Elemental and isotopic fingerprint of Argentinean wheat. Matching soil, water, and crop composition to differentiate provenance

Multi-elemental analysis of commercial wheat flours by ICP-MS triple quadrupole in function of the milling degree

This preliminary study is focused on an elemental analysis of 60 samples of different commercial grains' flour, including various typologies of refined product, researching transition metals and trace elements. All the samples were first digested with a microwave digestion system and then analyzed by a triple quadrupole (TQ) inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS-QQQ) located in a Clean Room ISO class 6. The minimum value of most of the elements (Li, Be, Na, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn, Ga, As, Se, Rb, Sr) are in the wheat flour "00" type and in the wheat flour "0" type (B, Na, Mg, Al, Cu, Ag, Cd, In, Cs, Pb, Bi). On the opposite, the maximum value of these elements is found in whole wheat flour (B, Mg, K, Ca, Mn, Zn, Ga, Rb, Sr, Ba) and in the wheat flour "0" type (Na, Al, V, Cr, Fe, Co, Ni, As). Relating rare-earth elements (REE), all of them show value similar to each other and not under the detection limits thanks to the use of a TQ in the clean room. The final aim is to create a large database, with a high data bank and easily enlargeable, that could be used in future to analyze unknown flour samples and to set up traceability analysis. The purpose of this work is to find some trends of analyzed elements in function of different parameters, such as milling degree or geographical origin, also with a statistical point of view.

Investigating isotopic markers for hazelnut geographical authentication: Promising variables and potential applications

Hazelnuts' features and price are influenced by their geographical origin, making them susceptible to fraud, especially counterfeit claims regarding their provenance. Stable isotope analysis is a recognised approach to establish the geographical origin of foods, yet its potential in hazelnut authentication remains unexplored. In this prospective study, we assessed multiple isotopic markers in hazelnuts from different origins and evaluated the most promising variables for geographical authentication by chemometric tools. Our findings indicate that bulk δ18O, along with δ2H and δ13C in the main fatty acid methyl esters, exhibit significant potential in discriminating geographical origins, and 87Sr/86Sr analysis could serve as a proficient confirmatory tool. Though no single marker alone can differentiate between all the studied origins, employing a multi-isotopic approach based on PLS-DA models achieved up to 92.5 % accuracy in leave-10 %-out cross-validation. These findings will probably lay the groundwork for developing robust models for hazelnut geographical authentication based on larger datasets.

Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), a Useful Tool in Authenticity of Agricultural Products' and Foods' Origin

Fraudulent practices are the first and foremost concern of food industry, with significant consequences in economy and human's health. The increasing demand for food has led to food fraud by replacing, mixing, blending, and mislabeling products attempting to increase the profits of producers and companies. Consequently, there was the rise of a multidisciplinary field which encompasses a large number of analytical techniques aiming to trace and authenticate the origins of agricultural products, food and beverages. Among the analytical strategies have been developed for the authentication of geographical origin of foodstuff, Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) increasingly dominates the field as a robust, accurate, and highly sensitive technique for determining the inorganic elements in food substances. Inorganic elements are well known for evaluating the nutritional composition of food products while it has been shown that they are considered as possible tracers for authenticating the geographical origin. This is based on the fact that the inorganic component of identical food type originating from different territories varies due to the diversity of matrix composition. The present systematic literature review focusing on gathering the research has been done up-to-date on authenticating the geographical origin of agricultural products and foods by utilizing the ICP-MS technique. The first part of the article is a tutorial about food safety/control and the fundaments of ICP-MS technique, while in the second part the total research review is discussed.

Redefining food safety traceability system through blockchain: findings, challenges and open issues

In the last few decades, there has been an increase in food safety and traceability issues. To prevent accidents and misconduct, it became essential to establish Food Safety Traceability System (FSTS) to trace the food from producer to consumer. The traceability systems can help track food in supply chains from farms to retail. Numerous technologies such as Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), sensor networks, and data mining have been integrated into traditional food supply chain systems to remove unsafe food products from the chain. But, these are not adequate for the current supply chain market. The emerging technology of blockchain can overcome safety and tracking issues. This can be possible with the help of blockchain features like transparent, decentralized, distributed, and immutable. Most of the previous works missed the discussion of the systematic process and technology involved in implementing the FSTS using blockchain. In this paper, we have discussed an organized state of research of the existing FSTS using blockchain. This survey paper aims to outline a detailed analysis of blockchain technology, FSTS using blockchain, consensus algorithms, security attacks, and solutions. Several survey papers and solutions based on blockchain are included in this research paper. Also, this work discusses some of the open research issues related to FSTS.

Isotope Fingerprints of Common and Tartary Buckwheat Grains and Milling Fractions: A Preliminary Study

The grains and milling fractions of common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) and Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn.) are widely used for both industrial and small-scale food and non-food products. This paper represents a preliminary study of the isotopic signature (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, and δ³⁴S) to differentiate between buckwheat species (common vs. Tartary), organic and conventional cultivation farming, and different buckwheat fractions (light flour, semolina, and hulls) obtained by a traditional cereal stone-mill. Stable isotope ratios were analyzed using an elemental analyzer coupled to an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (EA/IRMS). The results indicated that δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, and δ³⁴S values could be used to verify the origin and production practices of buckwheat and even its products.

Multi-chemical analysis combined with chemometrics to characterize PDO and PGI Italian apples

BACKGROUND

The use of PDO (protected designation of origin) and PGI (protected geographical indication) labels allows to protect and promote agricultural products characterized by unique features related to the place of origin and traditional know-how. However, the presence of non-authentic products in the market represents a fraud that can be tackled applying analytical techniques combined with chemometric analysis. In this study, we applied multi-element and multi-isotope analysis to characterize PDO and PGI apples cultivated in northern Italy, comparing them with Italian apples without labels of geographical indications.

RESULTS

The multi-element and multi-isotope approach allowed to characterize the apples cultivated in northern Italy. Despite a significant effect of the sampling sites on the apple composition, the comparison of the multi-chemical fingerprint of the apples significantly varied among cultivation areas. Results of this characterization were used to classify samples according to their cultivation area applying a linear discriminant analysis (LDA). Outputs of the LDA showed that correct sample classification can be successfully achieved (balanced accuracy > 96%). Moreover, using a selection of variables, it was possible to correctly classify samples also at regional level.

CONCLUSION

The presented evidences indicate that the multi-element and multi-isotope fingerprint can be successfully applied to traceability studies. The combination of this characterization with chemometric tools allows the classification of Italian apples based on their origin both on a national and regional scale. This approach represents an interesting tool to enhance and protect PDO and PGI Italian products. © 2021 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Wheat authentication：An overview on different techniques and chemometric methods

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most important cereal crops and is consumed as a staple food around the globe. Wheat authentication has become a crucial issue over the last decades. Recently, many techniques have been applied in wheat authentication including the authentication of wheat geographical origin, wheat variety, organic wheat, and wheat flour from other cereals. This paper collected related literature in the last ten years, and attempted to highlight the recent studies on the discrimination and authentication of wheat using different determination techniques and chemometric methods. The stable isotope analysis and elemental profile of wheat are promising tools to obtain information regarding the origin, and variety, and to differentiate organic from conventional farming of wheat. Image analysis, genetic parameters, and omics analysis can provide solutions for wheat variety, organic wheat, and wheat adulteration. Vibrational spectroscopy analyses, such as NIR, FTIR, and HIS, in combination with multivariate data analysis methods, such as PCA, LDA, and PLS-DA, show great potential in wheat authenticity and offer many advantages such as user-friendly, cost-effective, time-saving, and environment friendly. In conclusion, analytical techniques combining with appropriate multivariate analysis are very effective to discriminate geographical origin, cultivar classification, and adulterant detection of wheat.

Provenance discrimination of Sorrento lemon with Protected Geographical indication (PGI) by multi-elemental fingerprinting

Multielement analysis and chemometric methods were proposed to discriminate the Sorrento lemon (PGI) juices according to geographical origin. In 2018 and 2019, 169 fruits from three farms in PGI area and two in not-PGI area were collected and analysed for essential and not-essential elements by ICP-MS. The PCA of multielement fingerprinting grouped lemon juices from PGI farms revealing a strong differentiation at small geographical scale. The S-LDA discriminated lemon juices for Mo, Ba, Rb, Mg, Co, Ca, Fe, Sr on the two production years, giving 97.7% correct classification, 98.5% accuracy and 93.8% external validation. The good correlation lemon juice vs cultivation soil and the soil discrimination by not-essential elements suggested the use of these elements as reliable indicators of lemon juice provenances. Despite lowering the number of variables, constituted by not-essential elements Ba, Rb, Ti, Co, the use of S-QDA discriminated the lemons juices with 87.5% accuracy and 83.9% validation.

Sr isotope composition of Golden Delicious apples in Northern Italy reflects the soil 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio of the cultivation area

BACKGROUND

Apples have a leading role in the Italian fruit sector, and high-quality apples, including the Golden Delicious variety, are cultivated mainly in the Northern mountain districts. In the present study, Golden Delicious apples from PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) and PGI (Protected Geographical Indication) cultivation districts were characterized according to their Sr isotope composition and compared with apples from other Northern Italian districts.

RESULTS

Apples collected in two consecutive years (2017 and 2018) confirmed the low annual variability of the ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr ratio. The isotope ratio of apples was highly correlated with that of the soil extracts of the respective orchards. Statistical differences were highlighted between cultivation districts. However, because similar geological features characterized some areas, their ratios overlapped and a complete separation of the districts was not possible.

CONCLUSION

The ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr ratio is an excellent marker for studies of food traceability because it retains the information about the place of origin. However, its strength is limited when comparing products from cultivation areas sharing similar geological features. In the perspective of geographical traceability, a multichemical characterization can overcome the limits of single-parameter approach. © 2020 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Trace Elements in Gluten-free Pastas and Flours from Markets Located in the Las Vegas, Nevada Area

The popularity of gluten-free foods has been increasing across the United States and abroad. A significant reason for this trend involves marketing efforts targeted towards individuals seeking to avoid the consequences of celiac disease or a perceived gluten intolerance. Many gluten-free food products originate in regions of the world where irrigation with metal-contaminated waters is common. Calcium, Fe, Mg, Ti and Zn were detected at various levels across all foods products. Cadmium was detected in 96.8% of U.S. and 54.5% of Asian gluten-free foods with gluten containing foods above reported averages (216 μg kg-1 Cd); as was Co (140μg kg-1) in 48.4 % of U.S., 72.7% of Asian gluten-free foods, and 40% of the gluten containing foods; Cr was in 54.8% of the U.S., 72.5% of Asian gluten-free foods, and 100% of gluten containing food products; while Ca, Fe, Mg, Ti and Zn were greater than 10,000 μg kg-1 with Ba, Cd, Co, Mo, and Ni above reported averages. Finally, trace metals were more commonly detected in the gluten containing foods overall. It was found that trace elements were more commonly found in the gluten containing products; however, none of the higher than expected levels pose a significant health risk to consumers.

Tackling Fraudsters with Global Strategies to Expose Fraud in the Food Chain

Deliberate adulteration of food products is as old as food processing and production systems. Food adulteration is occurring increasingly often today. With globalization and complex distribution systems, adulteration may have a far-reaching impact and even adverse consequences on well-being. The means of the international community to confront and solve food fraud today are scattered and largely ineffective. A collective approach is needed to identify all stakeholders in the food supply chain, certify and qualify them, exclude those failing to meet applicable standards, and track food in a real time. This review provides some background into the drivers of fraudulent practices (economically motivated adulteration, food-industry perspectives, and consumers' perceptions of fraud) and discusses a wide range of the currently available technologies for detecting food adulteration followed by multivariate pattern recognition tools. Food chain integrity policies are discussed. Future directions in research, concerned not only with food adulterers but also with food safety and climate change, may be useful for researchers in developing interdisciplinary approaches to contemporary problems.

Interrogating pollution sources in a mangrove food web using multiple stable isotopes

Anthropogenic activities including metal contamination create well-known problems in coastal mangrove ecosystems but understanding and linking specific pollution sources to distinct trophic levels within these environments is challenging. This study evaluated anthropogenic impacts on two contrasting mangrove food webs, by using stable isotopes (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr, ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁷Pb) measured in sediments, mangrove trees (Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa, Avicennia schaueriana), plankton, shrimps (Macrobranchium sp.), crabs (Aratus sp.), oysters (Crassostrea rhizophorae) and fish (Centropomus parallelus) from both areas. Strontium and Pb isotopes were also analysed in water and atmospheric particulate matter (PM). δ¹⁵N indicated that crab, shrimp and oyster are at intermediate levels within the local food web and fish, in this case C. parallelus, was confirmed at the highest trophic level. δ¹⁵N also indicates different anthropogenic pressures between both estuaries; Vitória Bay, close to intensive human activities, showed higher δ¹⁵N across the food web, apparently influenced by sewage. The ratio⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr showed the primary influence of marine water throughout the entire food web. Pb isotope ratios suggest that PM is primarily influenced by metallurgical activities, with some secondary influence on mangrove plants and crabs sampled in the area adjacent to the smelting works. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of the effect of anthropogenic pollution (probable sewage pollution) on the isotopic fingerprint of estuarine-mangrove systems located close to a city compared to less impacted estuarine mangroves. The influence of industrial metallurgical activity detected using Pb isotopic analysis of PM and mangrove plants close to such an impacted area is also notable and illustrates the value of isotopic analysis in tracing the impact and species affected by atmospheric pollution.

Differentiating Organically Farmed Rice from Conventional and Green Rice Harvested from an Experimental Field Trial Using Stable Isotopes and Multi-Element Chemometrics

Chemometric methods using stable isotopes and elemental fingerprinting were used to characterize organically grown rice from green and conventionally grown rice in experimental field trials in China. Carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen stable isotopes as well as 26 other elements were determined. Organic rice was found to be more depleted in ¹³C than green or conventionally grown rice because of the uptake of enriched ¹³C from carbon dioxide and methane respiring bacteria and more enriched in ¹⁵N because of the volatilization of the nitrogen from the urea and ammonium of the animal manures used to manufacture the organic composts. Chemometrics (principal-component analysis and linear-discriminant analysis) were used to separate the three farming methods and provided a promising scientific tool to authenticate the farming methods of different rice cultivars fertilized with animal manures, green composts, and synthetic fertilizers in China or elsewhere.

Determining the geographical origin of common buckwheat from China by multivariate analysis based on mineral elements, amino acids and vitamins

This study aimed to establish a method for distinguishing the geographical origin of common buckwheat from Inner Mongolia, Shanxi and Shaanxi Provinces in China. Three chemical families including mineral elements, vitamins and amino acids of 48 samples from different geographical origins were analyzed by principal component analysis (PCA), cluster analysis (CA) and linear discriminate analysis (LDA) for this purpose. LDA clearly discriminated the geographical origin of common buckwheat samples grown in three regions, and gave a high correct classification rate of 95.8% and satisfactory cross-validation rate of 91.7%. Some variables (Mn, VPP, Se, Gly, Cu, Asp, Fe, and Ala) significantly contributed to the ability to discriminate the geographical origin of the common buckwheat. These results demonstrated that the proposed method is a powerful tool for controlling the geographical origin of common buckwheat by governmental administration and protecting consumers from improper domestic labeling. However, the discriminant method still needs to be further validated using more reliable data.

The determination and application of (87) Sr/(86) Sr ratio in verifying geographical origin of wheat

As ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr ratio plays a significant role in authenticating the geographical origin of foodstuff, it is important to identify where the ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr signature in food comes from, and the methods of ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr ratio analysis in food and environmental samples. Wheat with three genotypes, soil and groundwater samples were collected from three regions of China during harvest time of 2014. The ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr ratios in the samples were determined by thermal ionization mass spectrometer in order to investigate the possible source of ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr in wheat, and the concentrations of Rb and Sr in wheat and soils were also detected by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and combined with ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr ratio in order to trace the geographical origin of wheat. The ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr ratio, the contents Rb and Sr, and Rb/Sr ratio of wheat and soil samples showed significant differences among three regions. The ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr ratios and the concentrations of Rb and Sr in soils were higher than those in corresponding wheat. The ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr ratio in wheat was identical to that corresponding soil NH₄ NO₃ extracts (labile fraction of soil) and groundwater. Wheat uptake more Rb than Sr. 3D distribution of ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr, Rb and Sr could identify wheat samples from different regions clearly. The ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr ratio of wheat reflects the ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr ratio of the associated environment including soil and groundwater. It is expected that the use the parameters of ⁸⁷ Sr/⁸⁶ Sr ratio, the contents of Rb and Sr will allow to trace geographical origin of wheat. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Multi-isotopic signatures of organic and conventional Italian pasta along the production chain

The variability of stable isotope ratios (δ(2) H, δ(13) C, δ(15) N, δ(18) O and δ(34) S) along the production chain of pasta (durum wheat, flour and pasta) produced by using both conventional and organic farming systems in four Italian regions in 2 years was investigated. The aim was to evaluate if and how the farming system and geographical origin affect stable isotope ratios determined along the production chain. Irrespective of the processing technology, 65% of the samples were correctly classified according to the farming system and 98% were correctly classified regarding the geographical region. When considering both farming system and geographical region simultaneously, 80% of the samples were correctly classified. The measured isotope parameters were thus primarily affected by the geographical origin. In conclusion, it is expected that the use of these parameters will allow the development of analytical control procedures that can be used to check the geographical origin of Italian organic and conventional pasta and its raw materials. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Linking soil, water, and honey composition to assess the geographical origin of argentinean honey by multielemental and isotopic analyses

The objective of this research was to investigate the development of a reliable fingerprint from elemental and isotopic signatures of Argentinean honey to assess its geographical provenance. Honey, soil, and water from three regions (Córdoba, Buenos Aires, and Entre Rı́os) were collected. The multielemental composition was determined by ICP-MS. δ(13)C was measured by isotopic ratio mass spectrometry, whereas the (87)Sr/(86)Sr ratio was determined using thermal ionization mass spectrometry. The data were analyzed by chemometrics looking for the association between the elements, stable isotopes, and honey samples from the three studied areas. Honey samples were differentiated by classification trees and discriminant analysis using a combination of eight key variables (Rb, K/Rb, B, U, (87)Sr/(86)Sr, Na, La, and Zn) presenting differences among the studied regions. The application of canonical correlation analysis and generalized procrustes analysis showed 91.5% consensus between soil, water, and honey samples, in addition to clear differences between studied areas. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating the correspondence between soil, water, and honey samples using different statistical methods, showing that elemental and isotopic honey compositions are related to soil and water characteristics of the site of origin.

Determination of the source of bioavailable Sr using ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr tracers: a case study of hot pepper and rice

The geographical origin of agricultural products has been intensively studied, but links between agricultural products and the environments are poorly established. Soils, water (streamwater and groundwater), and plants (hot pepper, Capsicum annuum; and rice, Oryza sativa) were collected from all regions of South Korea and measured Sr isotope ratios ((87)Sr/(86)Sr). Sequential leaching of soil showed that Sr in the exchangeable and carbonate fractions (bioavailable) had a lower (87)Sr/(86)Sr ratio than that in the silicate fraction, consistent with a low (87)Sr/(86)Sr ratio in the plant. Although the bedrock-soil-water-plant system is closely linked, statistical analysis indicated that (87)Sr/(86)Sr ratios of the plant showed the greatest agreement with those of water and the exchangeable fraction of soil. This study is the first report of (87)Sr/(86)Sr isoscapes in South Korea and first demonstrates that the agricultural product is strongly linked with the exchangeable fraction of soil and water.

Discrimination of unprocessed cotton on the basis of geographic origin using multi-element stable isotope signatures

RATIONALE

Cotton is the most commonly used natural plant product for the manufacture of yarns and textiles. Consumer perception regarding differences in textile quality in relation to geographic provenance of cotton as well as stringent product labelling requirements demand for the supply chain to furnish proof of geographic provenance beyond merely paper-based audit trails.

METHODS

We have applied isotope ratio mass spectrometry to generate multivariate data sets of raw cotton. A two-point equilibration process with water at ambient temperature was used to account for hydrogen exchange between free hydroxyl groups in the cellulose lattice at ambient humidity, prior to hydrogen isotope analysis.

RESULTS

The molar fraction of exchangeable hydrogen in cotton at ambient temperature was found to be 0.046, which is in good agreement with the expected exchange fraction of 0.05. Hierarchical cluster analysis of multivariate stable isotope abundance data from 17 US cotton and 15 non-US cotton samples was able to cluster 15 of the 17 US cotton samples in one group.

CONCLUSIONS

Hierarchical cluster analysis of multivariate stable isotope signatures of raw cotton showed great promise as an analytical tool to differentiate between US and non-US cotton and possibly even to be able to group unprocessed cotton according to geographic origin.

Use of laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-time of flight-mass spectrometry to identify the elemental composition of vanilla and determine the geographic origin by discriminant function analysis

A total of 11 elements found in 25 vanilla samples from Uganda, Madagascar, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea were measured by laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-TOF-MS) for the purpose of collecting data that could be used to discriminate among the origins. Pellets were prepared of the samples, and elemental concentrations were obtained on the basis of external calibration curves created using five National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) standards and one Chinese standard with (13)C internal standardization. These curves were validated using NIST 1573a (tomato leaves) as a check standard. Discriminant analysis was used to successfully classify the vanilla samples by their origin. Our method illustrates the feasibility of using LA-ICP-TOF-MS with an external calibration curve for high-throughput screening of spice screening analysis.