The impact of saponins or saponin-containing plant materials on ruminant production--a review

Poisonings in ruminants by Cenostigma pyramidale (Tul.) Gagnon & G.P.Lewis (Fabaceae): A mini-review of teratogenic potential and phytochemical evidence

Teratogenic plants can be found in pastures in different parts of the world and represent a threat to the reproduction of ruminants. In the northeast region of Brazil, several studies have indicated that Cenostigma pyramidale (Tul.) Gagnon & G.P.Lewis is one of the main poisonous plants that causes reproductive problems in sheep and goats. In this context, the present study reviewed spontaneous and experimental poisonings reports by C. pyramidale in sheep and goats, as well as analyzing the phytochemical evidence related to this species. The scientific documents were retrieved from different databases and, after applying the selection criteria, a total of 16 articles published between 2000 and 2024 were included in this review. Cenostigma pyramidale causes embryonic loss, abortion, and congenital malformations in pregnant sheep and goats in the Brazilian semi-arid region. The main malformations observed in newborn animals are arthrogryposis, scoliosis, micrognathia, multiple skull deformities, cleft palate, and brachygnathism. Many secondary metabolites have already been isolated from C. pyramidale, however, to date, no evidence has been found regarding the possible teratogenic compounds that occur in this plant. From this perspective, new phytochemical studies are necessary to help unravel the mechanisms of action of embryotoxic agents from C. pyramidale.

Enrichment process, structural prediction, isolation, in vitro cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory effects of triterpenoid saponins in Camellia japonica L. leaves water extract through UPLC-Q-TOF based mass spectrometry similarity networking

Camellia japonica L. is rich in bioactive compounds, but its health-enhancing potential is often overshadowed by its ornamental value. Notably, triterpenoid saponins are prominent due to their surfactant properties. MolNetEnhancer revealed 537 compounds in C. japonica leaves water extract, classified into 32 categories, including 38 triterpenoid saponins. To enrich triterpenoid saponins, the process of D101 resin chromatography was employed. Molecular networking analysis based on UPLC-Q-TOF and quantitative analysis based on HPLC revealed saponins concentrated in fractions 3 and 4 (68.3% transfer). MS2LDA and NAP predicted structures for 38 triterpenoid saponins, revealing nearly half of them are potential new compounds. Comprehensive chromatographic and spectroscopic methods were used for purification and structural illustration of triterpenoid saponins, yielding 13, including 7 new compounds. Statistical analysis and in vitro assays revealed the cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory activities of these triterpenoid saponins played a crucial role in the anticancer effects.

Saponin Extracts Utilization as Dietary Additive in Ruminant Nutrition: A Meta-Analysis of In Vivo Studies

The present meta-analysis aimed to determine the underlying effects of different saponins extracted from different sources on the production performance, milk yield, digestibility, rumen fermentation, blood metabolites, and nitrogen utilization of ruminants. A total of 26 papers comprising 66 in vivo studies (148 data points of dietary treatments) were evaluated in the present study. The databases were statistically analyzed using the mixed model procedure of SAS, where experiments considered random effects and tannin-related factors were treated as fixed effects. Statistical procedures were then continued in comparing different sources of saponin extract through Mixed Model analysis, where experiments were also random factors and sources of saponin extract were fixed factors. The evidence revealed in the present meta-analysis that saponin supplementation of up to 40 g/kg DM appears to have no detrimental impact on feed intake across ruminant types, suggesting that it does not significantly affect diet palatability. However, the results indicated that there are species-specific responses to saponin supplementation, particularly in relation to palatability and nutrient absorption efficiency, with larger ruminants being better able to tolerate the bitterness induced by saponin extracts. Furthermore, the study found that saponin extracts can influence nutrient digestibility and rumen fermentation dynamics, with different effects observed in large and small ruminants. While some saponin extracts can enhance average daily weight gain and milk yield, others can have adverse effects, highlighting the importance of considering both saponin sources and animal physiological condition when developing nutritional strategies. Additionally, optimization of ruminant production by utilizing saponin extracts is necessary to avoid negative health implications, such as increased blood creatinine levels. Different saponin extracts utilization in ruminant nutrition and environmental management, have a distinct understanding associated to their various bioactive properties. However, among the saponin sources, saponin extracted from Quilaja saponaria is more likely to improve large ruminant production performance while maintaining ruminant health and metabolism, but negatively affect small ruminants. Further research is needed to unravel the intricate effects of different saponin sources on ruminant health and productivity, emphasizing the importance of tailored dietary strategies that consider the unique physiological and metabolic characteristics of the target livestock.

Isolation, purification and structure elucidation of eight saponin compounds from Calotropis gigantea

Identifying the active ingredient from plant extracts and establishing its safety and efficacy remains a challenge, so there is need to develop optimised Isolation and purification method to concentrate the natural product from plant resources. In the key content areas of Pharmaceutical, natural product Industry and food application. Asclepiadaceae perennial herb Calotropis gigantea has a long history of usage in folk medicine. The purpose of this study to isolate, purified and structure elucidation of the saponin compounds. As per the Literature study reported that, the saponin compounds remain a huge source for medicinal, are rich sources of chemical compounds having tremendous diversity with respect to structure, function and mechanism of action. In this study we selected Calotropis gigantea for the separation of the saponin. In the present study we successfully isolated, purified, elucidated the structure and identified the saponin compounds using HPLC and HR LC-MS techniques.

Ruminal modulator additive effect of Stryphnodendron rotundifolium bark in feedlot lambs

The study aimed to evaluate the inclusion effects of Stryphnodendron rotundifolium (barbatimão) extracts in substitution of the lasalocid sodium on the ingestive behaviour, intake, ruminal parameters, and digestibility of feedlot lambs. Twenty-four pantaneiro lambs were used, with an average age of 150 ± 4.59 days and an initial body weight of 21.2 ± 3.63 kg. The lambs were distributed in three treatments in an experimental design with randomized blocks. The treatments correspond to the additive supplements: LAS (0.019 g of lasalocid sodium/lamb/d); DGB (1.50 g of barbatimão dried ground bark/lamb/d); DHE (0.30 g of barbatimão dry hydroalcoholic extract/lamb/d). The DHE increased 59.74 min in the time spent for ingestion per day, resulting in an efficiency reduction of dry matter (DM) ingestion (127 g of DM/h of feed). There was a reduction of 1.8 mg/dL in the ammoniacal nitrogen concentration with extract supplementation compared to LAS. The DGB reduced total volatile fatty acids by 48.9% compared to the control treatment. The inclusion of barbatimão extracts (DGB and DHE) reduced 12.05% of ruminal butyrate content. The supplementation of barbatimão extracts replacing lasalocid sodium in the diet of feedlot lambs did not affect intake and caused small changes on ingestive behaviour.

The Effect of Monensin vs. Neem, and Moringa Extracts on Nutrient Digestibility, Growth Performance, Methane, and Blood Profile of Merino Lambs

Plant secondary compounds are potential rumen modifiers that can improve nutrient utilization in ruminant animals. This study evaluated the effect of Moringa (Moringa oleifera) and Neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf extracts on nutrient digestibility, growth performance, and enteric methane production in South African Mutton Merino lambs. Forty 4-month-old ram lambs with a mean body weight of 35 ± 2.2 kg were blocked by weight and from each block, lambs were randomly allocated into one of the following treatments: (i) diet only (fed a total mixed ration TMR-negative control), (ii) Monensin (fed TMR containing Monensin sodium, 15 mg/kg DM), (iii) Moringa (fed TMR, drenched with Moringa extract 50 mg/kg feed DM intake), and (iv) Neem (fed TMR, drenched with Neem extract 50 mg/kg DM intake). Extracts were administered via oral drenching at a concentration determined based on the previous week's feed intake. There were no differences in dry matter intake, average daily gain, feed conversion efficiency, digestibility, and nitrogen retention across the treatments. However, the extracts tended to reduce methane emitted both in g/head/day (p < 0.08) and g/ kg dry matter intake (p < 0.07). Extracts did not influence any of the blood metabolites in the ram lambs. Although the benefits of utilizing these medicinal plants as rumen modifiers under prolonged feeding conditions is justified, further evaluation is recommended to test Moringa and Neem leaf extracts at higher inclusion levels. Our research group is currently exploring a variety of phytogenic tools for the identification and standardization of key bioactive compounds linked to methane inhibition, in these leaf extracts.

Could natural phytochemicals be used to reduce nitrogen excretion and excreta-derived N2O emissions from ruminants?

Ruminants play a critical role in our food system by converting plant biomass that humans cannot or choose not to consume into edible high-quality food. However, ruminant excreta is a significant source of nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas with a long-term global warming potential 298 times that of carbon dioxide. Natural phytochemicals or forages containing phytochemicals have shown the potential to improve the efficiency of nitrogen (N) utilization and decrease N2O emissions from the excreta of ruminants. Dietary inclusion of tannins can shift more of the excreted N to the feces, alter the urinary N composition and consequently reduce N2O emissions from excreta. Essential oils or saponins could inhibit rumen ammonia production and decrease urinary N excretion. In grazed pastures, large amounts of glucosinolates or aucubin can be introduced into pasture soils when animals consume plants rich in these compounds and then excrete them or their metabolites in the urine or feces. If inhibitory compounds are excreted in the urine, they would be directly applied to the urine patch to reduce nitrification and subsequent N2O emissions. The phytochemicals' role in sustainable ruminant production is undeniable, but much uncertainty remains. Inconsistency, transient effects, and adverse effects limit the effectiveness of these phytochemicals for reducing N losses. In this review, we will identify some current phytochemicals found in feed that have the potential to manipulate ruminant N excretion or mitigate N2O production and deliberate the challenges and opportunities associated with using phytochemicals or forages rich in phytochemicals as dietary strategies for reducing N excretion and excreta-derived N2O emissions.

Effect of Chitosan on Ruminal Fermentation and Microbial Communities, Methane Emissions, and Productive Performance of Dairy Cattle

This study aimed to expand the knowledge about the activity and mode of action of CHI on methanogenesis and rumen microbial populations in vivo. A total of 16 lactating dairy cows were distributed in two groups, one of them receiving 135 mg CHI/kg body weight daily. The effect on productive performance, milk composition, fermentation efficiency, methane emissions, microbial protein synthesis, and ruminal microbial communities was determined. Supplementation with CHI did not affect rumen microbial diversity but increased the relative abundance (RA) of the bacteria Anaeroplasma and decreased those of rumen ciliates and protozoa resulting in a shift towards a lower acetic to propionic ratio. However, no effect on milk yield or methane intensity was observed. In conclusion, supplementing 135 mg CHI/kg body weight increased the RA of Anaeroplasma and decreased those of rumen ciliates and protozoa, both being related to fiber degradation in the rumen in different ways and resulted in a shift of ruminal fermentation towards more propionate proportions, without affecting CH4 emissions, milk yield, or milk composition. Further research with higher doses would be necessary to assess the potential use of this additive as a methane inhibitor.

Roles of Essential Oils, Polyphenols, and Saponins of Medicinal Plants as Natural Additives and Anthelmintics in Ruminant Diets: A Systematic Review

Public awareness on health and safety issues in using antibiotics for livestock production has led many countries to ban the use of all growth-promoting antibiotics (GPA) for livestock feeding. The ban on the utilization of antibiotics in livestock, on the other hand, is an opportunity for researchers and livestock practitioners to develop alternative feed additives that are safe for both livestock and the consumers of animal derived foods. Many feed additives were developed from a number of plants that contain secondary metabolites, such as essential oils, polyphenols, and saponins. These secondary metabolites are extracted from various parts of many types of plants for their uses as feed additives and anthelmintics. Recent investigations on using essential oils, polyphenols, and saponins as dietary additives and anthelmintics demonstrate that they can increase not only the production and health of ruminants but also ensure the safety of the resulting foods. There are many publications on the advantageous impacts of dietary plant bioactive components on ruminants; however, a comprehensive review on individual bioactive constituents of each plant secondary metabolites along with their beneficial effects as feed additives and anthelmintics on ruminants is highly required. This current study reviewed the individual bioactive components of different plant secondary metabolites and their functions as additives and anthelmintics to improve ruminant production and health, with respect to safety, affordability and efficiency, using a systematic review procedure.

Effects of Different Levels of Yucca Supplementation on Growth Rates, Metabolic Profiles, Fecal Odor Emissions, and Carcass Traits of Growing Lambs

Sixty male Awassi lambs were used to investigate the effects of dietary Yucca schidgera extract (YS) on the production, fecal and urinary odor emissions, and carcass traits of growing lambs fed complete pellets. Lambs were fed either a complete pelleted diet without yucca (control) or supplemented with 300 or 600 mg YS/kg dry matter (DM) during the 84-day experiment. The weights and feed consumption of the lambs were measured weekly. Blood samples were taken on days 1, 28, 58, and 84, and ruminal fluid samples were collected on day 70. On day 90, the odor emissions from feces and urine were measured. On day 84, 12 lambs were slaughtered for the evaluation of carcass and meat quality. The final values for bodyweight, bodyweight gain, and feed efficiency of lambs fed the YS₃₀₀ diet were 3.40%, 6.64%, and 6.17%, respectively, higher (p < 0.05) than those fed the YS₆₀₀ diet. Additionally, the percentage of dressing, myofibril fragmentation index, and ruminal isovalerate percentage of lambs treated with YS₆₀₀ were higher than those treated with YS₃₀₀. Compared with the control, the addition of yucca reduced odor emissions from feces and urine. In conclusion, dietary YS₃₀₀ had no additional benefits on growth rate, feed efficiency, and carcass traits, while dietary YS₆₀₀ improved fecal and urinary odors.

Influence of cover crops with allelopathic potential and their reduction of herbicide use for soybean productivity

The allelophaty expressed by soil cover crops over weed varies according to species, quality and quantity of material produced. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential of cover crops and in the management of weeds and their effects on soybean yield. The experiment was laid in tri-factorial randomized block design with four replication. Factor A was cover crops (oats, forage chicory, quinoa and fallow), factor B was application of paraquat 400 g i.a ha^-1, glyphosate 1200 g i.a ha^-1 and mowing and factor C was one and two applications of post-emergent herbicide (glyphosate). For cover crops, the percentage of soil cover was evaluated at 53 DAE (days after emergence) of soybean. Weed species and their densities at 53 DAE of soybean were identified. At the end of the experiment, soybean yield was evaluated. The data were analyzed by the F test and comparison between means by the Tukey test (P ≤ 0.05). Oats are the best option for weed inhibition and early soybean development. Quinoa and forage chicory were slow to cover the soil, but weed inhibition occurred. There were no large variations in post-emergence herbicide applications, which made possible to reduce an application without compromising the expected result.

Surface Properties of Saponin—Chitosan Mixtures

The surface properties of saponin and saponin-chitosan mixtures were analysed as a function of their bulk mixing ratio using vibrational sum-frequency generation (SFG), surface tensiometry and dilational rheology measurements. Our experiments show that saponin-chitosan mixtures present some remarkable properties, such as a strong amphiphilicity of the saponin and high dilational viscoelasticity. We believe this points to the presence of chitosan in the adsorption layer, despite its complete lack of surface activity. We explain this phenomenon by electrostatic interactions between the saponin as an anionic surfactant and chitosan as a polycation, leading to surface-active saponin-chitosan complexes and aggregates. Analysing the SFG intensity of the O-H stretching bands from interfacial water molecules, we found that in the case of pH 3.4 for a mixture consisting of 0.1 g/L saponin and 0.001 g/L chitosan, the adsorption layer was electrically neutral. This conclusion from SFG spectra is corroborated by results from surface tensiometry showing a significant reduction in surface tension and effects on the dilational surface elasticity strictly at saponin/chitosan ratios, where SFG spectra indicate zero net charge at the air–water interface.

Schinopsis brasiliensis Engler-Phytochemical Properties, Biological Activities, and Ethnomedicinal Use: A Scoping Review

Brazil has the most incredible biodiversity globally and has a vast storehouse of molecules to be discovered. However, there are no pharmacological and phytochemical studies on most native plants. Parts of Schinopsis brasiliensis Engler, a tree from the Anacardiaceae family, are used by several traditional communities to treat injuries and health problems. The objective of this scoping review was to summarize the pharmacological information about S. brasiliensis, from ethnobotanical to phytochemical and biological studies. Data collection concerning the geographical distribution of S. brasiliensis specimens was achieved through the Reflora Virtual Herbarium. The study’s protocol was drafted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR). The search strategy used the keyword “Schinopsis brasiliensis” in the databases: PUBMED, EMBASE, SCOPUS, Science Direct, Web of Science, SciFinder, and SciELO. Rayyan was used for the selection of eligible studies. In total, 35 studies were included in the paper. The most recurrent therapeutic indications were for general pain, flu and inflammation. The bark was the most studied part of the plant. The most used preparation method was decoction and infusion, followed by syrup. Phytochemical investigations indicate the presence of tannins, flavonoids, phenols, and polyphenols. Most of the substances were found in the plant’s leaf and bark. Important biological activities were reported, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory. S. brasiliensis is used mainly by communities in the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil to treat several diseases. Pharmacological and phytochemical studies together provide scientific support for the popular knowledge of the medicinal use of S. brasiliensis. In vitro and in vivo analyses reported antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, cytotoxic, photoprotective, preservative, molluscicidal, larvicidal, and pupicidal effects. It is essential to highlight the need for future studies that elucidate the mechanisms of action of these phytocompounds.

Antiviral effect of an extract from Kaempferia galanga L. rhizome in mice infected with pseudorabies virus

Pseudorabies virus (PrV) is one of the most important herpesviruses which can cause severe diseases in many mammals and some avian species. In recent years, repeated outbreaks of pseudorabies worldwide indicated an urgent need for new control measures. The results described in this study demonstrated that an extract prepared from the rhizome of Kaempferia galanga L (Kge), which consisted of flavonoids (2.82%), saccharides (61.37%), phenols (1.22%) and saponins (3.10%), possessed a potent anti-PrV activity. In PK-15 cells, Kge treatment inhibited PrV-induced cell death by more than 90% at a dose of 200 μg/mL. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) was 55.85 μg/mL. In the PrV-infected mice treated with Kge, the survival rate was up to 60% at day 6 post-infection, while the infected mice without Kge treatment all died. The virus titers in the brains of the Kge-treated infected mice were significantly reduced. Kge treatment also alleviated the severity of the PrV-induced lesions in the heart, liver, spleen, lung and kidney. Kge exhibited immune-regulating activity through the regulation of cytokines (IFN-α, IFN-β, IL-4, IL-6 and TNF-α) in the serum of PrV-infected mice, suggesting that one possible mechanism of anti-PrV activity was through the regulation of immune function. These results suggested that Kge could be a promising drug candidate for treating PrV infections.

Meta-analysis of dietary chitosan effects on performance, nutrient utilization, and product characteristics of ruminants

Chitosan (CHI) has been used as a feed additive in ruminant diets, but the effects obtained to date have been varied. This study aimed to evaluate the dietary addition of CHI on performance, nutrient utilization, and product characteristics of ruminants by using a meta-analysis approach. A total of 15 articles that composed of 21 studies and 57 data points were included in the database. Number of articles reported the effects of dietary CHI addition were six on beef cattle, seven on dairy cows, and two papers on sheep. Data analysis was based on the mixed model methodology, in which CHI addition levels were considered as fixed effects whereas different studies were treated as random effects. Results revealed that, across various studies, CHI decreased ruminal acetate proportion (p < 0.05) and increased propionate proportion (p < 0.01). Dry matter and crude protein digestibility were elevated due to CHI addition (p < 0.05). CHI decreased blood cholesterol level (p < 0.05) and increased monounsaturated fatty acid proportion in the milk (p < 0.05). However, CHI addition had no effect on dry matter intake, milk production, and milk efficiency of ruminants. In conclusion, CHI is able to modify rumen fermentation towards a favorable direction, but it limitedly affects performance of ruminants.

Safety assessment of crude saponins from Chenopodium quinoa willd. husks: 90-day oral toxicity and gut microbiota & metabonomics study in rats

The subchronic toxicity of saponins of Chenopodium quinoa Willd. husks in healthy adult Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats was explored. Female and male rats were randomly divided into 0, 5, 50, and 500 mg/kg body weight (BW)/day groups. Subchronic general toxicity, metabonomics and gut microbiota were assessed. The rats treated with saponins weighed less and had lower blood sugar levels (P < 0.05). Thirty-two differential metabolites were found in female rats and 23 in male rats. Saponins also led to changes in metabonomics. Slight necrosis was observed in the intestinal mucosa, which was associated with an increase in the gut microbiota diversity of female rats in the high-dose saponin treatment group and metabolic changes in the liver and kidney. In conclusion, the toxic effect of quinoa saponins is sex-dependent; however, the no-observed-adverse-effect level for quinoa saponins was evaluated to be under 50 mg/kg BW/day for both sexes in the current study.

Benefits and Challenges of Jatropha Meal as Novel Biofeed for Animal Production

Jatropha curcas L. has gained importance as a source of seed oil for biodiesel production. The meal contained about 60% protein with a good balance of essential amino acids, containing various bioactive compounds, including saponins, phytic acids, trypsin inhibitors, lectins, phenolics, and flavonoids, which render it as a potential biofeed for animal production. The Jatropha meal demonstrated various biological activities, including antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory effects which enhance its property as a bio-feed. The levels of these bioactive compounds in the seeds are dependent on the genotypes. The J. curcas possessed different varieties which are either toxic or non-toxic according to the presence of phorbol esters. The presence of phorbol esters in the meal confirmed the toxic variety of Jatropha resulting in the limited application of meal as a biofeed. The Jatropha meal devoid of phorbol esters could be applied as a biofeed in the animal production industry, and for the toxic varieties, various techniques such as physicochemical and biological treatments have been introduced to the industry to remove the phorbol esters from Jatropha meal. Several studies employing various cells and animals confirmed the toxicity of the phorbol esters. The molecular mechanism of action of phorbol esters is through up-regulation of PKC-β II gene, overexpression of down-stream proto-oncogenes resulted in inflammation and oxidative stress ending by apoptotic cell death. Despite the presence of valuable bioactive compounds in the Jatropha meal, its nutritional application is not recommended unless the phorbol esters are completely removed.

Cleaning the Medicago Microarray Database to Improve Gene Function Analysis

Transcriptomics studies have been facilitated by the development of microarray and RNA-Seq technologies, with thousands of expression datasets available for many species. However, the quality of data can be highly variable, making the combined analysis of different datasets difficult and unreliable. Most of the microarray data for Medicago truncatula, the barrel medic, have been stored and made publicly accessible on the web database Medicago truncatula Gene Expression atlas (MtGEA). The aim of this work is to ameliorate the quality of the MtGEA database through a general method based on logical and statistical relationships among parameters and conditions. The initial 716 columns available in the dataset were reduced to 607 by evaluating the quality of data through the sum of the expression levels over the entire transcriptome probes and Pearson correlation among hybridizations. The reduced dataset shows great improvements in the consistency of the data, with a reduction in both false positives and false negatives resulting from Pearson correlation and GO enrichment analysis among genes. The approach we used is of general validity and our intent is to extend the analysis to other plant microarray databases.

Natural intoxication caused by protodioscin in lambs kept in Brachiaria pastures

Protodioscin poisoning of Brachiaria spp. has been a serious problem for lambs in grazing systems. The defoliation process can stimulate the appearance of new leaves and, the younger leaves have a lower concentration of protodioscin. Thus, it was aimed to assess the effect of different leaf offerings on the protodioscin content in forage and if protodioscin can interfere with the dry matter intake (DMI) and on metabolic and productive parameters of lambs. Twelve tester lambs (average weight 17.5 ± 3.48 kg) were divided into four groups of different levels of dry leafy matter (60, 75, 90, or 105 g/kg body weight). In addition to these, 33 regulator lambs were used as needed to adjust the leaf offerings of pasture. The animals were divided and kept in 12 paddocks, each with a tester lamb. The DMI was estimated using chromic oxide as an external marker. In vitro digestibility and degradation kinetics and ruminal, blood, and urinary parameters were measured in the forage sampled by the hand plucking method. The protodioscin concentration in forage was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. The DMI increased linearly as a result of the supply of leaves. However, the protodioscin content and its consumption showed a quadratic behavior. There was no effect of leaf supply on in vitro digestibility, in vitro degradation kinetics of forage, and on ruminal, blood, and urinary parameters of lambs. However, a negative correlation was observed between the DMI and the concentration of protodioscin at the highest level of leaf supply. This is due to the fact that in the most intense grazing, there is a stimulus for greater regrowth; therefore, there was an increase in the concentration of protodioscin in forages in older forages. Protodioscin poisoning was confirmed by urinary and blood parameters.

Animal Design Through Functional Dietary Diversity for Future Productive Landscapes

Pastoral livestock production systems are facing considerable societal pressure to reduce environmental impact, enhance animal welfare, and promote product integrity, while maintaining or increasing system profitability. Design theory is the conscious tailoring of a system for a specific or set of purposes. Then, animals—as biological systems nested in grazing environments—can be designed in order to achieve multi-faceted goals. We argue that phytochemical rich diets through dietary taxonomical diversity can be used as a design tool for both current animal product integrity and to develop future multipurpose animals. Through conscious choice, animals offered a diverse array of plants tailor a diet, which better meets their individual requirements for nutrients, pharmaceuticals, and prophylactics. Phytochemical rich diets with diverse arrangements of plant secondary compounds also reduce environmental impacts of grazing animals by manipulating the use of C and N, thereby reducing methane production and excretion of N. Subsequently functional dietary diversity (FDD), as opposed to dietary monotony, offers better nourishment, health benefits and hedonic value (positive reward increasing “liking” of feed), as well as the opportunity for individualism; and thereby eudaimonic well-being. Moreover, phytochemical rich diets with diverse arrangements of plant secondary compounds may translate in animal products with similar richness, enhancing consumer human health and well-being. Functional dietary diversity also allows us to design future animals. Dietary exposure begins in utero, continues through mothers' milk, and carries on in early-life experiences, influencing dietary preferences later in life. More specifically, in utero exposure to specific flavors cause epigenetic changes that alter morphological and physiological mechanisms that influence future “wanting,” “liking” and learning of particular foods and foodscapes. In this context, we argue that in utero and early life exposure to designed flavors of future multifunctional foodscapes allow us to graze future ruminants with enhanced multiple ecosystem services. Collectively, the strategic use of FDD allows us to “create” animals and their products for immediate and future food, health, and wealth. Finally, implementing design theory provides a link between our thoughtscape (i.e., the use of FDD as design) to future landscapes, which provides a beneficial foodscape to the animals, an subsequently to us.

Rearing Tenebrio molitor and Alphitobius diaperinus Larvae on Seed Cleaning Process Byproducts

The exploitation of agricultural byproducts and organic side-streams as insect feeding substrates is advantageous for insect farming both from an economic and a sustainability perspective. In this context, in the present study we evaluated the suitability of ten byproducts of the cereal and legume seed cleaning process for the rearing of larvae of the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor, and the lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus. Byproducts were offered singly to 20 T. molitor and 50 A. diaperinus larvae with provision of carrots as moisture source. After four weeks of undisturbed development, larval weight and survival was evaluated biweekly until pupation. Feed utilization and economic feasibility parameters were determined for each byproduct at the end of the bioassays. Our results show the suitability of several of the byproducts tested for the rearing of T. molitor and A. diaperinus larvae. The best results though among the byproducts tested in terms of larval growth and survival, development time and feed utilization were obtained with larvae fed with lupin and triticale byproducts, which efficiently supported complete larval development. The results of our study aim to boost the integration of circular economy strategies with insect farming practices.

Evaluation of Phytochemicals and Bioactive Properties in Mangrove Associate Suaeda monoica Forssk. ex J.F.Gmel. of Indian Sundarbans

Suaeda monoica Forssk. ex J.F.Gmel. (Amaranthaceae), a mangrove associate and ethno-medicinal herb of Indian Sundarbans, was investigated as a promising source of bioactive compounds. Various polar and nonpolar solvent extracts of the leaf and root-shoot parts of the plant exhibited antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, allelopathic, mosquitocidal, antihaemolytic and antidiuretic potential. Moreover, to meet pharmacological requirements, the antioxidant ability of the plant was validated by both chemical and biological analyses. Extraction yield and presence of different phytochemicals like phenolics, flavonoids, tannins and saponins were compared in various solvent-extracted fractions. Principle component analysis revealed that the antioxidant property present in different extracts maintained a positive correlation with the occurrence of polyphenols (phenolics, tannins and flavonoids). Biochemical evaluation, HPLC examination and GC–MS analysis showed a differential level of the presence of various phytochemicals in different solvent extracts. In contrast to mosquitocidal, antioxidant, antihaemolytic and phytotoxic properties which were observed to be dominant in polar solvent extracts, maximum antibacterial potency was detected in nonpolar n-hexane fractions. Overall, the plant extract is nontoxic in nature and a dose amounting to 3,000 mg/kg was well tolerated by Swiss albino mice. A combination of HPLC and GC–MS analyses showed the presence of a large number of structurally diverse phytochemicals, many of which had already been reported as insecticidal, mosquitocidal, antibacterial, herbicidal, antidiuretic, antioxidant and anti-haemolytic compounds. All these findings support that the least explored traditional edible medicinal mangrove associate S.monoica is enriched with multiple bioactive molecules and may be considered as one of the richest sources of various lead molecules of pharmaceutical importance.

Crude saponin extract from Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers pod meal could modulate ruminal fermentation, and protein utilization, as well as mitigate methane production

The aim of the study was to conduct a basic evaluation of the in vitro effect of crude protein (CP) levels in concentrate and a saponin extract from Sesbania graniflora pods meal (SES) on the kinetics of gas, nutrient digestibility, ruminal fermentation, protein efficiency uses, and methane (CH₄) mitigation. Eight treatments were formed according to a 2 × 4 factorial design in a completely randomized design (CRD). The first factor referred to the levels of CP at 14 and 16% on dry matter (DM) basis in the concentrate diet, and the second factor referred to the levels of SES supplementation at 0, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6% of the total substrate on a DM basis. The results showed that S. graniflora pod meal contained 21.73% CP, 10.87% condensed tannins, and 16.20% crude saponins, respectively. Most kinetics of gas as well as cumulative gas were not influenced by the CP levels or SES addition (P > 0.05) except gas production from immediately soluble fraction (a) was significantly different by CP levels. Ammonia-nitrogen concentration of incubation at 4 h was significantly difference based on the CP levels and SES supplementation (P < 0.05). Increasing SES levels significantly (P < 0.05) decreased protozoal population. In vitro digestibility of DM and organic matter was not changed by CP levels or SES addition. Butyrate and acetate to propionate ration were decreased, and propionate was increased when increasing SES dose (P < 0.05), while CP levels did not change total volatile fatty acids and molar portions. The ruminal CH₄ concentration was reduced by 44.12% when 0.6% SES was added after 8 h of incubation. Therefore, SES supplementation could enhance protein utilization and improve rumen fermentation particularly lowering CH₄ production.

Nutritional Aspects of Ecologically Relevant Phytochemicals in Ruminant Production

This review provides an update of ecologically relevant phytochemicals for ruminant production, focusing on their contribution to advancing nutrition. Phytochemicals embody a broad spectrum of chemical components that influence resource competence and biological advantage in determining plant species' distribution and density in different ecosystems. These natural compounds also often act as plant defensive chemicals against predatorial microbes, insects, and herbivores. They may modulate or exacerbate microbial transactions in the gastrointestinal tract and physiological responses in ruminant microbiomes. To harness their production-enhancing characteristics, phytochemicals have been actively researched as feed additives to manipulate ruminal fermentation and establish other phytochemoprophylactic (prevent animal diseases) and phytochemotherapeutic (treat animal diseases) roles. However, phytochemical-host interactions, the exact mechanism of action, and their effects require more profound elucidation to provide definitive recommendations for ruminant production. The majority of phytochemicals of nutritional and pharmacological interest are typically classified as flavonoids (9%), terpenoids (55%), and alkaloids (36%). Within flavonoids, polyphenolics (e.g., hydrolyzable and condensed tannins) have many benefits to ruminants, including reducing methane (CH4) emission, gastrointestinal nematode parasitism, and ruminal proteolysis. Within terpenoids, saponins and essential oils also mitigate CH4 emission, but triterpenoid saponins have rich biochemical structures with many clinical benefits in humans. The anti-methanogenic property in ruminants is variable because of the simultaneous targeting of several physiological pathways. This may explain saponin-containing forages' relative safety for long-term use and describe associated molecular interactions on all ruminant metabolism phases. Alkaloids are N-containing compounds with vast pharmacological properties currently used to treat humans, but their phytochemical usage as feed additives in ruminants has yet to be exploited as they may act as ghost compounds alongside other phytochemicals of known importance. We discussed strategic recommendations for phytochemicals to support sustainable ruminant production, such as replacements for antibiotics and anthelmintics. Topics that merit further examination are discussed and include the role of fresh forages vis-à-vis processed feeds in confined ruminant operations. Applications and benefits of phytochemicals to humankind are yet to be fully understood or utilized. Scientific explorations have provided promising results, pending thorough vetting before primetime use, such that academic and commercial interests in the technology are fully adopted.

Sustainable impact of pulp and leaves of Glycyrrhiza glabra to enhance ruminal biofermentability, protozoa population, and biogas production in sheep

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of pulp and leaves of Glycyrrhiza glabra to reduce the ruminal biogas production in sheep. Five experimental diets of two levels of Glycyrrhiza glabra pulp (GGP) and Glycyrrhiza glabra leaves (GGL) at 150 and 300 g/kg dry matter (DM) were assessed for biogas production and fermentation parameters. Diets were control (diet without GGP or GGL), GGP15 (diet contains GGP at 150 g/kg DM), GGP30 (diet contains GGP at 300 g/kg DM), GGL15 (diet contains GGL at 150 g/kg DM), and GGL30 (diet contains GGL at 300 g/kg DM). Inclusion of 150 and 300 g/kg GGP and 300 g/kg GGL decreased (P < 0.0001) asymptotic biogas production (A), fermentation rate (μ), biogas production at 24 h of incubation (GP24), apparent degraded substrate (ADS), in vitro organic matter disappearance (OMD), and metabolizable energy (ME). Microbial protein biomass (MP) was improved (P = 0.003) by GGP15, GGL15, and GGL30 versus control. Total VFAs (P = 0.003), acetate (P = 0.009), and butyrate (P = 0.002), CH4 (mmol and mL/g OMD), CO2 (mmol and mL/g OMD) (P = 0.0003 and P = 0.0002, respectively), were decreased in GGP15, GGP30, and GGL30 diets versus control. Acetate to propionate ratio (Ac/Pr) was decreased (P = 0.038) in GGL30 diet compared to other diets. Replacing GGP and GGL with alfalfa reduced NH3-N concentration (P = 0.022), total protozoa (P < 0.0001), Isotricha spp. (P = 0.047), Dasytricha spp. (P = 0.067), subfamilies of Entodiniinae (P < 0.0001), and Diplodiniinae (P = 0.06). Results suggested that inclusion of dietary GGL at 150 g/kg dry matter positively modified some rumen parameters such as microbial protein production, protozoa population, and NH3-N concentration, which may be useful economically in ruminant animals and decreasing of environmental pollution.

Saponins: Extraction, bio-medicinal properties and way forward to anti-viral representatives

Medicinal or herbal plants are widely used for their many favourable properties and are generally safe without any side effects. Saponins are sugar conjugated natural compounds which possess a multitude of biological activities such as medicinal properties, antimicrobial activity, antiviral activity, etc. Saponin production is a part of the normal growth and development process in a lot of plants and plant extracts such as liquorice and ginseng which are exploited as potential drug sources. Herbal compounds have shown a great potential against a wide variety of infectious agents, including viruses such as the SARS-CoV; these are all-natural products and do not show any adverse side effects. This article reviews the various aspects of saponin biosynthesis and extraction, the need for their integration into more mainstream medicinal therapies and how they could be potentially useful in treating viral diseases such as COVID-19, HIV, HSV, rotavirus etc. The literature presents a close review on the saponin efficacy in targeting mentioned viral diseases that occupy a high mortality rate worldwide. This manuscript indicates the role of saponins as a source of dynamic plant based anti-viral remedies and their various methods for extraction from different sources.

Plant-Induced Photosensitivity and Dermatitis in Livestock

Whether poisoned by grazing certain toxic plants, by eating contaminated feed, or by topical contact with plant toxins, certain plants poison livestock causing photosensitivity and dermatitis. These dermal lesions are rarely fatal, and with appropriate therapy and protection from additional exposure most lesions heal with few permanent sequelae. However, these lesions often result in costly production losses and missed opportunities. The objectives of this review are to briefly introduce toxic plants that result in photosensitivity and dermatitis, review the toxins and pathogenesis of plant-induced skin disease, and summarize treatments and recommendations to avoid poisoning.

Hepatotoxic Plants that Poison Livestock

The liver is one of the most commonly affected organs by ingested toxicants. This article familiarizes veterinarians with clinical signs, serum biochemistry changes, necropsy findings, and field information found in livestock poisonings with hepatotoxic plants. The focus is on the most common plant-derived hepatotoxins important to livestock in North America. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are covered in greater detail than the other toxins, because they are likely the most important plant-derived toxins worldwide in livestock, wildlife, and even human exposure. Additionally, many of the principles discussed regarding clinical diagnosis of pyrrolizidine alkaloid intoxication can be applied to the other poisonous plants listed.

Reducing Ruminal Ammonia Production With Improvement in Feed Utilization Efficiency and Performance of Murrah Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) Through Dietary Supplementation of Plant-Based Feed Additive Blend

The study evaluated the potential of blends of eucalyptus oil and aqueous extract of mulethi (root of Glycyrrhiza glabra) to reduce rate of ruminal ammonia production without affecting feed digestion to improve nitrogen utilization efficiency and performance of Murrah buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Based on preliminary independent studies with graded doses of eucalyptus oil and mulethi root aqueous extract in modulating in vitro rumen fermentation, four blends of feed additive comprising graded doses (5, 10, 15, and 25 μL) of eucalyptus oil and a fixed quantity (15 μL) of aqueous extract of mulethi roots were prepared and examined for their effects on in vitro rumen fermentation and on methane and gas production in 100-mL calibrated glass syringes by standard IVGP protocol. Rumen liquor was collected from four rumen fistulated Murrah buffaloes fed a total mixed ration. Out of four blends, blend-1 comprising 5 μL of eucalyptus oil and 15 μL of aqueous extract (233.6 g/L DW) of mulethi per 40 mL of in vitro medium was found to reduce ammonia production significantly (p < 0.001) without affecting feed digestibility. An equivalent dose of blend-1 (10.5 mL of eucalyptus oil and 7.35 g of mulethi root powder/h/day) fed to four rumen fistulated buffaloes for 24 days resulted in 50% reduction (p < 0.05) in rumen ammonia level with no inhibition in feed fermentation or short-chain fatty acid production. The total bacterial population including Ruminococcus albus, Fibrobacter succinogenes, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, and Megasphaera elsdenii as well as anaerobic fungi and methanogenic archaea remained unaffected (p > 0.05). Twelve buffalo calves (avg. BW 137.5 ± 9.2 kg, 8–12 months old) divided into two groups of six each and fed a total mixed ration (concentrate: roughage; 60:40) with or without supplementation of blend-1 for about 3 months demonstrated 14% increase (p < 0.05) in average daily gain in BW with a trend (p < 0.10) in improvement of feed or protein utilization efficiency (1.4 vs. 1.1 g crude protein/g average daily gain; 21.4% increase). Thus, supplementation of eucalyptus oil–mulethi root blend could reduce ruminal ammonia production and improve feed utilization efficiency in ruminants.

Comprehensive evaluation on tailor-made deep eutectic solvents (DESs) in extracting tea saponins from seed pomace of Camellia oleifera Abel

Tea saponins from Camellia oleifera Abel. seed pomace are new sources of commercial saponins. This study established an eco-friendly and efficient extraction method for tea saponins from C. oleifera seed pomace. A ternary deep eutectic solvent (DES) composed of l-proline, glycerol and sucrose (4:10:1 in molar ratio, abbreviated as PGS-5) achieved the highest extraction yield of tea saponins among all screened DESs. A maximum extraction yield of 23.22 ± 0.28% was obtained using PGS-5 under the optimized extraction time, DES concentration and liquid-solid ratio. Through ultraviolet, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-Q Exactive HF mass spectroscopy, as well as analyses of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, it was determined that extracted saponins did not altered during processing. Therefore, PGS-5 can serve as a solvent to obtain stable and beneficial tea saponins from C. oleifera seed pomace.

Levels of the Enterolobium cyclocarpum pod in feedlot diet on growth performance, ruminal fermentation and biogas production of lambs-hair

Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Ec) is a native legume that grows from southern Mexico to South America; its seeds are traditionally used for feeding ruminants. The objective of this study was to evaluate the addition of Ec pods in diets of hair lambs and their effect on the productive variables, ruminal fermentation and in vitro production of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide. Thirty male lambs fed diets containing 0% (Ec0), 20% (Ec20) and 40% (Ec40) based on dry matter were evaluated. The addition of Ec40 in the integral diet of the lambs did not affect the growth performance. The pH of the ruminal fluid did not show differences between the treatments. The addition of Ec40 increased propionate and decreased acetate. Protozoa decreased in 47 and 59% with Ec20 and Ec40, respectively; while the population of cellulolytic bacteria decreased with Ec40. In vitro degradability of dry matter was lower in 8.8% with the inclusion of Ec40 in diets. The novelty of the study was that Ec40 diet decreased the ruminal methane production.

Not all saponins have a greater antiprotozoal activity than their related sapogenins

The antiprotozoal effect of saponins varies according to both the structure of the sapogenin and the composition and linkage of the sugar moieties to the sapogenin. The effect of saponins on protozoa has been considered to be transient as it was thought that when saponins were deglycosilated to sapogenins in the rumen they became inactive; however, no studies have yet evaluated the antiprotozoal effect of sapogenins compared to their related saponins. The aims of this study were to evaluate the antiprotozoal effect of eighteen commercially available triterpenoid and steroid saponins and sapogenins in vitro, to investigate the effect of variations in the sugar moiety of related saponins and to compare different sapogenins bearing identical sugar moieties. Our results show that antiprotozoal activity is not an inherent feature of all saponins and that small variations in the structure of a compound can have a significant influence on their biological activity. Some sapogenins (20(S)-protopanaxatriol, asiatic acid and madecassic acid) inhibited protozoa activity to a greater extent than their corresponding saponins (Re and Rh₁ and asiaticoside and madecassoside), thus the original hypothesis that the transient nature of the antiprotozoal action of saponins is due to the deglycosilation of saponins needs to be revisited.

Mitigation of Rumen Methane Emissions with Foliage and Pods of Tropical Trees

Simple Summary

Methane produced by enteric fermentation contributes to the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) into the atmosphere. Methane is one of the GHG arising from anthropogenic activities with the greater contribution to global warming. This paper provides a brief introduction to the potential use of tropical foliage trees, pods, and secondary metabolites to reduce methane emissions from ruminant supply chains. A better knowledge of the available strategies for efficient foliage use in the tropics is essential in order to ensure increasing livestock production while preserving the environment. The mitigation of rumen methane production through the use of the foliage and metabolites of tropical trees represents an interesting challenge for scientists working in the field of ruminant nutrition.

Abstract

Methane produced by enteric fermentation contributes to the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) into the atmosphere. Methane is one of the GHG resulting from anthropogenic activities with the greater global warming contribution. Ruminant production systems contribute between 18% and 33% of methane emissions. Due to this, there has been growing interest in finding feed alternatives which may help to mitigate methane production in the rumen. The presence of a vast range of secondary metabolites in tropical trees (coumarins, phenols, tannins, and saponins, among others) may be a valuable alternative to manipulate rumen fermentation and partially defaunate the rumen, and thus reduce enteric methane production. Recent reports suggest that it is possible to decrease methane emissions in sheep by up to 27% by feeding them saponins from the tea leaves of Camellia sinensis; partial defaunation (54%) of the rumen has been achieved using saponins from Sapindus saponaria. The aim of this review was to collect, analyze, and interpret scientific information on the potential of tropical trees and their secondary metabolites to mitigate methane emissions from ruminants.

Filling the gap of Brachiaria decumbens (signal grass) research on clinico-pathology and haemato-biochemistry in small ruminants: A review

Brachiaria decumbens (signal grass) is a highly productive tropical grass that is widespread in some tropical countries due to its adaptation to a wide range of environments and soil types. However, a limiting factor for the use of this grass is its toxicity from steroidal saponins. Sporadic outbreaks of hepatogenous photosensitization in ruminants grazing on this grass have been reported. Sheep are more susceptible than other animal species and the young are more susceptible than adults. This review article will critically shed light on the B. decumbens profile, its toxic compounds, mechanisms, clinical responses, blood profile alterations, pathological changes, and acute phase responses related to signal grass intoxication. Further research is needed to integrate new findings on B. decumbens intoxication with previous preventive and therapeutic trials to minimize or remove its deleterious toxic effect.

Advanced estimation and mitigation strategies: a cumulative approach to enteric methane abatement from ruminants

Methane, one of the important greenhouse gas, has a higher global warming potential than that of carbon dioxide. Agriculture, especially livestock, is considered as the biggest sector in producing anthropogenic methane. Among livestock, ruminants are the highest emitters of enteric methane. Methanogenesis, a continuous process in the rumen, carried out by archaea either with a hydrogenotrophic pathway that converts hydrogen and carbon dioxide to methane or with methylotrophic pathway, which the substrate for methanogenesis is methyl groups. For accurate estimation of methane from ruminants, three methods have been successfully used in various experiments under different environmental conditions such as respiration chamber, sulfur hexafluoride tracer technique, and the automated head-chamber or GreenFeed system. Methane production and emission from ruminants are increasing day by day with an increase of ruminants which help to meet up the nutrient demands of the increasing human population throughout the world. Several mitigation strategies have been taken separately for methane abatement from ruminant productions such as animal intervention, diet selection, dietary feed additives, probiotics, defaunation, supplementation of fats, oils, organic acids, plant secondary metabolites, etc. However, sustainable mitigation strategies are not established yet. A cumulative approach of accurate enteric methane measurement and existing mitigation strategies with more focusing on the biological reduction of methane emission by direct-fed microbials could be the sustainable methane mitigation approaches.

Role of Saponins in Plant Defense Against Specialist Herbivores

The diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) is a very destructive crucifer-specialized pest that has resulted in significant crop losses worldwide. DBM is well attracted to glucosinolates (which act as fingerprints and essential for herbivores in host plant recognition) containing crucifers such as wintercress, Barbarea vulgaris (Brassicaceae) despite poor larval survival on it due to high-to-low concentration of saponins and generally to other plants in the genus Barbarea. B. vulgaris build up resistance against DBM and other herbivorous insects using glucosinulates which are used in plant defense. Aside glucosinolates, Barbarea genus also contains triterpenoid saponins, which are toxic to insects and act as feeding deterrents for plant specialist herbivores (such as DBM). Previous studies have found interesting relationship between the host plant and secondary metabolite contents, which indicate that attraction or resistance to specialist herbivore DBM, is due to higher concentrations of glucosinolates and saponins in younger leaves in contrast to the older leaves of Barbarea genus. As a response to this phenomenon, herbivores as DBM has developed a strategy of defense against these plant biochemicals. Because there is a lack of full knowledge in understanding bioactive molecules (such as saponins) role in plant defense against plant herbivores. Thus, in this review, we discuss the role of secondary plant metabolites in plant defense mechanisms against the specialist herbivores. In the future, trials by plant breeders could aim at transferring these bioactive molecules against herbivore to cash crops.

Structural and quantitative changes of saponins in fresh alfalfa compared to alfalfa silage

BACKGROUND

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is an important legume used in animal feed. The primary objective of the present study was to analyze and trace the individual saponins in fresh and ensiled alfalfa of ten varieties, with the aim of evaluating the structural changes that saponins undergo during ensiling. A secondary objective was to examine whether any of the changes in saponin content were associated with changes in the basic nutrient composition of the ensiled alfalfa.

RESULTS

The total saponin concentration increased when the fresh alfalfa was processed into silage. Three of the zanhic acid glycosides were degraded substantially, whereas the other two increased in all the tested varieties. Five of the seven medicagenic acid glycosides were not changed, whereas the remaining saponins completely disappeared. Finally, two glycosides of soyasapogenol B displayed an inverse relationship to each other.

CONCLUSION

The nutrient content of fresh material and silages remained relatively constant, with some variations in the crude protein content of the selected alfalfa varieties. The total concentration of saponins increased two- to three-fold after ensilation over the levels present in fresh alfalfa material. The increases in saponin concentration showed a negative linear relationship between protein on a dry matter basis and saponin content. These findings are significant because no known published data have shown this transformation in the ensiling of alfalfa. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Chemical and Biological Activity of Triterpene Saponins from Medicago Species

Naturally occurring saponins are a large group of triterpene and steroid glycosides characterized by several biological and pharmacological properties. The Medicago genus represents a valuable source of saponins which have been extensively investigated. This review summarizes the chemical features of saponins from Medicago species and their biological activity, with particular attention to their antimicrobial, insecticidal, allelopathic and cytotoxic effects. Influence of saponins on animal metabolism is also reported.

Effect of supplementation of saponin containing herbs on in vitro methane production under different feeding systems

This study was taken up to assess the effect of herbal feed additives [HFAs; kulthi (Dohichos biflorus), patha (Cissampelos pareria), aritha (Sapindus trifoliatus)] supplemented at 0–3% on DM basis of total mixed rations (TMR) on the in vitro methane production and nutrient fermentation in a 3 × 4 factorial design. TMR with different roughage to concentrate ratio (R:C) of 80:20, 75:25, 70:30 and 65:35 on DM basis were formulated. The roughage portion was made up of wheat straw and maize green fodder in 70:30 ratio. The chemical analysis of HFAs revealed that aritha had the highest concentration of both water and methanol soluble saponins; and condensed tannins (Leucocyanidin). Patha followed by kulthi had the highest concentration of vitamin C, flavonoids, total phenols and true tannins. The digestion kinetic parameters revealed that with the increase in level of concentrate in the diet, irrespective of type and level of supplementation of HFAs, the lag phase for fermentation of diet decreased linearly. The data conclusively revealed that the best response with respect to net gas production (NGP), digestibility of nutrients, methane production, volatile fatty acid (VFA) production, ME availability and other fermentation parameters from TMRs with different R:C ratios was observed in kulthi and patha supplemented at the rate of 2% of TMR with R:C ratio of 65:35 on DM basis.

Effects of Tea Saponin Supplementation on Nutrient Digestibility, Methanogenesis, and Ruminal Microbial Flora in Dorper Crossbred Ewe

Simple Summary

Greenhouse gas emissions are a serious cause of global warming and climate change, and have become a common focus for all countries. Methane has been proven the second most commonly occurring greenhouse gas. Ruminants have been blamed for substantially contributing to methane emissions. Supplementation with tea saponin (TS) effectively decreased methane emissions and nitrogen emissions. It is not only beneficial for environmental protection, but also has potential economic benefits.

Abstract

Two experiments were conducted using Dorper × thin-tailed Han crossbred ewes. In experiment 1, eighteen ewes were randomly assigned to two dietary treatments (a basal diet, or the same basal diet supplemented with 2.0 g tea saponin (TS)/head/day) to investigate the effects of TS supplementation on nutrient digestibility and methane emissions. In experiment 2, six ewes with ruminal cannulae were assigned to the same two dietary treatments as in experiment 1 to investigate the effects of TS supplementation on rumen fermentation and microbial flora. TS supplementation increased the apparent digestibility of organic matter (OM) (p = 0.001), nitrogen (N) (p = 0.036), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) (p = 0.001), and acid detergent fibre (ADF) (p < 0.001). Urinary N (p = 0.001) and fecal N (p = 0.036) output were reduced, and N retention (p = 0.001) and nitrogen retention/nitrogen intake (p = 0.001) were increased. Supplementary TS did not decrease absolute methane emissions (p = 0.519) but decreased methane emissions scaled to metabolic bodyweight by 8.80% (p = 0.006). Ammonia levels decreased (p < 0.001) and total volatile fatty acid levels increased (p = 0.018) in response to TS supplementation. The molar proportion of propionate increased (p = 0.007), whereas the acetate:propionate ratio decreased (p = 0.035). Supplementation with TS increased the population of Fibrobacter succinogenes (p = 0.019), but the population of protozoans tended to decrease (p = 0.054). Supplementation with TS effectively enhanced the apparent digestibility of OM, N, NDF, and ADF, and decreased methane emissions scaled to metabolic bodyweight.

Extracts of forage plants affect the developmental competence of ovine oocytes in vitro

Forage plants may contain secondary compounds that disrupt reproduction in ruminants so, as ‘duty of care’, proposed new forage species need to be tested for harmful effects on reproduction before industrial release. We evaluated the effects of Bituminaria bituminosa, Medicago sativa, Chicorium intybus, Trifolium subterraneum, Trifolium pratense, Biserrula pelecinus and Eremophila glabra, on the in vitro developmental competence of ovine oocytes. Crude methanolic extracts of each plant were added to the medium (final concentrations: 0, 50 or 100 μg dry extract per mL) used for in vitro maturation of cumulus-oocyte complexes derived from abattoir-sourced adult ewe ovaries. After in vitro fertilisation, we quantified cleavage rate, blastocyst rate, hatching rate, blastocyst efficiency, and total blastocyst cell number (TCN). Extract from B. pelecinus, at 50 μg/mL concentration, increased cleavage rate at (P &lt; 0.05), and at 100 μg/mL, increased blastocyst rate and efficiency (P &lt; 0.05). The other plant extracts did not affect these measures. TCN was affected by stage of development and treatment, but not by the interaction between stage and treatment. Within treatments, TCN was increased by C. intybus (at both 50 and 100 μg/mL) but decreased by M. sativa (at both 50 and 100 μg/mL; P &lt; 0.05). We conclude that methanolic extracts of forage plants, present during in vitro oocyte maturation, did not disrupt subsequent fertilisation and embryo development until the blastocyst stage. On the contrary, B. pelecinus appears to improve fertilisation and embryo development. Overall, these observations suggest that these plants will not disrupt in vivo oocyte maturation but further testing is still required, especially for the other stages of the reproductive process.

Effects of Antidesma thwaitesianum Muell. Arg. pomace as a source of plant secondary compounds on digestibility, rumen environment, hematology, and milk production in dairy cows

Mao pomace meal (MPM) contains condensed tannins and saponins at 92 and 98 g/kg, respectively, and these substances can be used to manipulate ruminal fermentation in ruminant. Four multiparous lactating Holstein cows with 45 ± 5 days in milk were randomly assigned according to a 4 × 4 Latin square design to receive four different levels of MPM supplementation at 0, 100, 200, and 300 g/head/day, respectively. Cows were fed with concentrate diets at 1:1.5 of concentrate to milk yield ratio and urea-treated (3%) rice straw was fed ad libitum. The results revealed that feed intake, nutrient digestibility, blood urea nitrogen, and hematological parameters were not affected by MPM supplementation (p > 0.05). However, ruminal pH and propionate were increased quadratically (p < 0.05) in cows receiving MPM whereas acetate, acetate to propionate ratio and estimate methane production were decreased (p < 0.05). Supplementation of MPM linearly decreased ruminal ammonia nitrogen and protozoal population at 4 hr postfeeding (p < 0.05). Milk production and milk composition were similar among treatments (p > 0.05). In conclusion, supplementation of MPM at 200 g/head/day could modify ruminal fermentation and reduce methane production without adverse effect on feed intake, digestibility, hematological parameters, and milk production in dairy cows.

Use of probiotics and botanical extracts to improve ruminant production in the tropics: A review

Ruminant production, especially in the tropics and developing countries suffers a setback when compared with the temperate and developed countries, which is attributable to the kinds of available feed resources in the region of production. In the tropics, ruminants are restricted to grazing on low-quality forages, crop residues and agro-industrial by-products with very little or no concentrate diets, which adversely affect the animals in exhibiting their full production potential. Considering this fact, there is an increasing interest in improving the digestibility of these feed resources. In recent years, researchers have explored several methods to enhance the functions of rumen microflora, improve digestion and fermentation processes, as well as increase bioavailability and utilization of nutrients through feed supplementation. This review aims to explore the positive effects of supplementation of ruminant diets with probiotics or botanical extracts and their metabolites on the productivity of the animals. Moreover, the functions of these non-pathogenic and non-toxic live microorganisms (probiotics) and plant biologically active compounds (botanical extract) are explored because of the ban on non-therapeutic use of antibiotics as growth promoters coupled with the critical preference of consumers to high quality and safe animal products. It has been reported that these alternative supplemental products have a beneficial impact on both animal health and productivity, which is affecting stabilization of rumen environment, inhibition of pathogenic bacteria proliferation in gastro-intestinal tract, modulation of immune response, increase in fibre degradation and fermentation, nutrients availability and utilization, animal growth performance and milk production, among others. However, long-term in vivo studies are still required to determine the synergetic effects of these 2 safe supplemental products.

Saponins and microbial biosurfactants: Potential raw materials for the formulation of cosmetics

The cosmetic industry is currently one of the fasting growing sections of the economy in many countries. The recent tendency toward the use of cosmetics of a natural origin has driven the industry to seek alternatives to synthetic components in the formulation of products. Biosurfactants are natural compounds that have considerable potential for application in the formulation of safe, effective cosmetics as a replacement for commonly used chemical tensioactive agents. The present review provides essential information on the physicochemical and biological properties of saponins and microbial biosurfactants employed in cosmetic products, with a focus on the use of these natural compounds in shampoos, addressing the current state of research and patents involving biosurfactants for this purpose. The challenges and prospects of this cosmetic application are also discussed. © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 34:1482-1493, 2018.