Efficient H2O2 Oxidation of Organic Dyes Catalyzed by Simple Copper(II) Ions in Bicarbonate Aqueous Solution

Trivalent Copper Ion-Mediated Dual Oxidation in the Copper-Catalyzed Fenton-Like System in the Presence of Histidine

The Cu(II)/H2O2 system is recognized for its potential to degrade recalcitrant organic contaminants and inactivate microorganisms in wastewater. We investigated its unique dual oxidation strategy involving the selective oxidation of copper-complexing ligands and enhanced oxidation of nonchelated organic compounds. L-Histidine (His) and benzoic acid (BA) served as model compounds for basic biomolecular ligands and recalcitrant organic contaminants, respectively. In the presence of both His and BA, the Cu(II)/H2O2 system rapidly degraded His complexed with copper ions within 30 s; however, BA degraded gradually with a 2.3-fold efficiency compared with that in the absence of His. The primary oxidant responsible was the trivalent copper ion [Cu(III)], not hydroxyl radical (•OH), as evidenced by •OH scavenging, hydroxylated BA isomer comparison with UV/H2O2 (a •OH generating system), electron paramagnetic resonance, and colorimetric Cu(III) detection via periodate complexation. Cu(III) selectively oxidized His owing to its strong chelation with copper ions, even in the presence of excess tert-butyl alcohol. This selectivity extended to other copper-complexing ligands, including L-asparagine and L-aspartic acid. The presence of His facilitated H2O2-mediated Cu(II) reduction and increased Cu(III) production, thereby enhancing the degradation of BA and pharmaceuticals. Thus, the Cu(II)/H2O2 system is a promising option for dual-target oxidation in diverse applications.

Morphology-dependent activation of hydrogen peroxide with Cu2O for tetracycline hydrochloride degradation in bicarbonate aqueous solution

The design of efficient heterogeneous catalysts in bicarbonate-activated hydrogen peroxide systems (BAP) is a hot topic in wastewater treatment. In this work, Cu2O nanoparticles with different morphologies including cubic shape (c-Cu2O), octahedron shape (o-Cu2O) and spherical shape (s-Cu2O), were applied in BAP for the first time to degrade tetracycline hydrochloride (TC). Compared with Cu2+ ions and CuO, TC degradation was boosted in the presence of Cu2O in the BAP system, with the degradation rate following the order c-Cu2O > o-Cu2O > s-Cu2O. The morphology-dependent effects could be linearly correlated with the ratio of surface oxygen species (OS), but not with the surface area or Cu(I) ratio. The c-Cu2O catalyst with exposure of (100) facets contained 76.6% OS as the active site for H2O2 adsorption and activation, while the value was much lower for o-Cu2O and s-Cu2O with dominant (111) facets. The presence of HCO3- enhanced the interactions among Cu2O, H2O2 and TC, leading to facile oxidation of Cu(I) to Cu(II) by H2O2, and the formation of various reactive species such as hydroxyl radicals and Cu(III) contributed to TC degradation. This work provides a new method for enhancing H2O2 activation with heterogeneous catalysts by crystal facet engineering.

Characterizing the Microplastic Content of Biosolids in Southern Ontario, Canada

The application of biosolids to agricultural land has been identified as a major pathway of microplastic (MP) pollution to the environment. Very little research, however, has been done on the MP content of biosolids within Canada. Fifteen biosolid samples from different treatment processes (liquid, dewatered, pelletized, and alkali-stabilized) were collected from 11 sources across southern Ontario to quantify and characterize the MP load within them. All samples exhibited MP concentrations ranging from 188 200 (±24 161) to 512 000 (±28 571) MPs/kg dry weight and from 4122 (±231) to 453 746 (±38 194) MPs/kg wet weight. Field amendment of these biosolids can introduce up to 3.73 × 106 to 4.12 × 108 MP/ha of agricultural soil. There was no significant difference in the MP concentrations of liquid, dewatered, and pelletized samples; but a reduction in MP content was observed in alkali-stabilized biosolids. Fragments composed 57.6% of the MPs identified, while 36.7% were fibers. In addition, MPs showed an exponential increase in abundance with decreasing size. Characterization of MPs confirmed that polyester was the most abundant, while polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, polyacrylamide, and polyurethane were present across the majority of biosolid samples. The results of the present study provide an estimate of the potential extent of MP contamination to agricultural fields through the amendment of biosolids. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;00:1-14. © 2023 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Coordination-driven Cu-based Fenton-like process for humic acid treatment in wastewater

Fenton oxidation process is effective in organic pollutant degradation during wastewater treatment, but subject to narrow pH range and secondary pollution. In this work, an application-promising alternative, i.e., coordination-driven Cu-based Fenton-like process, was proposed for wastewater treatment using humic-acid (HA) as the target contaminant. The results showed that the removal of HA through Cu-based Fenton-like process can reach 70% under the condition of pH 8.0, 146.8 mmol/L H₂O₂, 146.8 μmol/L Cu (II), 50 °C, and 4 h. Addition of Cl^- could significantly accelerate the reaction process through coordination with copper ions, while HCO₃^- and P₂O₇^4- exhibited opposite effects. Increasing temperature is also beneficial for advancing the reaction, and the removal of HA followed pseudo-first-order kinetics. Fluorescence spectroscopic analyses showed that the removal of HA experienced a two-stage process, i.e., oxidation followed by degradation, which is dependent of the presence of coordination ions. Parallel factor analysis was used to characterize the change of fluorescence components. Three fluorescent components, i.e., terrestrial humic-like, UV/visible terrestrial humic-like and protein-like component were identified, all of which were effectively removed. This study deepens our understanding on Cu-based Fenton-like process, and may provide a promising technology for refractory wastewater treatment.

Self-cycled photo-Fenton-like system based on an artificial leaf with a solar-to-H2O2 conversion efficiency of 1.46

Millions of families around the world remain vulnerable to water scarcity and have no access to drinking water. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are an effective way towards water purification with qualified reactive oxygen species (ROSs) while are impeded by the high-cost and tedious process in either input of consumable reagent, production of ROSs, and the pre-treatment of supporting electrolyte. Herein, we couple solar light-assisted H₂O₂ production from water and photo-Fenton-like reactions into a self-cyclable system by using an artificial leaf, achieving an unassisted H₂O₂ production rate of 0.77 μmol/(min·cm²) under 1 Sun AM 1.5 illumination. Furthermore, a large (70 cm²) artificial leaf was used for an unassisted solar-driven bicarbonate-activated hydrogen peroxide (BAP) system with recycled catalysts for real-time wastewater purification with requirements for only water, oxygen and sunlight. This demonstration highlights the feasibility and scalability of photoelectrochemical technology for decentralized environmental governance applications from laboratory benchtops to industry.

Continuous generation of reactive oxygen species is desirable in the advanced oxidation process. Here, the authors report a self-cycled photoFenton-like with a scalable artificial leaf for production of H₂O₂ from water with solar-to-H₂O₂ efficiency of 1.46%.

The synergistic effect of calcite and Cu2+ on the degradation of sulfadiazine via PDS activation: A role of Cu(Ⅲ)

A system of Cu²⁺/calcite/PDS was constructed to degrade sulfadiazine (SDZ). Different from the traditional Cu-mediated activation, a low concentration of Cu²⁺ that met drinking water standards (≤ 1 mg/L) transformed into Cu(Ⅱ) solid in the presence of calcite, and then enhanced the degradation of SDZ via PDS activation over a pH range from 3 to 9. According to scavenger and chemical probe experiments, Cu(Ⅲ), rather than radicals (hydroxyl radicals and sulfate radicals) and singlet oxygen, was the predominant reactive species, which was responsible for the degradation of SDZ. Based on the results of XRD, ATR-FTIR, and CV curves et al., CuCO₃ was the main complex with high reactivity for PDS activation to form Cu(Ⅲ). Moreover, detailed degradation pathways of sulfadiazine were proposed according to the UPLC-ESI-MS/MS and their toxicity was predicted by ECOSAR. Besides, the real water matrix would not seriously affect the degradation of SDZ in the Cu²⁺/calcite/PDS system. In summary, this study reveals a new insight into the synergistic effect of Cu²⁺ and calcite on the SDZ degradation, and promotes an understanding of the environmental benefits of natural calcite.

Application of fungal copper carbonate nanoparticles as environmental catalysts: organic dye degradation and chromate removal

Biomineralization is a ubiquitous process in organisms to produce biominerals, and a wide range of metallic nanoscale minerals can be produced as a consequence of the interactions of micro-organisms with metals and minerals. Copper-bearing nanoparticles produced by biomineralization mechanisms have a variety of applications due to their remarkable catalytic efficiency, antibacterial properties and low production cost. In this study, we demonstrate the biotechnological potential of copper carbonate nanoparticles (CuNPs) synthesized using a carbonate-enriched biomass-free ureolytic fungal spent culture supernatant. The efficiency of the CuNPs in pollutant remediation was investigated using a dye (methyl red) and a toxic metal oxyanion, chromate Cr(VI). The biogenic CuNPs exhibited excellent catalytic properties in a Fenton-like reaction to degrade methyl red, and efficiently removed Cr(VI) from solution due to both adsorption and reduction of Cr(VI). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) identified the oxidation of reducing Cu species of the CuNPs during the reaction with Cr(VI). This work shows that urease-positive fungi can play an important role not only in the biorecovery of metals through the production of insoluble nanoscale carbonates, but also provides novel and simple strategies for the preparation of sustainable nanomineral products with catalytic properties applicable to the bioremediation of organic and metallic pollutants, solely and in mixtures.

Minute Cu2+ coupling with HCO3- for efficient degradation of acetaminophen via H2O2 activation

Homogeneous Cu²⁺-mediated activation of H₂O₂ has been widely applied for the removal of organic contaminants, but fairly high dosage of Cu²⁺ is generally required and may cause secondary pollution. In the present study, minute Cu²⁺ (2.5 μM) catalyzed H₂O₂ exhibited excellent efficiency in degradation of organic pollutants with the assistant of naturally occurring level HCO₃^- (1 mM). In a typical case, acetaminophen (ACE) was completely eliminated within 10 min which followed the pseudo-first-order kinetics. Singlet oxygen and superoxide radical rather than traditionally identified hydroxyl radical were the predominant reactive oxygen species (ROS) responsible for ACE degradation. Meanwhile, Cu³⁺ was deduced through Cu⁺ and p-hydroxybenzoic acid formation analysis. CuCO₃(aq) was the main complex with high reactivity for the activation of H₂O₂ to form ROS and Cu³⁺. The removal efficiency of ACE depended on the operating parameters, such as Cu²⁺, HCO₃^- and H₂O₂ dosage, solution initial pH. The presence of Cl^-, HPO₄^2-, humic acid were found to retard ACE removal while other anions such as SO₄^2- and NO₃^- had no obvious effect. ACE exhibited lower degradation efficiency in real water matrices than that in ultra-pure water. Nevertheless, 58-100% of ACE was removed from domestic wastewater, lake water and tap water within 60 min. Moreover, eight intermediate products were identified and the possible degradation pathways of ACE were proposed. Additionally, other typical organic pollutants including bisphenol A, norfloxacin, lomefloxacin hydrochloride and sulfadiazine, exhibited great removal efficiency in the Cu²⁺/H₂O₂/HCO₃^- system.

Application of percarbonate and peroxymonocarbonate in decontamination technologies

Sodium percarbonate (SPC) and peroxymonocarbonate (PMC) have been widely used in modified Fenton reactions because of their multiple superior features, such as a wide pH range and environmental friendliness. This broad review is intended to provide the fundamental information, status and progress of SPC and PMC based decontamination technologies according to the peer-reviewed papers in the last two decades. Both SPC and PMC can directly decompose various pollutants. The degradation efficiency will be enhanced and the target contaminants will be expanded after the activation of SPC and PMC. The most commonly used catalysts for SPC activation are iron compounds while cobalt compositions are applied to activate PMC in homogenous and heterogeneous catalytical systems. The generation and participation of hydroxyl, superoxide and/or carbonate radicals are involved in the activated SPC and PMC system. The reductive radicals, such as carbon dioxide and hydroxyethyl radicals, can be generated when formic acid or methanol is added in the Fe(II)/SPC system, which can reduce target contaminants. SPC can also be activated by energy, tetraacetylethylenediamine, ozone and buffered alkaline to generate different reactive radicals for pollutant decomposition. The SPC and activated SPC have been assessed for application in-situ chemical oxidation and sludge dewatering treatment. The challenges and prospects of SPC and PMC based decontamination technologies are also addressed in the last section.

Perdisulfate-assisted advanced oxidation of 2,4-dichlorophenol by bio-inspired iron encapsulated biochar catalyst

To improve advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), bio-inspired iron-encapsulated biochar (bio-inspired Fe⨀BC) catalysts with superior performance were prepared from iron-rich biomass of Iris sibirica L. using a pyrolysis method under anaerobic condition. The obtained compounds were used as catalysts to activate perdisulfate (PDS) and then degradate 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP), and synthetic iron-laden biochar (synthetic Fe-BC) was used for comparison. The highest removal rate of 2,4-DCP was 98.35%, with 37.03% of this being distinguished as the contribution of micro-electrolysis, greater than the contribution of adsorption (32.81%) or advanced oxidation (28.51%). The high performance of micro-electrolysis could be attributable to the formation of Fe (Iron, syn) and austenite (CFe_15.1) with strong electron carrier at 700 °C. During micro-electrolysis, Fe²⁺ and electrons were gradually released and then used as essential active components to enhance the AOPs. The slow-releasing Fe²⁺ (K = 0.0048) also inhibited the overconsumption of PDS (K = -0.00056). Furthermore, the electrons donated from Fe⨀BC-4 were able to activate PDS directly. The electrons were enriched by the porous structure of Fe⨀BC-4, and the formation of the COFe bond in the π-electron system could also accelerate the electron transfer to activate PDS. Similar reactive oxygen species (ROS) were identified during the micro-electrolysis and AOPs, leading to similar degradation pathways. The higher does concentration of O₂^- generated during micro-electrolysis than during the AOPs also led to a greater dechlorination effect.

Selective removal of toxic organic dyes using Trӧger base-containing sulfone copolymers made from a metal-free thiol-yne click reaction followed by oxidation

Three copolymers TCP1–3 bearing Trӧger's base (TB) units intercalated with various thioether groups were synthesized using a catalyst-free thiol-yne click reaction. TCP1–3 display excellent solubility in common organic solvents allowing for their structural, and photophysical characterization. The thioether groups in TCP1–3 were selectively oxidized into their respective sulfone derivatives under mild oxidation reaction conditions affording the postmodified copolymers TCP4–6. Investigation of organic dye uptake from water by TCP1–6 proved their efficiency as selective adsorbents removing up to 100% of the cationic dye methylene blue (MEB) when compared to anionic dyes, such as Congo red (CR), methyl orange (MO) and methyl blue (MB). The sulfone-containing copolymers TCP4–6 display superior and faster MEB removal efficiencies with respect to their corresponding synthons TCP1–3.

Copolymers TCP1–3 with Trӧger's base units and aryl thioether groups were made via a click reaction. Selective oxidation of the thioethers into sulfone groups afforded TCP4–6 which display up to 100% removal efficiency of methylene blue from water.

Conjugated microporous polymers using a copper-catalyzed [4 + 2] cyclobenzannulation reaction: promising materials for iodine and dye adsorption

A new design strategy is disclosed to synthesize conjugated microporous polymers using a Cu-catalyzed [4 + 2] cyclobenzannulation reaction. The polymers reveal BET surface areas up to 794 m² g⁻¹ and promising uptake of iodine and methylene blue.

Synthesis, structure, and heterogeneous Fenton reaction of new Cu(ii)-based discrete Cu2x coordination complexes

Cu₂L₄ cage and Cu₂L₂ macrocycle were obtained and the heterogeneous Fenton reaction experiments showed that they are good photocatalysts in the photocatalytic degradation process of MB with using hydroxyl radicals and high-valence copper ions.

Oxygen doped graphitic carbon nitride nanosheets for the degradation of organic pollutants by activating hydrogen peroxide in the presence of bicarbonate in the dark

The development of novel wastewater treatment processes that use heterogeneous catalysts to activate hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) with bicarbonate (HCO3 -) has been a subject of great interest in recent years; however, significant challenges remain, despite research into numerous metal-based catalysts. The work presented herein employed oxygen-doped graphitic carbon nitride (O/g-C3N4) as a non-metal catalyst for activating H2O2 in the presence of HCO3 -, and this method represented the first system capable of removing organic pollutants in the dark, to our knowledge. The catalysts were characterized using several microscopic imaging, spectroscopic, electrochemical, and crystallographic techniques, as well as N2-physorption procedures. Analysis of the results revealed that the O/g-C3N4 catalyst possessed a high specific surface area and many defect sites. Various operational parameters, including the relative amounts of HCO3 -, H2O2, and O/g-C3N4, were systemically investigated. A clear performance enhancement was observed in the degradation of organic contaminants when subjected to the HCO3 --H2O2-O/g-C3N4 system, and this result was ascribed to the synchronous adsorption and chemical oxidation processes. The novel system presented herein represented a new water treatment technology that was effective for removing organic contaminants.

Spirobifluorene-based polymers of intrinsic microporosity for the adsorption of methylene blue from wastewater: effect of surfactants

Owing to their high surface area and superior adsorption properties, spirobifluorene polymers of intrinsic microporosity (PIMs), namely PIM-SBF-Me (methyl) and PIM-SBF-tBu (tert-butyl), were used for the first time, to our knowledge, for the removal of methylene blue (MB) dye from wastewater. Spirobifluorene PIMs are known to have large surface area (can be up to 1100 m2 g-1) and have been previously used mainly for gas storage applications. Dispersion of the polymers in aqueous solution was challenging owing to their extreme hydrophobic nature leading to poor adsorption efficiency of MB. For this reason, cationic (cetyl-pyridinium chloride), anionic (sodium dodecyl sulfate; SDS) and non-ionic (Brij-35) surfactants were used and tested with the aim of enhancing the dispersion of the hydrophobic polymers in water and hence improving the adsorption efficiencies of the polymers. The effect of surfactant type and concentration were investigated. All surfactants offered a homogeneous dispersion of the polymers in the aqueous dye solution; however, the highest adsorption efficiency was obtained using an anionic surfactant (SDS) and this seems owing to the predominance of electrostatic interaction between its molecules and the positively charges dye molecules. Furthermore, the effect of polymer dosage and initial dye concentration on MB adsorption were also considered. The kinetic data for both polymers were well described by a pseudo-second-order model, while the Langmuir model better simulated the adsorption process of MB dye on PIM-SBF-Me and the Freundlich model was more suitable for PIM-SBF-tBu. Moreover, the maximum adsorption capacities recorded were 84.0 and 101.0 mg g-1 for PIM-SBF-Me and PIM-SBF-tBu, respectively. Reusability of both polymers was tested by performing three adsorption cycles and the results substantiate that both polymers can be effectively re-used with insignificant loss of their adsorption efficiency (%AE). These preliminary results suggested that incorporation of a surfactant to enhance the dispersion of hydrophobic polymers and adsorption of organic contaminants from wastewater is a simple and cost-effective approach that can be adapted for many other environmental applications.

Recent advances in Cu-Fenton systems for the treatment of industrial wastewaters: Role of Cu complexes and Cu composites

Cu-based Fenton systems have been recognized as a promising suite of technologies for the treatment of industrial wastewaters due to their high catalytic oxidation capacity. Rapid progress regarding Cu Fenton systems has been made not only in fundamental mechanistic aspects of these systems but also with regard to applications over the past decade. Based on available literature, this review synthesizes the recent advances regarding both the understanding and applications of Cu-based Fenton processes for industrial wastewater treatment. Cu-based catalysts that are essential to the effectiveness of use of Cu Fenton reactions for oxidation of target species are mainly classified into two types: (i) Cu complexes with organic or inorganic ligands, and (ii) Cu composites with inorganic materials. Performance of the Cu-based catalysts for the removal of organic pollutants in industrial wastewaters are reviewed, with the key operating parameters illustrated. Furthermore, the roles of Cu complexes and composites in both homogeneous and heterogeneous Cu-Fenton systems are critically examined with particular focus on the mechanisms involved. Perspectives and future efforts needed for Cu-based Fenton systems using Cu complexes and composites for industrial wastewater treatment are presented.

Activity and stability of biochar in hydrogen peroxide based oxidation system for degradation of naphthenic acid

This study investigated the stability and catalytic activity of wheat straw biochar (WS), hardwood biochar (HW) and commercial activated carbon (AC) in hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) based oxidation system for degradation of model naphthenic acids compound, 1-methyl-1- cyclohexane carboxylic acid (MCCA). WS showed excellent catalytic activity for decomposition of H₂O₂ and MCCA degradation as demonstrated by high H₂O₂ decomposition rate (2.0*10^-4 M^-1s^-1), amount of hydroxyl (OH) radicals generated (182 mg/L) and degradation efficiency of MCCA (100% at C_o - 100 mg/L). 2-Methyl pentatonic acid was identified as reaction intermediate and 99% mineralization of MCCA was obtained within 4 h. The real wastewater conditions were simulated by addition of chloride (Cl^-) and bicarbonate ions (HCO₃^-) and found that lower concentrations of Cl^- and HCO₃^- have minimal influence on MCCA removal. Overall, biochar catalyzed H₂O₂ based oxidation process has great potential and can be applied for degradation of NAs in oil-sand processed water.

Cu(II)-enhanced degradation of acid orange 7 by Fe(II)-activated persulfate with hydroxylamine over a wide pH range

The activation of persulfate by Fe(II) coupled with hydroxylamine (the HA/Fe(II)/PS system) was highly effective for the degradation of refractory organic contaminants under acidic pH conditions. However, owing to the precipitation of ferric hydroxide and/or the slow reduction from Fe(III) to Fe(II), the HA/Fe(II)/PS system was invalid under neutral and alkaline pH conditions. In this study, it was observed that the degradation of acid orange 7 (AO7) was strongly enhanced over the wide pH range of 2-9 when trace Cu(II) (0.5-5 μM) was spiked into the HA/Fe(II)/PS system. It was evident that Cu(I) was generated via the reduction of Cu(II) by HA in the bimetallic system at both pH 3 and pH 8, and the steady concentration of Fe(II) in the bimetallic system was much higher than that in the HA/Fe(II)/PS system due to the rapid reaction between Fe(III) and Cu(I). Quenching experiments using tert-butyl alcohol, methanol and sodium bromide as the scavengers and electron spin resonance experiments confirmed that the primary reactive species responsible for AO7 degradation were sulfate radical at both pH 3 and pH 8, rather than hydroxyl radical and Cu(III). Nevertheless, sulfate radical was mainly produced by Fe(II)-activated PS at pH 3, while both Cu(I) and Fe(II) made important contributions to the generation of sulfate radical at pH 8. The bimetallic system was also highly effective in degrading other organic contaminants, such as phenol, diclofenac, reactive red 2 and orange G. This study might provide a promising idea based on Fe(II)-activated PS for degrading organic contaminants over a wide pH range.

Formation of N-oxido copper ethylenediaminetetraacetate and propanediaminetetraacetate and their selective degradation to iminodiacetate and propanediaminediacetate

N-Oxido copper(ii) ethylenediaminetetraacetate Na_4n[Cu₂(edtaO₂)₂(H₂O)₄]_n·13nH₂O (2) (H₄edta = ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, C₁₀H₁₆O₈N₂) and N-oxido copper(ii) 1,3-propanediaminetetraacetate Na_5nO_n[Cu₂(HpdtaO₂)₂Cl]_n·12.5nH₂O (4) (H₄pdta = 1,3-propanediaminetetraacetic acid, C₁₁H₁₈O₈N₂) were obtained from the reactions of copper(ii) edta and pdta respectively with hydrogen peroxide. The copper ions in 2 and 4 are hexa-coordinated by edtaO₂ or pdtaO₂ ligands, forming 1D chain structures. Further reactions of 2 and 4 at lower pH values result in the isolation of copper(ii) iminodiacetate K[Cu(ida)(H₂O)₂Cl] (3) (H₂ida = iminodiacetate acid, C₄H₇O₄N) and copper(ii) propanediaminediacetate [Cu₂(pdda)₂]_n·nH₂O (5) (H₂pdda = propanediaminediacetic acid, C₇H₁₀O₄N₂), respectively, which show the selective degradation of ethylenediaminetetraacetate and propanediaminetetraacetate.

Enhanced Cu(II)-mediated fenton-like oxidation of antimicrobials in bicarbonate aqueous solution: Kinetics, mechanism and toxicity evaluation

Increasing attention has been attracted in developing new technologies to remove chlorofene (CF) and dichlorofene (DCF), which were active agents in antimicrobials for general cleaning and disinfecting. This study investigated the significant influences of bicarbonate (HCO₃^-) on the degradation of CF and DCF in the Cu(II)-mediated Fenton-like system Cu²⁺/H₂O₂. Our results indicate that HCO₃^- may play a dual role to act 1) as a ligand to stabilize Cu(II), forming soluble [Cu^II(HCO₃^-)(S)]⁺ species to catalyze H₂O₂ producing hydroxyl radical (OH) and superoxide ion (O₂^-) and 2) as a OH scavenger. Furthermore, the reaction kinetics, mechanisms, and intermediates of CF and DCF were assessed. The apparent rate constants of CF and DCF were enhanced by a factor of 8.5 and 5.5, respectively, in the presence of HCO₃^- at the optimized concentration of 4 mM. Based on the intermediate identification and frontier electron densities (FEDs) calculations, the associated reaction pathways were tentatively proposed, including C-C scission, single or multiple hydroxylation, and coupling reaction. In addition, significant reduction in the aquatic toxicity of CF and DCF was observed after treatment with Cu²⁺/H₂O₂-HCO₃^- system, evaluated by Ecological Structure Activity Relationships (ECOSAR) program. These findings provide new insights into Cu(II)-mediated reactions to better understand the environmental fate of organic contaminants in carbonate-rich waters.

Efficient abatement of an iodinated X-ray contrast media iohexol by Co(II) or Cu(II) activated sulfite autoxidation process

Efficient abatement of an iodinated X-ray contrast media iohexol by an emerging sulfite autoxidation advanced oxidation process is demonstrated, which is based on transition metal ion-catalyzed autoxidation of sulfite to form active oxidizing species. The efficacy of the combination of sulfite and transition metal ions (Ag(I), Mn(II), Co(II), Fe(II), Cu(II), Fe(III), or Ce(III)) was tested for iohexol abatement. Co(II) and Cu(II) are proven to show more pronounced catalytic activity than other metals at pH 8.0. According to the quenching studies, sulfate radical (SO₄^•-) is identified to be the primary species for oxidation of iohexol. Increasing dosages of metal ion or sulfite and higher pH values are favorable for iohexol abatement. Inhibition of iohexol abatement is observed in the absence of dissolved oxygen, which is vital for the production of SO₅^•- and subsequent formation of SO₄^•-. Overall, activation of sulfite to produce reactive radicals with extremely low Co(II) or Cu(II) concentrations (in the range of μg L^-1) in circumneutral conditions is confirmed, which offers a potential SO₄^•--based advanced oxidation process in treatment of aquatic organic contaminants.

Hydrogel of the Supramolecular Complex of Graphene Oxide and Sulfonatocalix[4]arene as Reusable Material for the Degradation of Organic Dyes: Demonstration of Adsorption and Degradation by Spectroscopy and Microscopy

Industrial modernization causes severe contamination of water resources due to which the presence of organic dyes poses a great threat to human life. To address this, we have synthesized a hydrogel GSCg using graphene oxide (GO), sulphonatocalix[4]arene (SC4a), and l-Cys by heating at 90 °C for 30 min and characterized by analytic, spectroscopy, and microscopy techniques. The GSCg possessing porous structure and adsorbs all three types of dyes, viz., eosin yellow (anionic), neutral red, and methylene blue (cationic), as shown by scanning electron microscopy, and the adsorption kinetics are addressed. The dye adsorbed by the gel (dye@GSCg) has been degraded by the treatment of Cu²⁺/N₂H₄, which regenerates the gel. The regenerated gel has been demonstrated for further cycles of adsorption followed by degradation. Alternatively, the degradation of the organic dyes was also demonstrated by an in situ approach by taking GO, SC4a, l-Cys, and the organic dye together and subjecting the mixture to hydrothermal conditions and the process leaves out free gel (GSC_g ^d). This was proven to be true in the case of each of the 12 dyes studied individually and also for their mixture, supporting that this methodology can be employed for large scale purification of contaminated water with high efficiency. GSC_g ^d was repeatedly used for the adsorption and degradation (with the use of Cu²⁺/N₂H₄) cycles wherein the gel does not lose its adsorption capability even after several cycles. Therefore, {GO···SC4a} hybrid is a smart, sustainable, and reusable material suitable for the purification of water contaminated with industrial organic dye effluents.

Efficient decolorization of typical azo dyes using low-frequency ultrasound in presence of carbonate and hydrogen peroxide

The aims of this study as to evaluate and understand the decolorization of azo dyes using carbonate and hydrogen peroxide under low-frequency ultrasonic irradiation. Under optimal conditions, the decolorization ratio of acid orange 8 (AO 8), a typical azo dye, was > 90% after 2 h of irradiation. The decolorization rate of AO 8 was 0.023 min^-1 under ultrasonic irradiation, which was about two times that without ultrasound. Different from the results of other published studies, OH played a minor role, while CO₃^- played the most important role in AO 8 ultrasonic decolorization in the presence of CO₃^2- and H₂O₂, with a contribution of 56.52%, followed by CO₄^2- (32.61%) and ¹O₂ (10.87%). Another difference is that CO₃^- formed through the cleavage of peroxymonocarbonate or peroxydicarbonate under ultrasonic irradiation rather than through reaction between hydroxyl radical and carbonate. Investigations for different azo dyes revealed that the decolorization rate decreased in the order AO 8 ≈ orange II > acid red 9 > acid yellow 11, probably because of molecular differences among the azo dyes.

Carbonate-activated hydrogen peroxide oxidation process for azo dye decolorization: Process, kinetics, and mechanisms

Advanced oxidation processes offer effective solutions in treating wastewater from various industries. This study is the first time to investigate the potential of carbonate-activated hydrogen peroxide (CAP) oxidation process for the removal of organic pollutant from highly alkaline wastewaters. Azo dye acid orange 7 (AO7) was selected as a model pollutant. The influences of various parameters on AO7 decolorization by the CAP oxidation were evaluated. Furthermore, the active species involved in AO7 degradation were explored using scavenger experiments and electron spin resonance analysis. Additionally, AO7 degradation products by the CAP oxidation were identified to elucidate possible transformation pathways. Results showed that the CAP oxidation had better AO7 decolorization performance compared to bicarbonate-activated hydrogen peroxide method. The AO7 decolorization efficiency augmented from 3.70 ± 0.76% to 54.27 ± 2.65% when carbonate concentration was increased from 0 to 50 mM at pH 13.0, and then changed slightly with further increasing carbonate concentration to 70 mM. It increased almost linearly from 5.95 ± 0.32% to 94.03 ± 0.39% as H₂O₂ concentration was increased from 5 to 50 mM. Moreover, trace amount of Co(II) could facilitate AO7 decolorization by the CAP reaction. Superoxide and carbonate radicals might be the main reactive oxygen species involved in the CAP process. Finally, a possible degradation pathway of AO7 by the CAP oxidation was proposed based on the identified products.

Carbonate and carbonate anion radicals in aqueous solutions exist as CO3(H2O)62− and CO3(H2O)6˙− respectively: the crucial role of the inner hydration sphere of anions in explaining their properties

An effort to reproduce the physical properties of CO₃²⁻ and CO₃˙⁻ in water proves that one has to include an inner hydration sphere of six water molecules for both anions.

Mechanistic Studies on the Role of [CuII (CO3 )n ]2-2n as a Water Oxidation Catalyst: Carbonate as a Non-Innocent Ligand

Recently it was reported that copper bicarbonate/carbonate complexes are good electro-catalysts for water oxidation. However, the results did not enable a decision whether the active oxidant is a Cu^III or a Cu^IV complex. Kinetic analysis of pulse radiolysis measurements coupled with DFT calculations point out that Cu^III (CO₃ )_n^3-2n complexes are the active intermediates in the electrolysis of Cu^II (CO₃ )_n^2-2n solution. The results enable the evaluation of E°[(Cu^III/II (CO₃ )_n )_aq ]≈1.42 V versus NHE at pH 8.4. This redox potential is in accord with the electrochemical report. As opposed to literature suggestions for water oxidation, the present results rule out single-electron transfer from Cu^III (CO₃ )_n^3-2n to yield hydroxyl radicals. Significant charge transfer from the coordinated carbonate to Cu^III results in the formation of C₂ O₆^2- by means of a second-order reaction of Cu^III (CO₃ )_n^3-2n . The results point out that carbonate stabilizes transition-metal cations at high oxidation states, not only as a good sigma donor, but also as a non-innocent ligand.

Bi12O17Cl2/(BiO)2CO3 Nanocomposite Materials for Pollutant Adsorption and Degradation: Modulation of the Functional Properties by Composition Tailoring

Bi₁₂O₁₇Cl₂/(BiO)₂CO₃ nanocomposite materials were studied as bifunctional systems for depuration of wastewater. They are able to efficiently adsorb and decompose rhodamine B (RhB) and methyl orange (MO), used as model pollutants. Bi₁₂O₁₇Cl₂/(BiO)₂CO₃ nanocomposites were synthesized at room temperature and ambient pressure by means of controlled hydrolysis of BiCl₃ in the presence of a surfactant (Brij 76). Cold treatments of the pristine samples with UV light or thermal annealing at different temperatures (370-500 °C) and atmospheres (air, Ar/30% O₂) were adopted to modulate the relative amounts of Bi₁₂O₁₇Cl₂/(BiO)₂CO₃ and hence the morphology, surface area, ζ-potential, optical absorption in the visible range, and the adsorption/degradation of pollutants. The best performance was achieved by (BiO)₂CO₃-rich samples, which adsorbed 80% of MO and decomposed the remaining 20% by visible light photocatalysis. Irrespective of the dye, all of the samples were able to almost complete the adsorption step within 10 min contact time. Bi₁₂O₁₇Cl₂-rich composite materials displayed a lower adsorption ability, but thanks to the stronger absorption in the visible range they behaved as more effective photocatalysts. The obtained results evidenced the ability of the employed strategy to modulate sample properties in a wide range, thus pointing out the effectiveness of this approach for the synthesis of multifunctional inorganic materials for environmental remediation.

Bicarbonate-activated persulfate oxidation of acetaminophen

Persulfate (PS) is widely used as an oxidant for in situ chemical remediation of contaminated groundwater. In this study we demonstrated for the first time that PS could be activated by bicarbonate. Acetaminophen was used as the probe compound to examine the reactivity of PS/bicarbonate system. It was found that acetaminophen could be effectively transformed and the reaction rate appeared pseudo-first-order to the concentrations of both acetaminophen and PS. Radical scavenger tests indicated that neither free radicals (SO₄^- and HO) nor superoxide (O₂^-) was responsible for acetaminophen transformation. Generation of singlet oxygen (¹O₂) was verified using furfuryl alcohol (FFA) as a probe. Formation of ¹O₂ was further quantified in D₂O fortified solution based on kinetic solvent isotopic effect (KSIE) but it was found that ¹O₂ contributed only 51.4% of the total FFA transformation. The other 48.6% was presumed to be ascribed to the reaction with peroxymonocarbonate (HCO₄^-). However, the transformation of acetaminophen was mostly due to the reaction with HCO₄^- but not ¹O₂. Instead of degradation, HCO₄^- oxidized acetaminophen via a one-electron abstraction mechanism resulting in the generation of acetaminophen radicals which coupled to each other to form dimers and trimers. HCO₄^- also hydrolyzed rapidly to form hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) which led to the formation of ¹O₂, during which O₂^- was a key intermediates. Because bicarbonate is ubiquitously presented in groundwater, the findings of this research provide important insights into the fundamental processes involved in PS oxidation in subsurface.

The consortium of heterogeneous cobalt phthalocyanine catalyst and bicarbonate ion as a novel platform for contaminants elimination based on peroxymonosulfate activation

The design of catalytic oxidation processes with high efficiency has attracted considerable attention for a long while in environmental catalysis. In this work, a novel oxidation system, CFs-CoPc/PMS, was developed by coupling cellulosic fibers-bonded cobalt phthalocyanine (CFs-CoPc) with peroxymonosulfate (PMS). CFs-CoPc/PMS system could effectively decolorize azo dyes such as Acid Red 1 (AR1) with almost 100% decolorization efficiency in 35 min, suggesting that the CFs-CoPc/PMS system was a highly efficient oxidation process. In addition, bicarbonate ion (HCO3(-)) was further introduced to CFs-CoPc/PMS to construct a combined system, CFs-CoPc/PMS/HCO3(-). Remarkably, this system turned the negative effect of HCO3(-) observed in most reported Co/PMS systems into a positive one, which enhanced the AR1 decolorization with over 2-fold increase of the rate constant. The main factor responsible for the enhancement was high-valent cobalt-oxo intermediates (PcCo(IV)=O), which was presumably generated via the heterolytic cleavage of the PMS OO bond by CoPc-HCO3(-) complex. It is noteworthy that high-valent cobalt-oxo intermediates as the major active species is different from most reported mechanisms in Co/PMS systems, in which hydroxyl and sulfate radicals are recognized as the dominant active species. This study paves an avenue for developing highly efficient catalytic oxidation technology for wastewater remediation.

Bimetallic synergistic degradation of chlorophenols by CuCoOx–LDH catalyst in bicarbonate-activated hydrogen peroxide system

A CuCoO_x–LDH-based catalyst demonstrated high activity for chlorophenol degradation with low leaching in a bicarbonate-activated hydrogen peroxide system.

Oxidation of disinfectants with Cl-substituted structure by a Fenton-like system Cu(2+)/H2O2 and analysis on their structure-reactivity relationship

As widely used chemicals intended to protect human being from infection of microorganisms, disinfectants are ubiquitous in the environment. Among them chlorine-substituted phenol is a basic structure in many disinfectant molecules. Removal of these pollutants from wastewater is of great concern. The oxidative degradation of antimicrobial agents such as triclosan, chlorofene, and dichlorofene by a Fenton-like system Cu(2+)/H2O2 was examined. Reaction conditions such as temperature, initial concentrations of H2O2 and Cu(2+), and pH were optimized using triclosan as a representative. The degradation kinetics of the above disinfectants followed pseudo-first-order kinetics under the investigated conditions. Fourteen chlorophenols (CPs) with different chlorine substitution were also studied to evaluate the influence of molecular structure on the degradation process in the Cu(2+)/H2O2 system. Fourteen structure-related parameters were calculated using Gaussian 09 program. A quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) model was established using SPSS software with measured rate constant (k) as dependent variable and calculated molecular descriptors as independent variables. A three-parameter model including energy of HOMO (E homo), molar heat capacity at constant volume (Cv(θ)), and the most positive net charge of hydrogen atoms (qH(+)) was selected for k prediction, with correlation coefficient R(2) = 0.878. Analyses of the model demonstrated that the Cv(θ) was the most significant factor affecting the k of chlorophenols. Variance analysis and standard t-value test were used to validate the model.