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Zhu X, Li H, Luo Y, Li Y, Zhang J, Wang Z, Yang W, Li R. Evaluation and prediction of anthropogenic impacts on long-term multimedia fate and health risks of PFOS and PFOA in the Elbe River Basin. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 257:121675. [PMID: 38692258 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) have aroused great concern owing to their widespread occurrence and toxic effects. However, their long-term trends and multimedia fate remain largely unknown. Here, we investigate the spatiotemporal characteristics and periodic oscillations of PFOS and PFOA in the Elbe River between 2010 and 2021. Anthropogenic emission inventories and multimedia fugacity model were developed to analyse their historical and future transport fates and quantify related human risks in each medium for the three age groups. The results show that average PFOS and PFOA concentrations in the Elbe River were 4.08 and 3.41 ng/L, declining at the annual rate of 7.36% and 4.98% during the study period, respectively. Periodic oscillations of their concentrations and mass fluxes were most pronounced at 40-60 and 20-40 months. The multimedia fugacity model revealed that higher concentrations occurred in fish (PFOS: 14.29, PFOA: 0.40 ng/g), while the soil was their dominant sink (PFOS: 179, PFOA: 95 tons). The exchange flux between water and sediment was the dominant pathway in multimedia transportation (397 kg/year). Although PFOS and PFOA concentrations are projected to decrease by 22.41% and 50.08%, respectively, from 2021 to 2050, the hazard quotient of PFOS in fish is a low hazard. This study provides information for the assessment of PFOS and PFOA pollution in global watersheds and the development of related mitigation policies, such as banning fish predation in polluted rivers, to mitigate their risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Zhu
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Hui Li
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Yu Luo
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Yu Li
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Jin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Hydrology-Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering, Yangtze Institute for Conservation and Development, Hohai University, 210098 Nanjing, China
| | - Zhenyu Wang
- Department of Hydrogeology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Wenyu Yang
- Department of Hydrogeology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ruifei Li
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China.
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2
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Szabo D, Marchiandi J, Samandra S, Johnston JM, Mulder RA, Green MP, Clarke BO. High-resolution temporal wastewater treatment plant investigation to understand influent mass flux of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 447:130854. [PMID: 36701979 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.130854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
This study aims to identify sources of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) to wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and reveals previously undescribed variability in daily PFAS concentrations by measuring their occurrence in WWTP influent each hour over the course of a week. ∑50PFAS concentrations ranged between 89 ± 38 on Monday and 173 ± 110 ng L-1 on Friday, where perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs), disubstituted phosphate esters (diPAPs), and perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSAs) contributed the largest proportion to overall weekly concentrations 37%, 30%, and 17% respectively. Simultaneous pulse events of perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS; 400 ng L-1) and perfluoroheptanesulfonic acid (PFHpS; 18 ng L-1) indicate significant industrial or commercial waste discharge that persists for up to 3 h. The minimum number of hourly grab samples required to detect variation of PFOS and PFHpS concentrations are 7 and 9 samples respectively, indicating a high degree of variability in PFAS concentrations between days. Overall, the risk of sampling bias from grab samples is high given the variability in PFAS concentrations and more frequent sampling campaigns must be balanced against the cost of analysis carefully to avoid the mischaracterisation of mass flux to receiving surface waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew Szabo
- Australian Laboratory for Emerging Contaminants, School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia; Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm 11418, Sweden
| | - Jaye Marchiandi
- Australian Laboratory for Emerging Contaminants, School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Subharthe Samandra
- Australian Laboratory for Emerging Contaminants, School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Julia M Johnston
- Australian Laboratory for Emerging Contaminants, School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Raoul A Mulder
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Mark P Green
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Bradley O Clarke
- Australian Laboratory for Emerging Contaminants, School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
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3
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Rehman AU, Crimi M, Andreescu S. Current and emerging analytical techniques for the determination of PFAS in environmental samples. TRENDS IN ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2023; 37:e00198. [DOI: 10.1016/j.teac.2023.e00198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
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Barbosa MO, Ratola N, Homem V, Pereira MFR, Silva AMT, Ribeiro ARL, Llorca M, Farré M. Per- and Poly-Fluoroalkyl Substances in Portuguese Rivers: Spatial-Temporal Monitoring. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28031209. [PMID: 36770878 PMCID: PMC9921101 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28031209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Eighteen per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) were investigated in surface waters of four river basins in Portugal (Ave, Leça, Antuã, and Cértima) during the dry and wet seasons. All sampling sites showed contamination in at least one of the seasons. In the dry season, perfluorooctanoate acid (PFOA) and perfluoro-octane sulfonate (PFOS), were the most frequent PFASs, while during the wet season these were PFOA and perfluobutane-sulfonic acid (PFBS). Compounds detected at higher concentrations were PFOS (22.6 ng L-1) and perfluoro-butanoic acid (PFBA) (22.6 ng L-1) in the dry and wet seasons, respectively. Moreover, the prospective environmental risks of PFASs, detected at higher concentrations, were evaluated based on the Risk Quotient (RQ) classification, which comprises acute and chronic toxicity. The results show that the RQ values of eight out of the nine PFASs were below 0.01, indicating low risk to organisms at different trophic levels in the four rivers in both seasons, wet and dry. Nevertheless, in the specific case of perfluoro-tetradecanoic acid (PFTeA), the RQ values calculated exceeded 1 for fish (96 h) and daphnids (48 h), indicating a high risk for these organisms. Furthermore, the RQ values were higher than 0.1, indicating a medium risk for fish, daphnids and green algae (96 h).
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta O. Barbosa
- LSRE-LCM—Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering-Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE—Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- Centre for Research and Intervention in Education (CIIE), Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen s/n, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno Ratola
- ALiCE—Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- LEPABE—Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Vera Homem
- ALiCE—Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- LEPABE—Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - M. Fernando R. Pereira
- LSRE-LCM—Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering-Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE—Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Adrián M. T. Silva
- LSRE-LCM—Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering-Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE—Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana R. L. Ribeiro
- LSRE-LCM—Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering-Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE—Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Marta Llorca
- ON-HEALTH Research Group, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), C/Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence: (M.L.); (M.F.)
| | - Marinella Farré
- ON-HEALTH Research Group, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), C/Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence: (M.L.); (M.F.)
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Kittlaus S, Clara M, van Gils J, Gabriel O, Broer MB, Hochedlinger G, Trautvetter H, Hepp G, Krampe J, Zessner M, Zoboli O. Coupling a pathway-oriented approach with tailor-made monitoring as key to well-performing regionalized modelling of PFAS emissions and river concentrations. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 849:157764. [PMID: 35932866 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Surface water pollution with poly- and perfluorinated compounds (PFAS) is a well-recognized problem, but knowledge about contribution of different emission pathways, especially diffuse ones, is very limited. This study investigates the potential of the pathway oriented MoRE model in shedding light on the relevance of different emission pathways on regional scale and in predicting concentrations and loads in unmonitored rivers. Modelling was supported with a tailor-made monitoring programme aimed to fill gaps on PFAS concentration in different environmental compartments. The study area covers the whole Austrian territory including some additional transboundary catchments and it focuses on perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS). These two PFAS are regulated and therefore their production and use in Europe are currently decreasing. Nevertheless, these compounds are still emitted into the environment via legacy pollution and as transformation products from other PFAS. These two compounds were selected for this study in view of the larger information availability compared to other PFAS. Despite considerable uncertainties in the input data, model validations show that this approach performs significantly better than previous modelling frameworks based on population-specific emission factors, population density and wastewater treatment plant information. The study reveals the predominance of emissions via municipal wastewater treatment plants for PFOS and a relevant role of diffuse emission pathways for PFOA. Results suggest that unpaved areas contribute the biggest share to total diffuse emissions, but the estimation of these pathways is affected by the highest uncertainty in the input data and requires better input data from monitoring. Once the currently growing substance-specific data sets on the concentration of PFAS, others than PFOS and PFOA, in different environmental compartments, will reach an adequate quality, the model presented here will be easily applicable to them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Kittlaus
- TU Wien, Institute for Water Quality and Resource Management, Karlsplatz 13, 1040 Wien, Austria.
| | - Manfred Clara
- Environment Agency Austria, Spittelauer Lände 5, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jos van Gils
- Deltares, P.O. Box 177, 2600 MH Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Oliver Gabriel
- Environment Agency Austria, Spittelauer Lände 5, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | - Helene Trautvetter
- TU Wien, Institute for Water Quality and Resource Management, Karlsplatz 13, 1040 Wien, Austria
| | - Gerold Hepp
- TU Wien, Institute for Water Quality and Resource Management, Karlsplatz 13, 1040 Wien, Austria
| | - Jörg Krampe
- TU Wien, Institute for Water Quality and Resource Management, Karlsplatz 13, 1040 Wien, Austria
| | - Matthias Zessner
- TU Wien, Institute for Water Quality and Resource Management, Karlsplatz 13, 1040 Wien, Austria
| | - Ottavia Zoboli
- TU Wien, Institute for Water Quality and Resource Management, Karlsplatz 13, 1040 Wien, Austria
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6
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Fredriksson F, Eriksson U, Kärrman A, Yeung LWY. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in sludge from wastewater treatment plants in Sweden - First findings of novel fluorinated copolymers in Europe including temporal analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 846:157406. [PMID: 35850346 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Thousands of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are on the global market, while only a minor proportion is monitored regularly in the environment. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have been suggested to be a point source for PFAS to the environment due to emission of effluent and sludge. In this study, 81 PFAS including two rarely studied perfluoroalkyl sulfonamide-based (FASA) copolymers were analyzed in sludge samples to understand the usage of PFAS in the society. Sludge samples (n = 28) were collected at four WWTPs in Sweden between 2004 and 2017. The total levels of 79 measured PFAS were between 50 and 1124 ng/g d.w. All sludge samples showed detectable levels of both C8- and C4-FASA-based copolymers. The concentrations of the FASA-based copolymers were proposed to be reported in fluorinated side-chain equivalents (FSC eq.), in order to compare the levels of the copolymers with the other neutral and anionic PFAS, as no authentic standards were available. The concentrations of the FASA-based copolymers in sludge were between 1.4 and 22 ng FSC eq./g d.w. A general predomination of precursor and intermediate compounds was observed. A lower contribution of perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids was noted for the WWTPs more influenced by domestic emission when compared with more influenced by industrial emission. An overall declining trend in the total PFAS concentration was seen between the years 2004 and 2017. The present study observed a shift from the C8-based chemistry toward shorter chain lengths, included a declining trend for C8-FASA-based copolymer over the entire study period. These findings further demonstrate the occurrence of side-chain fluorinated copolymers in Sweden and that sludge is a useful matrix to reflect the usage of PFAS in society and the potential for environmental exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felicia Fredriksson
- Man-Technology-Environment (MTM) Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, SE-701 82, Sweden
| | - Ulrika Eriksson
- Man-Technology-Environment (MTM) Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, SE-701 82, Sweden
| | - Anna Kärrman
- Man-Technology-Environment (MTM) Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, SE-701 82, Sweden
| | - Leo W Y Yeung
- Man-Technology-Environment (MTM) Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, SE-701 82, Sweden.
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7
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Li C, Wang Y, Wang Y, Wang Z, Huang Q. Electrochemical oxidation combined with UV irradiation for synergistic removal of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in water. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 436:129091. [PMID: 35569375 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The effect of electrochemical degradation on Magnéli phase Ti4O7 anode combined with UV irradiation on the removal of PFOS was systematically evaluated in the present study. A synergistic effect of electrolysis and UV irradiation rather than a simple additive effect for PFOS degradation was demonstrated experimentally and theoretically. The short wavelength irradiation within 400 nm is the main contribution to enhance the electrochemical degradation of PFOS, while the initial pH of the solution has little effect on the PFOS degradation. The increase of current density accelerates the removal of PFOS either by electrolysis treatment or the joint process. The time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) calculation indicates that the synergistic effect of the electrolysis and UV irradiation is most likely due to the involvement of the excited PFOS induced under UV irradiation in the electrochemical reaction. This study provides the first mechanistic explanation for the electrochemical degradation of PFOS enhanced by UV irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenguang Li
- Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, PR China; College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, GA 30223, United States; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Jiangsu, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Yifei Wang
- College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, GA 30223, United States
| | - Yaye Wang
- College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, GA 30223, United States
| | - Zunyao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Jiangsu, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Qingguo Huang
- College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, GA 30223, United States.
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Gallen C, Bignert A, Taucare G, O'Brien J, Braeunig J, Reeks T, Thompson J, Mueller JF. Temporal trends of perfluoroalkyl substances in an Australian wastewater treatment plant: A ten-year retrospective investigation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 804:150211. [PMID: 34798742 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a problematic group of chemicals used in various industrial and household products. They have been extensively detected in wastewater as a result of day-to-day product usage. Due to concerns about their safety, voluntary and regulatory action to limit the manufacture and use of some individual PFAS has occurred since the year 2000. The impact that this intervention has had on the use and potential exposure of Australians has not been measured. Wastewater serves as a powerful tool to assess the chemical use or consumption patterns of a population over time. We accessed a ten-year wastewater archiving program to conduct a temporal analysis of PFAS trends in an urban Australian population between the years 2010 and 2020. Results showed a decline in the concentrations for most PFAS, and a change in the PFAS profile from perfluorosulfonic acids and long-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids, to the short-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids and PFOS-replacement degradation products such as 5:3 FTCA. Intermittent pulses of PFAS that were significantly higher than 'background' levels (i.e., representing the PFAS input from primarily households) were observed, suggesting continuing industrial PFAS input within the wastewater catchment. This study highlights the long-term consequences of the diffuse use of persistent chemicals in products, and their ability to continue to enter the wastewater stream for decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Gallen
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba 4102, Australia.
| | - A Bignert
- Department of Environmental Research and Monitoring, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Frescativägen 40, 114 18 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - G Taucare
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba 4102, Australia.
| | - J O'Brien
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba 4102, Australia.
| | - J Braeunig
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba 4102, Australia.
| | - T Reeks
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba 4102, Australia.
| | - J Thompson
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba 4102, Australia.
| | - J F Mueller
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba 4102, Australia.
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Jarvis AL, Justice JR, Elias MC, Schnitker B, Gallagher K. Perfluorooctane Sulfonate in US Ambient Surface Waters: A Review of Occurrence in Aquatic Environments and Comparison to Global Concentrations. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2021; 40:2425-2442. [PMID: 34187091 PMCID: PMC9327793 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) is one of the dominant perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) detected in aquatic ecosystems. It has been used in a wide range of industrial and consumer products for decades. The unique properties of PFOS, including its stability and resistance to degradation, have made it highly persistent in the aquatic environment. Because of its persistence, potential toxicity, and occurrence in aquatic ecosystems, interest in PFOS has increased in recent decades. Despite this interest, current information on the environmental distribution of PFOS in ambient surface waters of the United States is fairly limited. This critical review summarizes the currently available literature on PFOS occurrence in surface waters across the United States and highlights existing data gaps. Available data are largely from a handful of study areas with known PFAS manufacturing or industrial uses, with much of the data collected from freshwater systems in eastern states and the upper Midwest. Measured PFOS concentrations in surface waters vary widely, over 8 orders of magnitude, with the highest concentrations occurring downstream from manufacturing and industrial use plants, areas near aqueous film-forming foam-use sites, and sites where PFOS precursors were used in textile treatment. Non-point source-related occurrences are highest near urbanized areas with high population densities. Current data illustrate the occurrence of PFOS in surface waters across multiple US states. Additional data are needed to better understand PFOS occurrence in US aquatic ecosystems, particularly in estuarine and marine systems and where monitoring data are not available (e.g., southwestern, central, and western United States). Additional PFOS occurrence data would provide valuable information on potential spatial and temporal variability in surface waters and possible risks posed to aquatic ecosystems. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:2425-2442. Published 2021. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.
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10
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Point AD, Holsen TM, Fernando S, Hopke PK, Crimmins BS. Trends (2005-2016) of perfluoroalkyl acids in top predator fish of the Laurentian Great Lakes. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 778:146151. [PMID: 33711592 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This work presents the first assessment of temporal trends (2005-2016) for perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in top predator fish of the Laurentian Great Lakes except Lake Ontario, for which we provide a post-2008 update. Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) or walleye (Sander vitreus; Lake Erie only) collected annually from 2005 to 2016 were analyzed for 12 perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) and 4 perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSAs) with carbon chain lengths between 4 and 16 (C4-C16). Individual analyte concentrations generally decreased in fish basin-wide between 2005 and 2016, including Lake Ontario lake trout previously found to lack declining PFAA concentrations up until 2008. Declining fish PFAA burden reflects a positive response to the industrial phase-outs of these chemicals. Notable exceptions to this general decline included most analytes in lake trout collected from Lake Superior near Keweenaw Point and C6 and C8 PFSAs and C9 PFCAs in Lake Erie lake trout and walleye, which exhibited constant or increasing concentrations in recent years. Recent increases in Lake Superior shoreline development and mobilization from increased sediment resuspension and contamination from biosolids-amended agricultural soils in the Lake Erie watershed are plausible explanations for these cases. However, data scarcity prohibits confirmation of these suspected causes. The lingering lack of declining concentrations noted in this study together with the ongoing evolution of the fluorinated chemical industry emphasize the vigilance needed to better understand how past and future emissions will affect the Great Lakes and global ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam D Point
- Institute for a Sustainable Environment, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, United States of America
| | - Thomas M Holsen
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, United States of America; Center for Air and Aquatic Resources Engineering and Science, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, United States of America
| | - Sujan Fernando
- Center for Air and Aquatic Resources Engineering and Science, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, United States of America
| | - Philip K Hopke
- Institute for a Sustainable Environment, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, United States of America; Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, United States of America.
| | - Bernard S Crimmins
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, United States of America; AEACS, LLC, New Kensington, PA, United States of America
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11
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Tavasoli E, Luek JL, Malley JP, Mouser PJ. Distribution and fate of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in wastewater treatment facilities. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2021; 23:903-913. [PMID: 34028475 DOI: 10.1039/d1em00032b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Anthropogenic compounds known as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) represent a major class of contaminants of emerging concern composed of nearly 5000 chemicals. Many PFAS are persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic, and their widespread use makes their environmental distribution a growing concern. Wastewater treatment facilities (WWTFs) are a conduit of PFAS to the environment, integrating common household products from municipal sewage, industrial wastewater sources, septic materials, and firefighting wastewaters in effluent and sludge. This study investigated the distribution and fate of twenty-four PFAS within six New Hampshire municipal WWTFs applying a range of biological and disinfection unit processes. PFAS quantification was conducted using two approaches: (1) liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) of 24 known compounds and (2) a total oxidizable precursor assay (TOP assay) followed by LC-MS/MS to determine the total oxidizable PFAS concentration. Of the 24 PFAS analyzed, up to 7 and 12 constituents were detected in influent and effluent of WWTFs, respectively, with concentrations ranging from 30 to 128 ng L-1 in March. Effluent ΣPFAS concentration increased during July, with concentrations between 70 and 198 ng L-1 for the same detected constituents. Short-chain PFAS were dominant in both influent and effluent, while long-chain compounds dominated in WWTF sludge. The increase in terminal end-products after oxidation by the TOP assay indicates the presence of unquantified PFAS precursors in both influent and effluent. A significantly lower proportion of oxidizable PFAS precursors were detected in July influent and effluent relative to March, indicating a possible role of season or temperature on microbial transformation of these compounds prior to reaching WWTFs and during treatment. These results provide new insight into PFAS distribution and fate during two seasons in New England municipal WWTFs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Tavasoli
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA. and HDR, Inc., Manchester, NH 03101, USA
| | - Jenna L Luek
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA.
| | - James P Malley
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA.
| | - Paula J Mouser
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA.
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12
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Kim KY, Ndabambi M, Choi S, Oh JE. Legacy and novel perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in industrial wastewater and the receiving river water: Temporal changes in relative abundances of regulated compounds and alternatives. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 191:116830. [PMID: 33476798 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.116830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Concentrations of 28 novel and legacy perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in wastewater from 77 industrial plants in the largest industrial complex in Korea were determined. The industrial plants were of eight types (advanced electronic, battery, chemical, general electronic, glass and ceramic, metal, polymer, and textile). PFAS concentrations in river water receiving the wastewater were determined to assess the impact of wastewater from the industrial complex. Only 19 and nine target PFASs were detected in untreated industrial wastewater and river water, respectively. Novel PFASs such as F53B (6:2 chlorinated polyfluoroalkyl ether sulfonate) were not detected. The mean PFASs concentration in industrial wastewater treatment plant effluent was 5.18 µg/L. The mean total PFASs concentration was highest in advanced electronic plant effluent, second highest in general electronic plant effluent, and lowest in battery and chemical plant effluents. Perfluorohexane sulfonate was the dominant homolog, being detected in effluent from plants of all classes and contributing 96% of total discharged PFASs by mass. Perfluorooctane sulfonate (included in the Stockholm Convention) use has decreased markedly since previous studies. Perfluorooctane sulfonate has largely been replaced by PFASs with fewer than seven carbon atoms. A similar change was found for river water receiving industrial wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ki Yong Kim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University, Jangjeon-dong, Geumjeong-gu, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Mlamuli Ndabambi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University, Jangjeon-dong, Geumjeong-gu, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Sol Choi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University, Jangjeon-dong, Geumjeong-gu, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-Eun Oh
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University, Jangjeon-dong, Geumjeong-gu, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea.
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13
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Lu Y, Hua Z, Chu K, Gu L, Liu Y, Liu X. Distribution behavior and risk assessment of emerging perfluoroalkyl acids in multiple environmental media at Luoma Lake, East China. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 194:110733. [PMID: 33434608 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.110733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are ubiquitous in various environments. This has caused great public concern, particularly in the shallow freshwater lake region, where the lake, rivers, and estuaries form a highly interconnected continuum. However, little is known about the environmental behaviors of PFAAs in the continuum. For the first time, a high-resolution monitoring framework covering the river-estuary-lake continuum of Luoma Lake was built, and the concentrations, sources, and environmental fates of PFAAs were identified and analyzed. The results revealed that the total concentration of PFAAs was at a moderate level in the water and at a high level in the sediment compared to global levels respectively. Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) was the most abundant PFAA in the continuum. In particular, the ∑PFAA concentration in the particle phase was much higher than that in the sediment phase. Distinct spatial heterogeneities were observed in the behaviors of distribution and the multiphase fate of PFAAs in the continuum, mainly driven by the turbulent mixing during transport, dilution of lake water, and spatial differences of hydrodynamic features and sedimentary properties among the sub-regions. Interestingly, the pH of the sediment and water had significant effects on the water-sediment portioning of PFAAs in contrasting ways. Furthermore, based on the composition of the sediments, four possible migration paths for PFAAs were deduced and the main sources of PFAAs were identified as sewage, domestic, and industrial effluents using the positive matrix factorization model. During the human health assessment, no risk was found under the median exposure scenario; however, under the high exposure scenario, PFAAs posed uncertain risks to human health, which cannot be ignored. This study provides basic information for simulating the fate and transport of PFAAs in the continuum and is significant for developing cost-effective control and remediation strategies in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Lu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China
| | - Zulin Hua
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China; National Engineering Research of Water Resources Efficient Utilization and Engineering Safety, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China
| | - Kejian Chu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China; National Engineering Research of Water Resources Efficient Utilization and Engineering Safety, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China.
| | - Li Gu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China; National Engineering Research of Water Resources Efficient Utilization and Engineering Safety, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China
| | - Yuanyuan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China
| | - Xiaodong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China; National Engineering Research of Water Resources Efficient Utilization and Engineering Safety, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China
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14
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Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), Its Occurrence, Fate, Transport and Removal in Various Environmental Media: A Review. CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING AND WASTEWATER SOURCES 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-15-4599-3_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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15
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Semerád J, Hatasová N, Grasserová A, Černá T, Filipová A, Hanč A, Innemanová P, Pivokonský M, Cajthaml T. Screening for 32 per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) including GenX in sludges from 43 WWTPs located in the Czech Republic - Evaluation of potential accumulation in vegetables after application of biosolids. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 261:128018. [PMID: 33113642 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Highly persistent, toxic and bioaccumulative per - and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) represents a serious problem for the environment and their concentrations and fate remain largely unknown. The present study consists of a PFAS screening in sludges originating from 43 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the Czech Republic. To analyze an extended group of PFAS consisting of 32 PFAS, including GenX and other new replacements of older and restricted PFAS in sludge, a new method was optimized and validated using pressurized solvent extraction, followed by the SPE clean-up step to eliminate the observed matrix effects and LC-MS/MS. The results revealed high PFAS contamination of sewage sludge, reaching values from 5.6 to 963.2 ng g-1. The results showed that in the majority of the samples (about 60%), PFOS was the most abundant among the targeted PFAS, reaching 932.9 ng g-1. Approximately 20% of the analyzed samples contained more short-chain PFAS, suggesting the replacement of long-chain PFAS (especially restricted PFOA and PFOS). GenX was detected in 9 samples, confirming the trend in the use of new PFAS. The results revealed that significantly higher contamination was detected in the samples from large WWTPs (population equivalent > 50,000; p-value <0.05). Concerning the application of sludge in agriculture, our prediction using the respective PFAS bioconcentration factors, the observed concentrations, and the legislatively permitted management of biosolids in Czech Republic agriculture revealed that PFAS can cause serious contamination of cereals and vegetables (oat, celery shoots and lettuce leaves), as well as general secondary contamination of the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaroslav Semerád
- Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic; Institute for Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Benátská 2, CZ-128 01, Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Nicolette Hatasová
- Institute for Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Benátská 2, CZ-128 01, Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Alena Grasserová
- Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic; Institute for Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Benátská 2, CZ-128 01, Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Tereza Černá
- Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic; Institute for Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Benátská 2, CZ-128 01, Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Alena Filipová
- Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic
| | - Aleš Hanč
- Department of Agro-Environmental Chemistry and Plant Nutrition, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, CZ-165 00, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Petra Innemanová
- Institute for Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Benátská 2, CZ-128 01, Prague 2, Czech Republic; Dekonta a.s., Dřetovice 109, CZ-273 42 Stehelčeves, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Pivokonský
- Institute of Hydrodynamics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Pod Paťankou 30/5, CZ-166 12, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Cajthaml
- Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic; Institute for Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Benátská 2, CZ-128 01, Prague 2, Czech Republic.
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16
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Sinclair GM, Long SM, Jones OAH. What are the effects of PFAS exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations? CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 258:127340. [PMID: 32563917 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The group of synthetic chemicals known as poly and per-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are currently of high concern to environmental regulators and the public due to their widespread occurrence, resistance to degradation and reported toxicity. However, little data exists on the effects of exposure to PFAS at environmentally relevant concentrations and this hampers the effective management of these compounds. This paper reviews current research on the occurrence and ecotoxicology of PFAS at environmentally relevant doses to assess their potential biological impacts. Hazard Quotient (HQ) analysis was undertaken as part of this assessment. Most PFAS detected in the environment were found to have a HQ risk value of <1 meaning their reported concentrations are below their predicted no effect concentration. This indicates many reported toxic effects of PFAS are, theoretically, unlikely to occur outside the laboratory. However, lack of information on new PFAS as well as their precursors and degradation products, coupled with lack of knowledge of their mixture toxicity means our understanding of the risks of PFAS is incomplete, especially in regard to sub-lethal and/or chronic effects. It is proposed that the development of molecular markers for PFAS exposure are needed to aid in the development of environmental PFAS regulations that are effective in fully protecting the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia M Sinclair
- Aquatic Environmental Stress Research Group (AQUEST), School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, PO Box 71, Bundoora, Victoria, 3083, Australia; Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, PO Box 71, Bundoora, Victoria, 3083, Australia
| | - Sara M Long
- Aquatic Environmental Stress Research Group (AQUEST), School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, PO Box 71, Bundoora, Victoria, 3083, Australia
| | - Oliver A H Jones
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, PO Box 71, Bundoora, Victoria, 3083, Australia.
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17
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Hung MD, Jung HJ, Jeong HH, Lam NH, Cho HS. Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in special management sea areas of Korea: Distribution and bioconcentration in edible fish species. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2020; 156:111236. [PMID: 32510380 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Thirteen PFASs in water (n = 58), sediment (n = 58) and edible fish samples (n = 81) collected from three special management sea areas of Korea including Gwangyang bay, Masan bay and Busan harbor in July 2018 were investigated. The mean PFASs concentration in water (ng/L) were in order Masan (5.09) > Busan (2.82) > Gwangyang (1.74). PFASs levels were found as the low concentration in sediment. The greatest total PFASs concentration in each fish tissue was found as 3.04 (ng/g ww) in a Japanese amberjack fish for muscle in Busan, 66.23 (ng/mL) in Japanese amberjack fish for blood in Masan and 125.03 (ng/g ww) flathead grey mullet in Busan bay. The BCF (L/kg) of PFDoDA was found as the highest in muscle of all species with values from 30,922 (grey mullet in Gwangyang) to 69,131 (grey mullet in Busan). PFDS was the highest BCF's PFASs (110,599 L/kg) in muscle which was found in Japanese amberjack in Busan bay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mai Duc Hung
- College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, Chonnam National University, Yeosu 59626, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeon Ji Jung
- College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, Chonnam National University, Yeosu 59626, Republic of Korea
| | - Hui Ho Jeong
- College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, Chonnam National University, Yeosu 59626, Republic of Korea
| | - Nguyen Hoang Lam
- College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, Chonnam National University, Yeosu 59626, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeon Seo Cho
- College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, Chonnam National University, Yeosu 59626, Republic of Korea.
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18
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Kibambe MG, Momba MNB, Daso AP, Coetzee MAA. Evaluation of the efficiency of selected wastewater treatment processes in removing selected perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2020; 255:109945. [PMID: 32063313 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the efficiencies of selected wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to remove selected perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) during wastewater treatment processes were evaluated. For this purpose, influent samples from Daspoort, Zeekoegat and Phola WWTPs, were initially screened for the presence of sixteen different PFASs of which only seven were detected. These include: perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluoro-n-pentanoic acid (PFPeA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluorohexane sulfonate (L-PFHxS), and perfluorooctane sulfonate (L-PFOS). To determine the concentrations of these PFASs, wastewater samples were subjected to solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The results showed that L-PFOS was the dominant compound with the highest concentration of 508 ± 258 ng/L at Daspoort WWTP. Overall, the three WWTPs could not achieve the complete influent-to-effluent removal of the PFASs and the best removals were observed at Zeekoegat WWTP. The removal efficiency of the different unit processes varied from one plant to another and also from each type of PFASs. At Daspoort, the removal efficiency of the primary settling tanks was poor and the highest removal reached 39% for PFHxA. The activated sludge (AS) of this WWTP achieved the highest removal of 84% for the L-PFOS. At Zeekoegat, the AS achieved the highest removal of 94% for the L-PFOS. The anaerobic pond at Phola achieved a higher removal of 80% for the L-PFOS. However, no removal was observed downstream of the biological filter for the same compound. Poor removal efficiency was reported downstream of the wetland at Phola except for the PFOA (16%).
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Kibambe
- Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa.
| | - M N B Momba
- Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
| | - A P Daso
- Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
| | - M A A Coetzee
- Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa.
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19
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Janousek RM, Mayer J, Knepper TP. Is the phase-out of long-chain PFASs measurable as fingerprint in a defined area? Comparison of global PFAS concentrations and a monitoring study performed in Hesse, Germany from 2014 to 2018. Trends Analyt Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2019.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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20
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Cao Y, Lee C, Davis ETJ, Si W, Wang F, Trimpin S, Luo L. 1000-Fold Preconcentration of Per- and Polyfluorinated Alkyl Substances within 10 Minutes via Electrochemical Aerosol Formation. Anal Chem 2019; 91:14352-14358. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b02758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yue Cao
- Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong 255000, China
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Chuping Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Chiayi University, Chiayi 60004, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Eric T. J. Davis
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Weimeng Si
- Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong 255000, China
| | - Fagang Wang
- Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong 255000, China
| | - Sarah Trimpin
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Long Luo
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
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21
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Acuña V, Casellas M, Font C, Romero F, Sabater S. Nutrient attenuation dynamics in effluent dominated watercourses. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 160:330-338. [PMID: 31158615 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.05.093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In-stream attenuation of dissolved and particulate forms of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus are a crucial ecosystem service, especially in watercourses downstream of chemical pollution point-sources (i.e. wastewater treatment plants). Most chemical-fate models assume that attenuation is directly proportional to the concentration of available dissolved organic carbon, and inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus compounds in watercourses, but there are multiple evidences of saturation and even inhibition of attenuation at higher concentrations. Our current comprehension of nutrient attenuation kinetics in streams remains a limiting factor for the development and calibration of predictive models of the chemical fate of these compounds in rivers, thus hindering the development and implementation of more effective regulatory strategies. Here, we assessed the in-stream attenuation of dissolved organic carbon, inorganic nitrogen (NH4+, NO2-, NO3-) and phosphorus (PO43-) compounds at increasing concentrations of these compounds, and analyzed the interaction between attenuation kinetics and biofilm structure and function. Specifically, the net balances of these compounds were assessed in artificial streams exposed to eight treatments following the gradient of WWTP contribution to the river flow (0, 14, 29, 43, 58, 72, 86, and 100% of WWTP effluent water). Results indicate that biological in-stream attenuation by a given biofilm of an effluent dominated watercourse might be saturated if exposed for short periods to high nutrient concentrations such as during combined sewer overflow events, but that communities can adapt if exposed long enough to high concentrations, therefore avoiding or at least minimizing saturation. More attention should be therefore given to the management of effluent-dominated watercourses, as reductions in the temporal variability of the discharged wastewater by WWTP might enhance attenuation and thus reduce water quality issues downstream.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Acuña
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Carrer Emili Grahit 101, 17003, Girona, Spain.
| | - M Casellas
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Carrer Emili Grahit 101, 17003, Girona, Spain
| | - C Font
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Carrer Emili Grahit 101, 17003, Girona, Spain
| | - F Romero
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Carrer Emili Grahit 101, 17003, Girona, Spain
| | - S Sabater
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Carrer Emili Grahit 101, 17003, Girona, Spain; Institute of Aquatic Ecology, University of Girona, Campus Montilivi, 17071, Girona, Spain
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Allinson M, Yamashita N, Taniyasu S, Yamazaki E, Allinson G. Occurrence of perfluoroalkyl substances in selected Victorian rivers and estuaries: An historical snapshot. Heliyon 2019; 5:e02472. [PMID: 31687567 PMCID: PMC6819856 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2019] [Revised: 08/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
This reconnaissance study was undertaken in 2012 to examine the occurrence of common perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), including perfluoroalkyl sulphonic acids and perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids in rivers and estuaries in Port Philip Bay, Victoria, Australia. In total, 19 PFAS were screened in grab samples of water using a combination of solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry measurement techniques. Eighteen of the PFAS screened were observed in samples. The highest level of PFOS observed at a freshwater site was 0.045 μg/L; this concentration is approximately half the draft Australian 95% species protection level for total PFOS. The highest level of PFOA in the study (0.014 μg/L) was some four orders of magnitude lower than the draft Australian trigger value for PFOA (220 μg/L). However, none of the PFAS observed at the freshwater sites had research quotient (RQ) or toxicity unit (TU) values above 1 or -3, respectively. The highest concentration of PFOS observed at an estuarine site was 0.075 μg/L; the highest level of PFOA, 0.09 μg/L). There are no Australian marine water quality trigger values for PFAS, so potential risk was assessed using the European environment quality standards (EQS) adopted in EU Directive 2013/39/EU, RQ and TU methods. In that context, none of the PFAS observed at estuary sites had concentrations higher than the EU standards, or RQ above 1 or Log 10 TU above -3. Together these assessments suggest none of the PFAS screened would have posed an acute risk to organisms in the fresh or estuary waters studied at the time of sampling on an individual or collective basis. However, the detection of these PFAS in Victorian estuaries highlights that the issue is not just an issue for more densely populated countries in the northern hemisphere, but also potentially of concern in Australia. And, in that context, more sampling campaigns in Port Philip Bay are of paramount importance to assess the potential risk pose by these compounds to aquatic ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayumi Allinson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Nobuyoshi Yamashita
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 16-1 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8569, Japan
| | - Sachi Taniyasu
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 16-1 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8569, Japan
| | - Eriko Yamazaki
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 16-1 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8569, Japan
| | - Graeme Allinson
- School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, 3001, Australia
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23
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Ranaweera R, Ghafari C, Luo L. Bubble-Nucleation-Based Method for the Selective and Sensitive Electrochemical Detection of Surfactants. Anal Chem 2019; 91:7744-7748. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b01060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ruchiranga Ranaweera
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Carina Ghafari
- Chemistry Department, Kalamazoo College, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49006, United States
| | - Long Luo
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
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Ghisi R, Vamerali T, Manzetti S. Accumulation of perfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) in agricultural plants: A review. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 169:326-341. [PMID: 30502744 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2018.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 295] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Revised: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
PFASs are a class of compounds that include perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances, some of the most persistent pollutants still allowed - or only partially restricted - in several product fabrications and industrial applications worldwide. PFASs have been shown to interact with blood proteins and are suspected of causing a number of pathological responses, including cancer. Given this threat to living organisms, we carried out a broad review of possible sources of PFASs and their potential accumulation in agricultural plants, from where they can transfer to humans through the food chain. Analysis of the literature indicates a direct correlation between PFAS concentrations in soil and bioaccumulation in plants. Furthermore, plant uptake largely changes with chain length, functional group, plant species and organ. Low accumulations of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) have been found in peeled potatoes and cereal seeds, while short-chain compounds can accumulate at high levels in leafy vegetables and fruits. Significant variations in PFAS buildup in plants according to soil amendment are also found, suggesting a particular interaction with soil organic matter. Here, we identify a series of challenges that PFASs pose to the development of a safe agriculture for future generations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossella Ghisi
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and the Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padua, Viale dell'Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padua, Italy.
| | - Teofilo Vamerali
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and the Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padua, Viale dell'Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padua, Italy
| | - Sergio Manzetti
- Fjordforsk A/S, Institute for Science and Technology, Midtun 6894, Vangsnes, Norway; Uppsala Centre for Computational Sciences, Dept. of Cell & Molec. Biol., Uppsala University, Box 596, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden
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25
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Elmoznino J, Vlahos P, Whitney M. Occurrence and partitioning behavior of perfluoroalkyl acids in wastewater effluent discharging into the Long Island Sound. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2018; 243:453-461. [PMID: 30212799 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Revised: 07/17/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) were measured in aqueous and suspended particulate matter (SPM) fractions in the final effluents from 12 wastewater treatment facilities located around the Connecticut shoreline. Aqueous phase concentrations ranged from 53 to 198 ng/L for ∑PFAAs with ≤7 perfluorinated carbons (CF2) and 2-73 ng/L for >7 CF2 PFAAs. Predominant PFAAs associated with effluent derived SPM were perfluorodecanoic acid and perflurorooctane sulfonic acid, detected in 48% and 52% of samples in concentrations ranging from <LOQ-1770 ng/g and <LOQ-2750 ng/g respectively. Based on the range of concentrations detected and the average flow of final effluent to the Long Island Sound (LIS), average total annual PFAA mass loads from wastewater treatment facilities to the LIS is estimated in the range of 70-315 kg/year, with 4-100 kg/year consisting of >7 CF2 PFAAs. Partitioning coefficients (log KOC) derived for effluent water and SPM phases (4.2 ± 0.3, 4.4 ± 0.4, 5.1 ± 0.2 and 5.3 ± 0.2 for PFOA, PFNA PFDA and PFUnA; 4.5 ± 0.2 and 5.2 ± 0.2 for PFOS and PFHsX respectively) were found to be of similar magnitude to aeration tank particles, though 0.5 to 2 log units greater than sludge solids and to natural system particulates including riverine SPM, estuarine SPM and sediments. Results from this study suggest that effluent derived suspended particulate matter could be an effective vector in the transport of long-chained PFAAs through wastewater treatment into receiving waters, and a potential vector to the local food chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Elmoznino
- Environmental Science- PDM, Pfizer Global R&D, Groton, CT 06340, USA
| | - Penny Vlahos
- Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, 1080 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, USA.
| | - Michael Whitney
- Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, 1080 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, USA
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Glover CM, Quiñones O, Dickenson ERV. Removal of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in potable reuse systems. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 144:454-461. [PMID: 30071400 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a group of persistent contaminants that have been identified throughout the aquatic environment. In this study, ten targeted perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), three targeted PFAA precursors, and non-targeted PFAA precursors were monitored in four full- and pilot-scale potable reuse plants at each stage of advanced treatment. Non-targeted PFAA precursors were quantified by applying a total oxidizable precursor assay in which PFAA precursors are oxidized by hydroxyl radicals to targeted PFAAs. Two of the potable reuse systems had membrane-based treatments with reverse osmosis and UV-advanced oxidation (RO-UV/AOP) and two used ozone, biological activated carbon filtration and granular activated carbon adsorption (O3-BAC-GAC). The total targeted PFAAs in the four tertiary effluents, the influent sources for the potable reuse systems, ranged from 52 to 227 ng/L with non-targeted PFAA precursors accounting for 30-67% of total PFASs on a molar basis. The RO-UV/AOP treatment trains reduced PFAAs and PFAA precursors to below their method reporting limits through the barrier provided by RO. The O3-BAC-GAC based treatment trains reduced, but did not completely remove PFAAs or PFAA precursors and the PFASs present in the product water were primarily shorter-chain PFAAs, some of which lack human health guidance values for drinking water. The relative fraction of targeted shorter-chain PFAAs increased after each treatment step indicating that there was preferential removal of the PFAA precursors and longer-chain PFAAs. This study provides new insight on the concentrations and treatment of PFAA precursors through potable reuse treatment systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin M Glover
- Water Quality Research and Development Division, Southern Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas, NV, 89193-9954, USA.
| | - Oscar Quiñones
- Water Quality Research and Development Division, Southern Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas, NV, 89193-9954, USA
| | - Eric R V Dickenson
- Water Quality Research and Development Division, Southern Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas, NV, 89193-9954, USA.
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Cennamo N, D'Agostino G, Sequeira F, Mattiello F, Porto G, Biasiolo A, Nogueira R, Bilro L, Zeni L. A Simple and Low-Cost Optical Fiber Intensity-Based Configuration for Perfluorinated Compounds in Water Solution. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18093009. [PMID: 30205565 PMCID: PMC6165455 DOI: 10.3390/s18093009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
We present a very simple approach for the detection of the Perfluorinated Alkylated Substances (PFAs) in water solution. Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) are the most extensively investigated perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water because human exposition can occur through different pathways, even if the dietary intake seems to be their main route of exposure. The developed sensor is based on a specific Molecularly Imprinted Polymer (MIP) receptor deposited on a simple D-shaped Plastic Optical Fiber (POF) platform. This novel chemical sensor has been characterized using a very simple and low-cost experimental setup based on an LED and two photodetectors. This optical sensor system is an alternative method to monitor the presence of contaminants with an MIP receptor, instead of a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor in D-shaped POFs. For the sake of comparison, the results obtained exploiting the same MIP for PFAs on a classic SPR-POF sensor have been reported. The experimental results have shown that the actual limit of detection of this new configuration was about 0.5 ppb. It is similar to the one obtained by the configuration based on an SPR-POF with the same MIP receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nunzio Cennamo
- Department of Engineering, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81031 Aversa, Italy.
| | | | | | - Francesco Mattiello
- Department of Engineering, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81031 Aversa, Italy.
| | | | | | | | - Lúcia Bilro
- Instituto de Telecomunicações, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Luigi Zeni
- Department of Engineering, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81031 Aversa, Italy.
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Choi PM, Tscharke BJ, Donner E, O'Brien JW, Grant SC, Kaserzon SL, Mackie R, O'Malley E, Crosbie ND, Thomas KV, Mueller JF. Wastewater-based epidemiology biomarkers: Past, present and future. Trends Analyt Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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A Molecularly Imprinted Polymer on a Plasmonic Plastic Optical Fiber to Detect Perfluorinated Compounds in Water. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18061836. [PMID: 29874860 PMCID: PMC6021968 DOI: 10.3390/s18061836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A novel Molecularly Imprinted Polymer (MIP) able to bind perfluorinated compounds, combined with a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) optical fiber platform, is presented. The new MIP receptor has been deposited on a D-shaped plastic optical fiber (POF) covered with a photoresist buffer layer and a thin gold film. The experimental results have shown that the developed SPR-POF-MIP sensor makes it possible to selectively detect the above compounds. In this work, we present the results obtained with perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) compound, and they hold true when obtained with a perfluorinated alkylated substances (PFAs) mixture sample. The sensor’s response is the same for PFOA, perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) or PFA contaminants in the C4–C11 range. We have also tested a sensor based on a non-imprinted polymer (NIP) on the same SPR in a D-shaped POF platform. The limit of detection (LOD) of the developed chemical sensor was 0.13 ppb. It is similar to the one obtained by the configuration based on a specific antibody for PFOA/PFOS exploiting the same SPR-POF platform, already reported in literature. The advantage of an MIP receptor is that it presents a better stability out of the native environment, very good reproducibility, low cost and, furthermore, it can be directly deposited on the gold layer, without modifying the metal surface by functionalizing procedures.
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Guo H, Liu Y, Ma W, Yan L, Li K, Lin S. Surface molecular imprinting on carbon microspheres for fast and selective adsorption of perfluorooctane sulfonate. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2018; 348:29-38. [PMID: 29367130 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Revised: 01/02/2018] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) is a persistent organic pollutant with high biological and chemical stability. It is important to develop fast and selective adsorption method for PFOS wastewater treatment. In this study, novel molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) for PFOS adsorption was prepared. To obtain rapid adsorption kinetics, the MIP has been designed as the surface polymer using the carbon microsphere as carrier (MIP-CMSs). To ensure high adsorption selectivity to the template, two monomers with different functional structures, namely methacryloyloxyethyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (DMC) and 2-(trifluoromethyl)acrylic acid (TFMA), were employed as bi-functional monomers. The structure and morphology of MIP-CMSs were characterized using field emission scanning electron microscopy with the energy dispersive spectrometer, transmission electron microscopy, and Fourier transformation infrared spectroscopy. Based on the adsorption experiments, it was concluded that MIP-CMSs had specific binding property for PFOS on acidic condition. The adsorption equilibrium time was 1h, while the adsorption capacity was 75.99 mg g-1 at pH 3. Coexistence with contaminants with different structures had little influence on the selectivity for PFOS. The spent MIP-CMSs could be regenerated by the methanol and acetic acid mixed solution. The electrostatic interaction and molecular size played important roles in recognizing the target compound in the adsorption process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiqin Guo
- Key Laboratory of Jiangxi Province for Persistent Pollutants Control and Resources Recycle, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, China
| | - Yu Liu
- Key Laboratory of Jiangxi Province for Persistent Pollutants Control and Resources Recycle, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, China
| | - Wentian Ma
- Key Laboratory of Jiangxi Province for Persistent Pollutants Control and Resources Recycle, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, China
| | - Liushui Yan
- Key Laboratory of Jiangxi Province for Persistent Pollutants Control and Resources Recycle, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, China.
| | - Kexin Li
- Key Laboratory of Jiangxi Province for Persistent Pollutants Control and Resources Recycle, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, China.
| | - Sen Lin
- Key Laboratory of Jiangxi Province for Persistent Pollutants Control and Resources Recycle, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, China
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Dong W, Liu B, Song Y, Zhang H, Li J, Cui X. Occurrence and Partition of Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCs) in Water and Sediment from the Songhua River, China. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2018; 74:492-501. [PMID: 29150771 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-017-0474-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
This study provided the first evidence that perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) were widely detected in the Songhua River, China. Seventeen surface water and sediment samples were collected and analyzed for the determination of 14 PFCs. The total concentrations of PFCs (Σ PFCs) ranged from 0.143 to 1.41 ng L-1 in water samples. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was detected with the highest detection frequency (%) ranging from below LOQ to 0.678 ng L-1. Σ PFCs were relatively low in sediments, and only four individual homologues were detected. Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and PFOA were detected with the lowest levels in this study compared with other PFCs detected in all the rivers of China in previous studies. The concentrations of PFCs were highly influenced by distribution of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The effluents from WWTPs, which are discharged into the Songhua River, are regarded as the main contamination sources of PFCs in this study. Even though low risk for the concentrations of PFOS and PFOA to aquatic ecosystem of the Songhua River was found in the analysis of potential adverse effect, further experimental studies on occurrence of PFCs and their potential adverse effects to wildlife and humans should be conducted continuously in the Songhua River basin because of the increasing discharge. The mean partition coefficients (log K oc) of PFOS between sediment and water was 4.49 cm3 g-1, which was probably influenced by the sediment characteristics and hydrodynamic parameters. PFCs tend to accumulate in water compared with other persistent organic pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weihua Dong
- College of Urban and Environmental Science, Changchun Normal University, Changchun, 130032, China
| | - Baolin Liu
- College of Chemistry, Changchun Normal University, Changchun, 130032, China.
| | - Yang Song
- College of Urban and Environmental Science, Changchun Normal University, Changchun, 130032, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- College of Physical Science and Technology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Juying Li
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Xiaoyu Cui
- College of Physical Science and Technology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
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A High Sensitivity Biosensor to detect the presence of perfluorinated compounds in environment. Talanta 2018; 178:955-961. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2017.10.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2017] [Revised: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Herrick RL, Buckholz J, Biro FM, Calafat AM, Ye X, Xie C, Pinney SM. Polyfluoroalkyl substance exposure in the Mid-Ohio River Valley, 1991-2012. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2017; 228:50-60. [PMID: 28505513 PMCID: PMC5540235 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.04.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Revised: 04/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/29/2017] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Industrial discharges of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) to the Ohio River, contaminating water systems near Parkersburg, WV, were previously associated with nearby residents' serum PFOA concentrations above US general population medians. Ohio River PFOA concentrations downstream are elevated, suggesting Mid-Ohio River Valley residents are exposed through drinking water. OBJECTIVES Quantify PFOA and 10 other per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in Mid-Ohio River Valley resident sera collected between 1991 and 2013 and determine whether the Ohio River and Ohio River Aquifer are exposure sources. METHODS We measured eleven PFAS in 1608 sera from 931 participants. Serum PFOA concentration and water source associations were assessed using linear mixed-effects models. We estimated between-sample serum PFOA using one-compartment pharmacokinetics for participants with multiple samples. RESULTS In serum samples collected as early as 1991, PFOA (median = 7.6 ng/mL) was detected in 99.9% of sera; 47% had concentrations greater than US population 95th percentiles. Five other PFAS were detected in greater than 82% of samples; median other PFAS concentrations were similar to the US general population. Serum PFOA was significantly associated with water source, sampling year, age at sampling, tap water consumption, pregnancy, gravidity and breastfeeding. Serum PFOA was 40-60% lower with granular activated carbon (GAC) use. Repeated measurements and pharmacokinetics suggest serum PFOA peaked 2000-2006 for participants using water without GAC treatment; where GAC was used, serum PFOA concentrations decreased from 1991 to 2012. CONCLUSIONS Mid-Ohio River Valley residents appear to have PFOA, but not other PFAS, serum concentrations above US population levels. Drinking water from the Ohio River and Ohio River Aquifer, primarily contaminated by industrial discharges 209-666 km upstream, is likely the primary exposure source. GAC treatment of drinking water mitigates, but does not eliminate, PFOA exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert L Herrick
- University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Department of Environmental Health, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Jeanette Buckholz
- University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Department of Environmental Health, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Frank M Biro
- Division of Adolescent Medicine, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Antonia M Calafat
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Xiaoyun Ye
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Changchun Xie
- University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Department of Environmental Health, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Susan M Pinney
- University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Department of Environmental Health, Cincinnati, OH, United States.
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Boiteux V, Dauchy X, Bach C, Colin A, Hemard J, Sagres V, Rosin C, Munoz JF. Concentrations and patterns of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in a river and three drinking water treatment plants near and far from a major production source. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 583:393-400. [PMID: 28117151 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Revised: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are emerging contaminants that have been detected in the environment, biota and humans. Drinking water is a route of exposure for populations using water contaminated by PFAS discharges. This research entailed measuring concentrations, mass flows and investigating the fate of dozens PFASs in a river receiving effluents from a fluorochemical manufacturing facility. To measure the total concentration of perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid (PFCA) precursors, an oxidative conversion method was used. Several dozen samples were collected in the river (water and sediment), in drinking water resources and at different treatment steps on four sampling dates. One PFCA and three fluorotelomers (FTs) were detected up to 62km downstream from the manufacturing facility. 6:2 Fluorotelomer sulfonamide alkylbetaine (6:2 FTAB) was the predominant PFAS with a mass flow of 3830g/day 5.2km downstream from the facility. At all sampling points, PFAS concentrations in sediment were quite low (<6ng/g dw). Five of the 11 investigated wells showed detectable concentrations of PFASs. Interestingly, their profile patterns were different from those observed in the river, suggesting a transformation of PFCA precursors in the sediments of alluvial groundwater. Conventional drinking water treatments (aeration, sand or granular activated carbon filtration, ozonation or chlorination) did not efficiently remove PFASs. Furthermore, an increase in concentration of certain PFASs was observed after ozonation, suggesting that some FTs such as 6:2 FTAB can break down. Only nanofiltration was able to remove all the analyzed PFASs. In the treated water, total PFAS concentrations never exceeded 60ng/L. The oxidative conversion method revealed the presence of unidentified PFCA precursors in the river. Therefore, 18 to 77% of the total PFCA content after oxidation consisted of unidentified chemical species. In the treated water, these percentages ranged from 0 to 29%, relatively and reassuringly low values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginie Boiteux
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Hydrology, Water Chemistry Department, 40 rue Lionnois, 54000 Nancy, France
| | - Xavier Dauchy
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Hydrology, Water Chemistry Department, 40 rue Lionnois, 54000 Nancy, France.
| | - Cristina Bach
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Hydrology, Water Chemistry Department, 40 rue Lionnois, 54000 Nancy, France
| | - Adeline Colin
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Hydrology, Water Chemistry Department, 40 rue Lionnois, 54000 Nancy, France
| | - Jessica Hemard
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Hydrology, Water Chemistry Department, 40 rue Lionnois, 54000 Nancy, France
| | - Véronique Sagres
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Hydrology, Water Chemistry Department, 40 rue Lionnois, 54000 Nancy, France
| | - Christophe Rosin
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Hydrology, Water Chemistry Department, 40 rue Lionnois, 54000 Nancy, France
| | - Jean-François Munoz
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Hydrology, Water Chemistry Department, 40 rue Lionnois, 54000 Nancy, France
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Lee H, Mabury SA. Sorption of Perfluoroalkyl Phosphonates and Perfluoroalkyl Phosphinates in Soils. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:3197-3205. [PMID: 28222593 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl phosphonates (PFPAs) and perfluoroalkyl phosphinates (PFPiAs) are recently discovered perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) that have been widely detected in house dust, aquatic biota, surface water, and wastewater environments. The sorption of C6, C8, and C10 monoalkylated PFPAs and C6/C6, C6/C8, and C8/C8 dialkylated PFPiAs was investigated in seven soils of varying geochemical parameters. Mean distribution coefficients, log Kd*, ranged from 0.2 to 2.1 for the PFPAs and PFPiAs and were generally observed to increase with perfluoroalkyl chain length. The log Kd* of PFPiAs calculated here (1.6-2.1) were similar to those previously measured for the longer-chain perfluorodecanesulfonate (1.9, PFDS) and perfluoroundecanoate (1.7, PFUnA) in sediments, but overall when compared as a class, were greater than those for the perfluoroalkanesulfonates (-0.8-1.9, PFSAs), perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (-0.4-1.7, PFCAs), and PFPAs (0.2-1.5). No single soil-specific parameter, such as pH and organic carbon content, was observed to control the sorption of PFPAs and PFPiAs, the lack of which may be attributed to competing interferences in the naturally heterogeneous soils. The PFPAs were observed to desorb to a greater extent and likely circulate as aqueous contaminants in the environment, while the more sorptive PFPiAs would be preferentially retained by environmental solid phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly Lee
- Sciex , 71 Four Valley Drive, Concord, Ontario, Canada , L4K 4 V8
| | - Scott A Mabury
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario Canada , M5S 3H6
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Lam NH, Cho CR, Kannan K, Cho HS. A nationwide survey of perfluorinated alkyl substances in waters, sediment and biota collected from aquatic environment in Vietnam: Distributions and bioconcentration profiles. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2017; 323:116-127. [PMID: 27106518 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2015] [Revised: 04/02/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Water, sediment, various tissues of fish, crustacean, gastropod and bivalve were collected from major river basins in Vietnam and analyzed for the presence of perfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs). Furthermore, the occurrence of PFASs in coastal, tap and well waters collected from eight different regions in Vietnam was investigated. PFOA and PFOS were consistently detected as the dominant PFASs in surface waters. The greatest concentrations of PFOA (53.5ngL-1) and PFOS (40.2ngL-1) were found in a surface water sample collected from a channel that receives wastewater treatment plant discharges. PFOS and PFHxS were found as the predominant PFASs in sediments. The greatest PFAS concentration in biota was 16.9ng PFUnDA g-1 wet weight found in a fish liver. Some long-chain PFCAs including PFNA, PFUnDA and PFTrDA as well as PFHxS were more abundant than short-chain PFASs in biota tissues. The measured concentrations of PFOS and PFOA in surface and tap waters were below the provisional health advisory. The rank order of mean bioconcentration factor of PFOS in biota was; crustacean (115L/kg), gastropod (1117L/kg), fish (1120L/kg) and bivalve (2110L/kg). This study provides baseline information for a better understanding of PFASs contamination in Vietnam.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyen Hoang Lam
- College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, Chonnam National University, Yeosu 550-749, Republic of Korea
| | - Chon-Rae Cho
- College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, Chonnam National University, Yeosu 550-749, Republic of Korea
| | - Kurunthachalam Kannan
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health and Department of Environmental Toxicology and Health, State University of New York, Empire State Plaza, PO Box 59, Albany, NY 12202-0509, USA
| | - Hyeon-Seo Cho
- College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, Chonnam National University, Yeosu 550-749, Republic of Korea.
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Chen H, Wang X, Zhang C, Sun R, Han J, Han G, Yang W, He X. Occurrence and inputs of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) from rivers and drain outlets to the Bohai Sea, China. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2017; 221:234-243. [PMID: 28012671 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.11.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Revised: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/25/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Concentrations of 19 PFASs in riverwater, coastal wastewater and effluents from WWTPs which were directly discharged into the Bohai Sea of China were measured and their inputs to this sea area were calculated accordingly. For riverwater samples, the total PFAS concentrations ranged from 13.1 to 69 238 ng/L. PFAS levels in riverwater collected from Liaoning Province were comparable to those from Shandong Province, while they were two orders of magnitude greater than those from Hebei Province and the city of Tianjin. The dominant PFAS patterns were spatially different. PFBS and PFOA were the predominant PFASs in riverwater samples at sites where fluorochemical industry parks are located in Liaoning Province and Shandong Province, respectively. For other sites, PFOA and PFOS were the most abundant PFASs. In contrast, the total PFAS concentrations in coastal wastewater and effluent samples ranged from 16.7 to 7 522 ng/L and from 13.1 to 319 ng/L, respectively. PFOA was dominant in these samples. Inputs of PFASs to the Bohai Sea via riverine flow, discharge of coastal wastewater and effluents were estimated to be 87.3 tons per year. As compared with coastal wastewater and effluent discharge, riverine input was a major source for the PFAS pollution in the Bohai Sea except for PFBS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Ecology and Environment of State Oceanic Administration, Department of Marine Chemistry, National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Linghe Street 42, Dalian 116023, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental and Biological Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China.
| | - Xiaomeng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Ecology and Environment of State Oceanic Administration, Department of Marine Chemistry, National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Linghe Street 42, Dalian 116023, China.
| | - Can Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Ecology and Environment of State Oceanic Administration, Department of Marine Chemistry, National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Linghe Street 42, Dalian 116023, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental and Biological Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China.
| | - Ruijun Sun
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Ecology and Environment of State Oceanic Administration, Department of Marine Chemistry, National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Linghe Street 42, Dalian 116023, China.
| | - Jianbo Han
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Ecology and Environment of State Oceanic Administration, Department of Marine Chemistry, National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Linghe Street 42, Dalian 116023, China.
| | - Gengchen Han
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Ecology and Environment of State Oceanic Administration, Department of Marine Chemistry, National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Linghe Street 42, Dalian 116023, China.
| | - Wenchao Yang
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Ecology and Environment of State Oceanic Administration, Department of Marine Chemistry, National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Linghe Street 42, Dalian 116023, China.
| | - Xin He
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental and Biological Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China.
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Zhu X, Jin L, Yang J, Wu J, Zhang B, Zhang X, Yu N, Wei S, Wu J, Yu H. Perfluoroalkyl acids in the water cycle from a freshwater river basin to coastal waters in eastern China. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 168:390-398. [PMID: 27810539 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.10.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 10/22/2016] [Accepted: 10/22/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The distribution of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), one class of persistent organic pollutants, in groundwater, especially in confined aquifers remains poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the occurrence of 12 PFAAs through a water cycle from the Huai River Basin to the Yellow Sea, including confined aquifers, unconfined aquifers, rivers, and coastal waters. We found the ubiquity of PFAAs in all types of samples, including those from confined aquifers (2.7-6.8 ng/L). Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were the major PFAAs in all samples, accounting for an average of 49.1% (0.8-84.8%) and 33.3% (6.3-92.2%) of total PFAAs, respectively. Comparing the concentration of PFOA with that of PFOS, we found a higher concentration of PFOA in rivers and a higher concentration of PFOS in confined aquifers. Short-chain perfluoropentanoic acid accounted for an average of 10.3% (1.9-24.6%) of total PFAAs in rivers and coastal waters. Branched isomers of both PFOA and PFOS were detected in most samples (36/42 and 39/42, respectively). One-way analysis of variance indicated a significant difference in the profiles of PFAAs among the different types of water samples. Principal component analysis suggested that rainwater and recent uses of PFAAs could be the major sources of PFAAs in confined aquifers, while recent and current uses of PFAAs could be the major source of PFAAs in unconfined aquifers, rivers and coastal waters. The risk quotients of PFOA and PFOS in groundwater and rivers were 2-3 orders of magnitude lower than unity, indicating no immediate risks via drinking water consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaobin Zhu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Surficial Geochemistry, Department of Hydrosciences, School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Ling Jin
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Jingping Yang
- Laboratory of Immunology and Reproductive Biology, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianfeng Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Surficial Geochemistry, Department of Hydrosciences, School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Beibei Zhang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Monitoring and Analysis for Organic Pollutants in Surface Water, Jiangsu Provincial Environmental Monitoring Center, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaowei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Nanyang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China.
| | - Si Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jichun Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Surficial Geochemistry, Department of Hydrosciences, School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongxia Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
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Pan CG, Liu YS, Ying GG. Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in wastewater treatment plants and drinking water treatment plants: Removal efficiency and exposure risk. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 106:562-570. [PMID: 27776305 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.10.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Revised: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a group of chemicals with wide industrial and commercial applications, and have been received great attentions due to their persistence in the environment. The information about their presence in urban water cycle is still limited. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence and removal efficiency of eighteen PFASs in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and drinking water plants (DWTPs) with different treatment processes. The results showed that both perfluorobutane sulfonic acid (PFBS) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) were the predominant compounds in the water phase of WWTPs and DWTPs, while PFOS was dominant in dewatered sludge of WWTPs. The average total PFASs concentrations in the three selected WWTPs were 19.6-232 ng/L in influents, 15.5-234 ng/L in effluents, and 31.5-49.1 ng/g dry weight in sludge. The distribution pattern of PFASs differed between the wastewater and sludge samples, indicating strong partition of PFASs with long carbon chains to sludge. In the WWTPs, most PFASs were not eliminated efficiently in conventional activated sludge treatment, while the membrane bio-reactor (MBR) and Unitank removed approximately 50% of long chain (C ≥ 8) perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs). The daily mass loads of total PFASs in WWTPs were in the range of 1956-24773 mg in influent and 1548-25085 mg in effluent. PFASs were found at higher concentrations in the wastewater from plant A with some industrial wastewater input than from the other two plants (plant B and plant C) with mainly domestic wastewater sources. Meanwhile, the average total PFASs concentrations in the two selected DWTPs were detected at 4.74-14.3 ng/L in the influent and 3.34-13.9 ng/L in the effluent. In DWTPs, only granular activated carbon (GAC) and powder activated carbon (PAC) showed significant removal of PFASs. The PFASs detected in the tap water would not pose immediate health risks in the short term exposure. The findings from this study showed that effective treatment technology should be applied to eliminate this group of chemicals in the urban water cycle based on the precautionary principle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Gui Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, CAS Research Centre for Pearl River Delta Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - You-Sheng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, CAS Research Centre for Pearl River Delta Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Guang-Guo Ying
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, CAS Research Centre for Pearl River Delta Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China.
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40
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Lindim C, van Gils J, Cousins IT. Europe-wide estuarine export and surface water concentrations of PFOS and PFOA. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 103:124-132. [PMID: 27448037 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Revised: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The STREAM-EU model was used to predict the water concentrations, estuarine export and retention of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in the eleven most populated European river catchments to provide a European-wide perspective on the contamination by these substances. Emissions of PFOS and PFOA to those catchments were calculated based on population, wealth and wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) coverage and efficiency using a previously published method and used as model input. Our estimated emissions showed the lowest values for the Thames catchment (PFOS: 0.4 ton/y; PFOA: 0.2 ton/y) and the highest values for the Rhine for PFOS (1.6 ton/y) and for the Dnieper for PFOA (1.7 ton/y). The model predicted concentrations agreed reasonable well with the existing range of measurements, apart from for PFOA in the River Po, where there is a known historical industrial contamination, and PFOS in the Rhone River, where results were much higher than the few measurements available. It was concerning that the model predicted that the surface water EQS for PFOS (0.65 ng/L) was exceeded by a wide margin in all the eleven studied European river catchments. The total calculated riverine export to the seas from the eleven catchments was 4.5 ton/y of PFOS and 3.7 ton/y of PFOA with highest exported quantities from the Rhine (PFOS: 1.0 ton/y; PFOA: 1.0 ton/y) and Danube estuaries (PFOS: 0.9 ton/y; PFOA: 0.7 ton/y). For the seas where the rivers discharge, riverine discharge of PFOS was estimated to be 2.5-30 times more important as an input than atmospheric deposition, whereas for PFOA the opposite was true (atmospheric deposition was 2-10 times more important) except for very small seas.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Lindim
- ACES - Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - J van Gils
- Deltares, PO Box 177, 2600 MH Delft, The Netherlands
| | - I T Cousins
- ACES - Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
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41
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Ulrich H, Freier KP, Gierig M. Getting on with persistent pollutants: Decreasing trends of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in sewage sludge. CHEMOSPHERE 2016; 161:527-535. [PMID: 27472434 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.07.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Revised: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Sewage sludge can be a relevant source of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) for the environment. In order to reduce emissions from this source, Bavarian authorities enforced in 2008 an analysis of PFAAs from sewage sludge derived from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). 4981 sludge samples from 1165 different WWTPs were analyzed between 2008 and 2013 for 11 PFAAs compounds. During this period, 71 WWTPs exceeded the precautionary limit of 125 μg kg(-1) dm of total PFAAs in sludge samples at least once with a decreasing tendency. The yearly exceedances of the investigated WWTPs decreased from 6% in 2008 to 0.8% in 2013. At the same time, the percentage of uncontaminated WWTPs increased from 33% to 65%. Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) was the predominant compound found in 41% of all sludge samples. Perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) was detected in 19% and Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in 7%. Very high PFAAs concentrations (>500 μg kg(-1) dm) in sewage sludge were generally caused by firefighting foams containing PFAAs or emissions from PFAAs-using industries including metal plating, textile, leather or paper industries. Trend analyses of the six year period show that PFAAs contamination in sewage sludge clearly decreased for 47% of the WWTPs. However, for 16% of the WWTPs an increasing trend was detected, even though the concentration levels were below the precautionary limit. During the six years of investigation the load of total PFAAs in sewage sludge was reduced by more than 90%, from 17 t a(-1) in 2008 to 1.5 t a(-1) in 2013.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Ulrich
- Bavarian Environment Agency, Demollstraße 31, D-82407 Wielenbach, Germany
| | - Korbinian P Freier
- Bavarian Environment Agency, Bürgermeister-Ulrich-Straße 160, D-86179 Augsburg, Germany; Research Unit Sustainability and Global Change, Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability (CEN), University of Hamburg, Grindelberg 5, D- 20144 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Michael Gierig
- Bavarian Environment Agency, Demollstraße 31, D-82407 Wielenbach, Germany; Bavarian Environment Agency, Bürgermeister-Ulrich-Straße 160, D-86179 Augsburg, Germany
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42
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Houtz EF, Sutton R, Park JS, Sedlak M. Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in wastewater: Significance of unknown precursors, manufacturing shifts, and likely AFFF impacts. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 95:142-9. [PMID: 26990839 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.02.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Revised: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2016] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
In late 2014, wastewater effluent samples were collected from eight treatment plants that discharge to San Francisco (SF) Bay in order to assess poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) currently released from municipal and industrial sources. In addition to direct measurement of twenty specific PFAS analytes, the total concentration of perfluoroalkyl acid (PFAA) precursors was also indirectly measured by adapting a previously developed oxidation assay. Effluent from six municipal treatment plants contained similar amounts of total PFASs, with highest median concentrations of PFHxA (24 ng/L), followed by PFOA (23 ng/L), PFBA (19 ng/L), and PFOS (15 ng/L). Compared to SF Bay municipal wastewater samples collected in 2009, the short chain perfluorinated carboxylates PFBA and PFHxA rose significantly in concentration. Effluent samples from two treatment plants contained much higher levels of PFASs: over two samplings, wastewater from one municipal plant contained an average of 420 ng/L PFOS and wastewater from an airport industrial treatment plant contained 560 ng/L PFOS, 390 ng/L 6:2 FtS, 570 ng/L PFPeA, and 500 ng/L PFHxA. The elevated levels observed in effluent samples from these two plants are likely related to aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) sources impacting their influent; PFASs attributable to both current use and discontinued AFFF formulations were observed. Indirectly measured PFAA precursor compounds accounted for 33%-63% of the total molar concentration of PFASs across all effluent samples and the PFAA precursors indicated by the oxidation assay were predominately short-chained. PFAS levels in SF Bay effluent samples reflect the manufacturing shifts towards shorter chained PFASs while also demonstrating significant impacts from localized usage of AFFF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika F Houtz
- Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, California Department of Toxic Substances Control, Berkeley, CA 94710, USA; Sequoia Foundation, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
| | - Rebecca Sutton
- San Francisco Estuary Institute, Richmond, CA 94804, USA
| | - June-Soo Park
- Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, California Department of Toxic Substances Control, Berkeley, CA 94710, USA
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Müller CE, LeFevre GH, Timofte AE, Hussain FA, Sattely ES, Luthy RG. Competing mechanisms for perfluoroalkyl acid accumulation in plants revealed using an Arabidopsis model system. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2016; 35:1138-1147. [PMID: 26383989 DOI: 10.1002/etc.3251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Revised: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) bioaccumulate in plants, presenting a human exposure route if present in irrigation water. Curiously, accumulation of PFAAs in plant tissues is greatest for both the short-chain and long-chain PFAAs, generating a U-shaped relationship with chain length. In the present study, the authors decouple competing mechanisms of PFAA accumulation using a hydroponic model plant system (Arabidopsis thaliana) exposed to a suite of 10 PFAAs to determine uptake, depuration, and translocation kinetics. Rapid saturation of root concentrations occurred for all PFAAs except perfluorobutanoate, the least-sorptive (shortest-chain) PFAA. Shoot concentrations increased continuously, indicating that PFAAs are efficiently transported and accumulate in shoots. Tissue concentrations of PFAAs during depuration rapidly declined in roots but remained constant in shoots, demonstrating irreversibility of the translocation process. Root and shoot concentration factors followed the U-shaped trend with perfluoroalkyl chain length; however, when normalized to dead-tissue sorption, this relationship linearized. The authors therefore introduce a novel term, the "sorption normalized concentration factor," to describe PFAA accumulation in plants; because of their hydrophobicity, sorption is the determining factor for long-chain PFAAs, whereas the shortest-chain PFAAs are most effectively transported in the plant. The present study provides a mechanistic explanation for previously unexplained PFAA accumulation trends in plants and suggests that shorter-chained PFAAs may bioaccumulate more readily in edible portions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia E Müller
- Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure Engineering Research Center (ReNUWIt), Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Gregory H LeFevre
- Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure Engineering Research Center (ReNUWIt), Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Anca E Timofte
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Fatima A Hussain
- Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure Engineering Research Center (ReNUWIt), Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Elizabeth S Sattely
- Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure Engineering Research Center (ReNUWIt), Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Richard G Luthy
- Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure Engineering Research Center (ReNUWIt), Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
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Sakurai T, Serizawa S, Kobayashi J, Kodama K, Lee JH, Maki H, Zushi Y, Sevilla-Nastor JB, Imaizumi Y, Suzuki N, Horiguchi T, Shiraishi H. Temporal trends for inflow of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) to Tokyo Bay, Japan, estimated by a receptor-oriented approach. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 539:277-285. [PMID: 26363401 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Revised: 08/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/29/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
We estimated inflow rates of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) to Tokyo Bay, Japan, between February 2004 and February 2011 by a receptor-oriented approach based on quarterly samplings of the bay water. Temporal trends in these inflow rates are an important basis for evaluating changes in PFOS and PFOA emissions in the Tokyo Bay catchment basin. A mixing model estimated the average concentrations of these compounds in the freshwater inflow to the bay, which were then multiplied by estimated freshwater inflow rates to obtain the inflow rates of these compounds. The receptor-oriented approach enabled us to comprehensively cover inflow to the bay, including inflow via direct discharge to the bay. On a logarithmic basis, the rate of inflow for PFOS decreased gradually, particularly after 2006, whereas that for PFOA exhibited a marked stepwise decrease from 2006 to 2007. The rate of inflow for PFOS decreased from 730kg/y during 2004-2006 to 160kg/y in 2010, whereas that for PFOA decreased from 2000kg/y during 2004-2006 to 290kg/y in 2010. These reductions probably reflected reductions in the use and emission of these compounds and their precursors in the Tokyo Bay catchment basin. Our estimated per-person inflow rates (i.e., inflow rates divided by the estimated population in the basin) for PFOS were generally comparable to previously reported per-person waterborne emission rates in Japan and other countries, whereas those for PFOA were generally higher than previously reported per-person waterborne emission rates. A comparison with previous estimates of household emission rates of these compounds suggested that our inflow estimates included a considerable contribution from point industrial sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeo Sakurai
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan.
| | - Shigeko Serizawa
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
| | - Jun Kobayashi
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan; Faculty of Environmental & Symbiotic Sciences, Prefectural University of Kumamoto, 3-1-100 Tsukide, Kumamoto, Kumamoto 862-8502, Japan
| | - Keita Kodama
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
| | - Jeong-Hoon Lee
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan; Southeast Sea Fisheries Research Institute, National Fisheries Research and Development Institute, Tongyeong, Gyeongnam 650-943, Republic of Korea
| | - Hideaki Maki
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Zushi
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan; National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 16-1 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8569, Japan
| | | | - Yoshitaka Imaizumi
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Suzuki
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Horiguchi
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Shiraishi
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
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Lindim C, Cousins IT, vanGils J. Estimating emissions of PFOS and PFOA to the Danube River catchment and evaluating them using a catchment-scale chemical transport and fate model. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2015; 207:97-106. [PMID: 26367703 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2015.08.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Revised: 08/25/2015] [Accepted: 08/28/2015] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Novel approaches for estimating the emissions of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) to surface waters are explored. The Danube River catchment is used to investigate emissions contributing to riverine loads of PFOS and PFOA and to verify the accuracy of estimates using a catchment-scale dynamic fugacity-based chemical transport and fate model (STREAM-EU; Spatially and Temporally Resolved Exposure Assessment Model for European basins). Model accuracy evaluation performed by comparing STREAM-EU predicted concentrations and monitoring data for the Danube and its tributaries shows that the best estimates for PFOS and PFOA emissions in the Danube region are obtained by considering the combined contributions of human population, wealth (based on local gross domestic product (GDP)) and wastewater treatment. Human population alone cannot explain the levels of PFOS and PFOA found in the Danube catchment waters. Introducing wealth distribution information in the form of local GDPs improves emission estimates markedly, likely by better representing emissions resulting from consumer trends, industrial and commercial sources. For compounds such as PFOS and PFOA, whose main sink and transport media is the aquatic compartment, a major source to freshwater are wastewater treatment plants. Introducing wastewater treatment information in the emission estimations also further improves emission estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Lindim
- ACES-Department of Analytical Chemistry and Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - I T Cousins
- ACES-Department of Analytical Chemistry and Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - J vanGils
- Deltares, PO Box 177, 2600 MH Delft, The Netherlands
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46
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Gong J, Fang T, Peng D, Li A, Zhang L. A highly sensitive photoelectrochemical detection of perfluorooctanic acid with molecularly imprined polymer-functionalized nanoarchitectured hybrid of AgI–BiOI composite. Biosens Bioelectron 2015; 73:256-263. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2015.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2015] [Revised: 06/02/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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47
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Molecularly imprinted ultrathin graphitic carbon nitride nanosheets–Based electrochemiluminescence sensing probe for sensitive detection of perfluorooctanoic acid. Anal Chim Acta 2015; 896:68-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2015.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2015] [Revised: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Chen X, Zhu L, Pan X, Fang S, Zhang Y, Yang L. Isomeric specific partitioning behaviors of perfluoroalkyl substances in water dissolved phase, suspended particulate matters and sediments in Liao River Basin and Taihu Lake, China. WATER RESEARCH 2015; 80:235-244. [PMID: 26005784 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2015.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2014] [Revised: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 04/19/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence and distribution of eleven perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and the isomers of perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctane sulfonamide (PFOSA) were investigated in water dissolved phase, sediment and suspended particulate matter (SPM) in two typical watersheds in China: Liao River Basin and Taihu Lake. The total concentrations of the PFASs in the dissolved phase were 44.4-781 ng/L in Liao River with high contribution of perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS) (75.7%) and PFOA (9.86%). The ∑PFASs in the dissolved phase in Taihu Lake was 17.2-94.4 ng/L with PFOA (39.8%), perfluorohexanoate (PFHxA) (30.1%) and PFOS (16.8%) as the dominant PFASs. The log Koc values of the PFASs in both SPM and sediment increased with increasing the perfluorinated carbon chain length. In Liao River Basin, the long chain perfluorocarboxylates (C10-12) bound with SPM contributed >30% to the total amount in water, suggesting that SPM could not be ignored when the environmental load of long chain PFASs in water was assessed. For the isomers of PFOA, PFOS and PFOSA, the linear isomers always displayed higher partition coefficients on particulate phases than the branched ones. An established isomer-profiling technique was applied to assess the relative contributions of various industrial origins for PFOA. In Liao River, when SPM was included in the water samples, there were contributions of PFOA from electrochemical fluorination (ECF) (∼55%), linear telomer (∼41%) and isopropyl telomer (∼4%) sources. While, the results based on the dissolved phase alone indicated more contribution of ECF (∼70%) source and lower contribution from linear telomer (∼26%) source. The discrepancy suggests that omitting SPM from water samples might lead to misunderstanding on the industrial origins of PFOA. In Taihu Lake, the isomer profile of PFOA was influenced mainly by ECF (∼88%) and partially by linear-telomer (∼12%) sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinwei Chen
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
| | - Lingyan Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China.
| | - Xiaoyu Pan
- College of Marine Science of Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Chemistry, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, PR China
| | - Shuhong Fang
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
| | - Yifeng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
| | - Liping Yang
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
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Arvaniti OS, Stasinakis AS. Review on the occurrence, fate and removal of perfluorinated compounds during wastewater treatment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 524-525:81-92. [PMID: 25889547 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Revised: 04/06/2015] [Accepted: 04/06/2015] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) consist of a fully fluorinated hydrophobic alkyl chain attached to a hydrophilic end group. Due to their wide use in several industrial and household applications, they have been detected in numerous Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) during the last ten years. The present review reports the occurrence of 22 PFCs (C4-C14, C16, C18 carboxylates; C4-C8 and C10 sulfonates; 3 sulfonamides) in municipal or/and industrial wastewater, originating from 24 monitoring studies. PFCs levels in sewage sludge have also been reported using data from 12 studies. Most of the above monitoring data originate from the USA, North Europe and Asia and concern perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), while limited information is available from Mediterranean area, Canada and Australia. PFCs concentrations range up to some hundreds ng/L and some thousands ng/g dry weight in raw wastewater and sludge, respectively. They are not significantly removed during secondary biological treatment, while their concentrations in treated wastewater are often higher compared to raw sewage. Their biodegradation during wastewater treatment does not seem possible; whereas some recent studies have noted the potential transformation of precursor compounds to PFCs during biological wastewater treatment. PFCs sorption onto sludge has been studied in depth and seems to be an important mechanism governing their removal in STPs. Concerning tertiary treatment technologies, significant PFCs removal has been observed using activated carbon, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis or applying advanced oxidation and reduction processes. Most of these studies have been conducted using pure water, while in many cases the experiments have been performed under extreme laboratory conditions (high concentrations, high radiation source, temperature or pressure). Future efforts should be focused on better understanding of biotransformation processes occurred in aerobic and anaerobic bioreactors and result to PFCs formation and on the application of advanced treatment technologies under conditions commonly found in STPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga S Arvaniti
- Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Greece
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50
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Alder AC, van der Voet J. Occurrence and point source characterization of perfluoroalkyl acids in sewage sludge. CHEMOSPHERE 2015; 129:62-73. [PMID: 25176581 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.07.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Revised: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 07/10/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence and levels of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) emitted from specific pollution sources into the aquatic environment in Switzerland were studied using digested sewage sludges from 45 wastewater treatment plants in catchments containing a wide range of potential industrial emitters. Concentrations of individual PFAAs show a high spatial and temporal variability, which infers different contributions from industrial technologies and activities. Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) was generally the predominant PFAA with concentrations varying between 4 and 2440μgkg(-1) (median 75μgkg(-1)). Elevated emissions were especially observed in catchments capturing discharges from metal plating industries (median 82μgkg(-1)), aqueous firefighting foams (median 215μgkg(-1)) and landfill leachates (median 107μgkg(-1)). Some elevated perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) levels could be attributed to emissions from textile finishing industries with concentrations up to 233μgkg(-1) in sewage sludge. Assuming sorption to sludge for PFOS and PFCAs of 15% and 2%, respectively, concentrations in wastewater effluents up to the low μgL(-1) level were estimated. Even if wastewater may be expected to be diluted between 10 and 100 times by the receiving waters, elevated concentrations may be reached at specific locations. Although sewage sludge is a minor compartment for PFAAs in WWTPs, these investigations are helpful for the identification of hot-spots from industrial emitters as well as to estimate monthly average concentrations in wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo C Alder
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
| | - Juergen van der Voet
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
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