , Department of Environmental Chemistry, Jordi Girona 18, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
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30
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Sain AE, Dietrich AM, Smiley E, Gallagher DL. Assessing human exposure and odor detection during showering with crude 4-(methylcyclohexyl)methanol (MCHM) contaminated drinking water. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 538:298-305. [PMID: 26311585 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Revised: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In 2014, crude (4-methylcyclohexyl)methanol (MCHM) spilled, contaminating the drinking water of 300,000 West Virginians and requiring "do not use" orders to protect human health. When the spill occurred, known crude MCHM physicochemical properties were insufficient to predict human inhalation and ingestion exposures. Objectives are (1) determine Henry's Law Constants (HLCs) for 4-MCHM isomers at 7, 25, 40, and 80°C using gas chromatography; (2) predict air concentrations of 4-MCHM and methyl-4-methylcyclohexanecarboxylate (MMCHC) during showering using an established shower model; (3) estimate human ingestion and inhalation exposure to 4-MCHM and MMCHC; and (4) determine if predicted air 4-MCHM exceeded odor threshold concentrations. Dimensionless HLCs of crude cis- and trans-4-MCHM were measured to be 1.42×10(-4)±6% and 3.08×10(-4)±3% at 25°C, respectively, and increase exponentially with temperature as predicted by the van't Hoff equation. Shower air concentrations for cis- and trans-4-MCHM are predicted to be 0.089 and 0.390ppm-v respectively after 10min, exceeding the US EPA's 0.01ppm-v air screening level during initial spill conditions. Human exposure doses were predicted using measured drinking water and predicted shower air concentrations and found to greatly exceed available guidance levels in the days directly following the spill. Odors would be rapidly detected by 50% of individuals at aqueous concentrations below analytical gas chromatographic detection limits. MMCHC, a minor odorous component (0.935%) of crude MCHM, is also highly volatile and therefore is predicted to contribute to inhalation exposures and odors experienced by consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda E Sain
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States.
| | - Andrea M Dietrich
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States; Food Science and Technology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States.
| | - Elizabeth Smiley
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States.
| | - Daniel L Gallagher
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States.
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Lan J, Hu M, Gao C, Alshawabkeh A, Gu AZ. Toxicity Assessment of 4-Methyl-1-cyclohexanemethanol and Its Metabolites in Response to a Recent Chemical Spill in West Virginia, USA. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:6284-93. [PMID: 25961958 PMCID: PMC6247413 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b00371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The large-scale chemical spill on January 9, 2014 from coal processing and cleaning storage tanks of Freedom Industries in Charleston affected the drinking water supply to 300,000 people in Charleston, West Virginia metropolitan, while the short-term and long-term health impacts remain largely unknown and need to be assessed and monitored. There is a lack of publically available toxicological information for the main contaminant 4-methyl-1-cyclohexanemethanol (4-MCHM). Particularly, little is known about 4-MCHM metabolites and their toxicity. This study reports timely and original results of the mechanistic toxicity assessment of 4-MCHM and its metabolites via a newly developed quantitative toxicogenomics approach, employing proteomics analysis in yeast cells and transcriptional analysis in human cells. These results suggested that, although 4-MCHM is considered only moderately toxic based on the previous limited acute toxicity evaluation, 4-MCHM metabolites were likely more toxic than 4-MCHM in both yeast and human cells, with different toxicity profiles and potential mechanisms. In the yeast library, 4-MCHM mainly induced chemical stress related to transmembrane transport and transporter activity, while 4-MCHM metabolites of S9 mainly induced oxidative stress related to antioxidant activity and oxidoreductase activity. With human A549 cells, 4-MCHM mainly induced DNA damage-related biomarkers, which indicates that 4-MCHM is related to genotoxicity due to its DNA damage effect on human cells and therefore warrants further chronic carcinogenesis evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - April Z. Gu
- Corresponding Author; tel.: + 1-617-373-3631
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