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Li Y, Xie Z, Lei X, Yang X, Huang S, Yuan W, Deng X, Wang Z, Tang G. Recent advances in pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase inhibitors: Structures, inhibitory mechanisms and biological activities. Bioorg Chem 2024; 144:107160. [PMID: 38301426 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2024.107160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 01/27/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Metabolism is reprogrammed in a variety of cancer cells to ensure their rapid proliferation. Cancer cells prefer to utilize glycolysis to produce energy as well as to provide large amounts of precursors for their division. In this process, cancer cells inhibit the activity of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) by upregulating the expression of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases (PDKs). Inhibiting the activity of PDKs in cancer cells can effectively block this metabolic transition in cancer cells, while also activating mitochondrial oxidative metabolism and promoting apoptosis of cancer cells. To this day, the study of PDKs inhibitors has become one of the research hotspots in the field of medicinal chemistry. Novel structures targeting PDKs are constantly being discovered, and some inhibitors have entered the clinical research stage. Here, we reviewed the research progress of PDKs inhibitors in recent years and classified them according to the PDKs binding sites they acted on, aiming to summarize the structural characteristics of inhibitors acting on different binding sites and explore their clinical application value. Finally, the shortcomings of some PDKs inhibitors and the further development direction of PDKs inhibitors are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiyang Li
- Institute of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Zhizhong Xie
- Institute of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Xiaoyong Lei
- Institute of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Xiaoyan Yang
- Institute of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Sheng Huang
- Jiuzhitang Co., Ltd, Changsha, Hunan 410007, China
| | - Weixi Yuan
- Institute of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Xiangping Deng
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Department of Pharmacy, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, Hunan, China.
| | - Zhe Wang
- The Second Affiliated Hospital, Department of Pharmacy, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, Hunan, China.
| | - Guotao Tang
- Institute of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China.
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Elmamouni E, Guillard M, Haddou B, Grimaud L, El Kaïm L. Tsuji-Trost Based Cascades: From Passerini Adducts of Cinnamaldehyde to Allylated Oxazolones. J Org Chem 2024; 89:2009-2013. [PMID: 38215399 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.3c02169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
The Passerini coupling of cinnamaldehyde derivatives affords allylic esters that may behave as both electrophiles and nucleophiles in Tsuji-Trost reactions. We present herein the interaction of the latter with methylallylcarbonate, leading to the formation of oxazolidine-diones. The efficiency of the process relies on the building up of a CO2 overpressure in the medium. A reaction mechanism highlighting the reversibility of the Tsuji-Trost reaction is proposed for the process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elhachemia Elmamouni
- Laboratoire de Synthèse Organique (LSO -UMR 76523), CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, ENSTA-Paris, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 828 Bd des Maréchaux, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
- Département de Chimie, Université des Sciences et de la Technologie d'Oran Mohamed-Boudiaf USTOMB, El Mnaouar, BP 1505, Bir El Djir 31000, Oran, Algérie
| | - Marianne Guillard
- Laboratoire de Synthèse Organique (LSO -UMR 76523), CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, ENSTA-Paris, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 828 Bd des Maréchaux, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
| | - Baptiste Haddou
- Laboratoire des Biomolécules LBM, Département de Chimie, École Normale Supérieure, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Laurence Grimaud
- Laboratoire des Biomolécules LBM, Département de Chimie, École Normale Supérieure, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Laurent El Kaïm
- Laboratoire de Synthèse Organique (LSO -UMR 76523), CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, ENSTA-Paris, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 828 Bd des Maréchaux, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
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3
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Organocatalytic stereoselective cyanosilylation of small ketones. Nature 2022; 605:84-89. [PMID: 35508776 PMCID: PMC9068509 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-04531-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Enzymatic stereoselectivity has typically been unrivalled by most chemical catalysts, especially in the conversion of small substrates. According to the ‘lock-and-key theory’1,2, enzymes have confined active sites to accommodate their specific reacting substrates, a feature that is typically absent from chemical catalysts. An interesting case in this context is the formation of cyanohydrins from ketones and HCN, as this reaction can be catalysed by various classes of catalysts, including biological, inorganic and organic ones3–7. We now report the development of broadly applicable confined organocatalysts for the highly enantioselective cyanosilylation of aromatic and aliphatic ketones, including the challenging 2-butanone. The selectivity (98:2 enantiomeric ratio (e.r.)) obtained towards its pharmaceutically relevant product is unmatched by any other catalyst class, including engineered biocatalysts. Our results indicate that confined chemical catalysts can be designed that are as selective as enzymes in converting small, unbiased substrates, while still providing a broad scope. The development of confined organocatalysts for the enantioselective cyanosilylation of small, unbiased substrates, including 2-butanone, is shown to lead to catalysts that are as selective as enzymes, with excellent levels of control.
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Bessho Y, Akaki T, Hara Y, Yamakawa M, Obika S, Mori G, Ubukata M, Yasue K, Nakane Y, Terasako Y, Orita T, Doi S, Iwanaga T, Fujishima A, Adachi T, Ueno H, Motomura T. Structure-based drug design of novel and highly potent pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem 2021; 52:116514. [PMID: 34808405 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases (PDHKs) are fascinating drug targets for numerous diseases, including diabetes and cancers. In this report, we describe the result of our structure-based drug design from tricyclic lead compounds that led to the discovery of highly potent PDHK2 and PDHK4 dual inhibitors in enzymatic assay. The C3-position of the tricyclic core was explored, and the PDHK2 X-ray structure with a representative compound revealed a novel ATP lid conformation in which the phenyl ring of Phe326 mediated the interaction of the Arg258 sidechain and the compound. Compounds with amide linkers were designed to release the ATP lid by forming an intramolecular pi-pi interaction, and these compounds showed single-digit nM IC50 values in an enzymatic assay. We also explored the C4-position of the tricyclic core to reproduce the interaction observed with the C3-position substitution, and the pyrrolidine compound showed the same level of IC50 values. By optimizing an interaction with the Asn255 sidechain through a docking simulation, compounds with 2-carboxy pyrrole moiety also showed single-digit nM IC50 values without having a cation-pi interaction with the Arg258 sidechain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Bessho
- Chemical Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
| | - Tatsuo Akaki
- Chemical Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan.
| | - Yoshinori Hara
- Chemical Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
| | - Maki Yamakawa
- Chemical Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
| | - Shingo Obika
- Chemical Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
| | - Genki Mori
- Chemical Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
| | - Minoru Ubukata
- Chemical Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
| | - Katsutaka Yasue
- Chemical Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
| | - Yoshitomi Nakane
- Biological/Pharmacological Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
| | - Yasuo Terasako
- Biological/Pharmacological Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
| | - Takuya Orita
- Chemical Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
| | - Satoki Doi
- Chemical Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
| | - Tomoko Iwanaga
- Chemical Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
| | - Ayumi Fujishima
- Pharmaceutical Frontier Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-13-2, Fukuura, Kanazawa-Ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0004, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Adachi
- Chemical Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ueno
- Chemical Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
| | - Takahisa Motomura
- Chemical Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1, Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1125, Japan
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Jin L, Kim EY, Chung TW, Han CW, Park SY, Han JH, Bae SJ, Lee JR, Kim YW, Jang SB, Ha KT. Hemistepsin A suppresses colorectal cancer growth through inhibiting pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase activity. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21940. [PMID: 33318678 PMCID: PMC7736850 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-79019-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Most cancer cells primarily produce their energy through a high rate of glycolysis followed by lactic acid fermentation even in the presence of abundant oxygen. Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) 1, an enzyme responsible for aerobic glycolysis via phosphorylating and inactivating pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex, is commonly overexpressed in tumors and recognized as a therapeutic target in colorectal cancer. Hemistepsin A (HsA) is a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from Hemistepta lyrata Bunge (Compositae). Here, we report that HsA is a PDK1 inhibitor can reduce the growth of colorectal cancer and consequent activation of mitochondrial ROS-dependent apoptotic pathway both in vivo and in vitro. Computational simulation and biochemical assays showed that HsA directly binds to the lipoamide-binding site of PDK1, and subsequently inhibits the interaction of PDK1 with the E2 subunit of PDH complex. As a result of PDK1 inhibition, lactate production was decreased, but oxygen consumption was increased. Mitochondrial ROS levels and mitochondrial damage were also increased. Consistent with these observations, the apoptosis of colorectal cancer cells was promoted by HsA with enhanced activation of caspase-3 and -9. These results suggested that HsA might be a potential candidate for developing a novel anti-cancer drug through suppressing cancer metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Jin
- Department of Korean Medical Science, School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Busandaehak-ro 49, Yangsan, Gyeonsangnam-do, 50612, Republic of Korea
- Healthy Aging Korean Medical Research Center, Pusan National University, Yangsan, Gyeongsangnam-do, 50612, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Yeong Kim
- Department of Korean Medical Science, School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Busandaehak-ro 49, Yangsan, Gyeonsangnam-do, 50612, Republic of Korea
- Healthy Aging Korean Medical Research Center, Pusan National University, Yangsan, Gyeongsangnam-do, 50612, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Wook Chung
- Healthy Aging Korean Medical Research Center, Pusan National University, Yangsan, Gyeongsangnam-do, 50612, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang Woo Han
- Department of Molecular Biology, College of Natural Sciences, Pusan National University, Geumjeong-gu, Busan, 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - So Young Park
- Department of Molecular Biology, College of Natural Sciences, Pusan National University, Geumjeong-gu, Busan, 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Ho Han
- Healthy Aging Korean Medical Research Center, Pusan National University, Yangsan, Gyeongsangnam-do, 50612, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Jin Bae
- Healthy Aging Korean Medical Research Center, Pusan National University, Yangsan, Gyeongsangnam-do, 50612, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Rok Lee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Daegu Haany University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongsangbuk-do, 38610, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Woo Kim
- School of Korean Medicine, Dongguk University, Gyeongju, 38066, Korea
| | - Se Bok Jang
- Department of Molecular Biology, College of Natural Sciences, Pusan National University, Geumjeong-gu, Busan, 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki-Tae Ha
- Department of Korean Medical Science, School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Busandaehak-ro 49, Yangsan, Gyeonsangnam-do, 50612, Republic of Korea.
- Healthy Aging Korean Medical Research Center, Pusan National University, Yangsan, Gyeongsangnam-do, 50612, Republic of Korea.
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Sato K, Mochida S, Tomimoto D, Konuma T, Kiyota N, Tsuda S, Shiga Y, Omodaka K, Nakazawa T. A pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase inhibitor prevents retinal cell death and improves energy metabolism in rat retinas after ischemia/reperfusion injury. Exp Eye Res 2020; 193:107997. [PMID: 32165157 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2020.107997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
We aimed to assess the neuroprotective effect of a pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) inhibitor, Nov3r after ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury in rats. IR injury was induced by applying 150 mmHg of intraocular pressure for 50 min. Nov3r was orally administered (100 mg/kg) 3 h before and 24 h after IR injury. TUNEL-positive cells increased and immunoreactive RBPMS-positive cells decreased in the rat retinas after IR injury. Administration of Nov3r significantly ameliorated the increase in TUNEL-positive cells and prevented the RBPMS-positive cell decrease. Similarly, the number of IR-induced Iba1-positive microglial cells was significantly reduced with Nov3r treatment. Among metabolic parameters, IR damage induced the elevation of lactate and pyruvate, and the reduction of ATP. Oral administration of Nov3r ameliorated these changes. Our data suggest that the Nov3r had a retinal neuroprotective effect in IR injury in rats. This finding suggests that the regulation of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) activity has potential therapeutic value by enabling metabolic reprograming in diseases associated with ischemic retinal damage, such as diabetic retinopathy, retinopathy of prematurity, retinal vein occlusion, ischemic optic neuropathy and glaucoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kota Sato
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan; Collaborative Program for Ophthalmic Drug Discovery, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Seiya Mochida
- Biological/Pharmacological Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1 Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka, Japan
| | - Daisuke Tomimoto
- Biological/Pharmacological Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1 Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takahiro Konuma
- Biological/Pharmacological Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., 1-1 Murasaki-cho, Takatsuki, Osaka, Japan
| | - Naoki Kiyota
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Satoru Tsuda
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Yukihiro Shiga
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Kazuko Omodaka
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Toru Nakazawa
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan; Collaborative Program for Ophthalmic Drug Discovery, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan; Department of Retinal Disease Control, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan; Department of Advanced Ophthalmic Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan; Department of Ophthalmic Imaging and Information Analytics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan.
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Cho H, Shin I, Cho K, Yoon H, Yoo EK, Kim MJ, Park S, Lee IK, Kim ND, Sim T. Identification of Novel Resorcinol Amide Derivatives as Potent and Specific Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase (PDHK) Inhibitors. J Med Chem 2019; 62:8461-8479. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b00565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Cho
- KU-KIST Graduate School of Converging Science and Technology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Injae Shin
- KU-KIST Graduate School of Converging Science and Technology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyungseon Cho
- Chemical Kinomics Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5 Hwarangro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Hojong Yoon
- Chemical Kinomics Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5 Hwarangro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun Kyung Yoo
- Leading-Edge Research Center for Drug Discovery and Development for Diabetes and Metabolic Disease, Kyungpook National University Hospital, Daegu 41404, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi-Jin Kim
- Leading-Edge Research Center for Drug Discovery and Development for Diabetes and Metabolic Disease, Kyungpook National University Hospital, Daegu 41404, Republic of Korea
| | - Sungmi Park
- Leading-Edge Research Center for Drug Discovery and Development for Diabetes and Metabolic Disease, Kyungpook National University Hospital, Daegu 41404, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Kyu Lee
- Leading-Edge Research Center for Drug Discovery and Development for Diabetes and Metabolic Disease, Kyungpook National University Hospital, Daegu 41404, Republic of Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Kyungpook National University Hospital, Daegu 41944, Republic of Korea
| | - Nam Doo Kim
- Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation, 2387 Dalgubeol-daero, Suseong-gu, Daegu 42019, Republic of Korea
- NDBio Therapeutics Inc., 32 Songdogwahak-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 21984, Republic of Korea
| | - Taebo Sim
- KU-KIST Graduate School of Converging Science and Technology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
- Chemical Kinomics Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5 Hwarangro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
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Lodovichi S, Mercatanti A, Cervelli T, Galli A. Computational analysis of data from a genome-wide screening identifies new PARP1 functional interactors as potential therapeutic targets. Oncotarget 2019; 10:2722-2737. [PMID: 31105872 PMCID: PMC6505629 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.26812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowledge of interaction network between different proteins can be a useful tool in cancer therapy. To develop new therapeutic treatments, understanding how these proteins contribute to dysregulated cellular pathways is an important task. PARP1 inhibitors are drugs used in cancer therapy, in particular where DNA repair is defective. It is crucial to find new candidate interactors of PARP1 as new therapeutic targets in order to increase efficacy of PARP1 inhibitors and expand their clinical utility. By a yeast-based genome wide screening, we previously discovered 90 candidate deletion genes that suppress growth-inhibition phenotype conferred by PARP1 in yeast. Here, we performed an integrated and computational analysis to deeply study these genes. First, we identified which pathways these genes are involved in and putative relations with PARP1 through g:Profiler. Then, we studied mutation pattern and their relation to cancer by interrogating COSMIC and DisGeNET database; finally, we evaluated expression and alteration in several cancers with cBioPortal, and the interaction network with GeneMANIA. We identified 12 genes belonging to PARP1-related pathways. We decided to further validate RIT1, INCENP and PSTA1 in MCF7 breast cancer cells. We found that RIT1 and INCENP affected PARylation and PARP1 protein level more significantly in PARP1 inhibited cells. Furthermore, downregulation of RIT1, INCENP and PSAT1 affected olaparib sensitivity of MCF7 cells. Our study identified candidate genes that could have an effect on PARP inhibition therapy. Moreover, we also confirm that yeast-based screenings could be very helpful to identify novel potential therapy factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuele Lodovichi
- Yeast Genetics and Genomics Group, Laboratory of Functional Genetics and Genomics, Institute of Clinical Physiology CNR, Pisa, Italy.,PhD Student in Clinical and Translational Science Program, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Alberto Mercatanti
- Yeast Genetics and Genomics Group, Laboratory of Functional Genetics and Genomics, Institute of Clinical Physiology CNR, Pisa, Italy
| | - Tiziana Cervelli
- Yeast Genetics and Genomics Group, Laboratory of Functional Genetics and Genomics, Institute of Clinical Physiology CNR, Pisa, Italy
| | - Alvaro Galli
- Yeast Genetics and Genomics Group, Laboratory of Functional Genetics and Genomics, Institute of Clinical Physiology CNR, Pisa, Italy
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Zhang W, Hu X, Chakravarty H, Yang Z, Tam KY. Identification of Novel Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase 1 (PDK1) Inhibitors by Kinase Activity-Based High-Throughput Screening for Anticancer Therapeutics. ACS COMBINATORIAL SCIENCE 2018; 20:660-671. [PMID: 30350563 DOI: 10.1021/acscombsci.8b00104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Warburg effect, a preference of aerobic glycolysis for energy production even in the presence of adequate oxygen, is one of the most prominent distinctions of cancer cells from their normal equivalents. Upregulated pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 (PDK1) was found to dominate the pivotal switch from mitochondrial respiration to aerobic glycolysis by inactivating pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) in cancer cells. PDK1 inhibition may lead to an unfavorable environment for cancer cells, which presents an opportunity for anticancer therapy. However, up to now, only limited number of PDK1 inhibitors were reported. In this work, we reported our attempt to discover novel small molecules from a diverse chemical library containing 15 000 small molecules selected from the Chembridge screening library. We developed a kinase activity-based high throughput screening (HTS) assay for initial screening of PDK1 inhibitors. Seven PDK1 inhibitory compounds were identified with IC50 values range from 0.68 and 45.69 μM. Follow up evaluations on these compounds revealed good PDK1 binding affinity and antiproliferative activities in cancer cell lines, with two novel hits (9 and 10) clearly outperformed others compounds in terms of PDK1 inhibition and the suppression of cancer cell proliferation. 9 and 10 may serve as new chemistry starting points for further structural modifications to improve the potency on PDK1 inhibition for anticancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Zhang
- Cancer Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Xiaohui Hu
- Cancer Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China
| | | | - Zheng Yang
- Cancer Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Kin Yip Tam
- Cancer Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China
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Tomilov A, Allen S, Hui CK, Bettaieb A, Cortopassi G. Idebenone is a cytoprotective insulin sensitizer whose mechanism is Shc inhibition. Pharmacol Res 2018; 137:89-103. [PMID: 30290222 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2018.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Revised: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
When insulin binds insulin receptor, IRS1 signaling is stimulated to trigger the maximal insulin response. p52Shc protein competes directly with IRS1, thus damping and diverting maximal insulin response. Genetic reduction of p52Shc minimizes competition with IRS1, and improves insulin signaling and glucose control in mice, and improves pathophysiological consequences of hyperglycemia. Given the multiple benefits of Shc reduction in vivo, we investigated whether any of 1680 drugs used in humans may function as Shc inhibitors, and thus potentially serve as novel anti-diabetics. Of the 1680, 30 insulin sensitizers were identified by screening in vitro, and of these 30 we demonstrated that 7 bound Shc protein. Of the 7 drugs, idebenone dose-dependently bound Shc protein in the 50-100 nM range, and induced insulin sensitivity and cytoprotection in this same 100 nM range that clinically dosed idebenone reaches in human plasma. By contrast we observe mitochondrial effects of idebenone in the 5,000 nM range that are not reached in human dosing. Multiple assays of target engagement demonstrate that idebenone physically interacts with Shc protein. Idebenone sensitizes mice to insulin in two different mouse models of prediabetes. Genetic depletion of idebenone's target eliminates idebenone's ability to insulin-sensitize in vivo. Thus, idebenone is the first-in-class member of a novel category of insulin-sensitizing and cytoprotective agents, the Shc inhibitors. Idebenone is an approved drug and could be considered for other indications such as type 2 diabetes and fatty liver disease, in which insulin resistance occurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexey Tomilov
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Dr., VM3B, UC Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Sonia Allen
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Dr., VM3B, UC Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Chun Kiu Hui
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Dr., VM3B, UC Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Ahmed Bettaieb
- Department of Nutrition, The University of Tennessee, 1215 W. Cumberland Ave, Knoxville, TN, 37996-1920, USA.
| | - Gino Cortopassi
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Dr., VM3B, UC Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
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11
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Aikawa K, Yabuuchi K, Torii K, Mikami K. Copper-catalyzed asymmetric methylation of fluoroalkylated pyruvates with dimethylzinc. Beilstein J Org Chem 2018; 14:576-582. [PMID: 29623119 PMCID: PMC5852614 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.14.44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The catalytic asymmetric methylation of fluoroalkylated pyruvates is shown with dimethylzinc as a methylating reagent in the presence of a copper catalyst bearing a chiral phosphine ligand. This is the first catalytic asymmetric methylation to synthesize various α-fluoroalkylated tertiary alcohols with CF3, CF2H, CF2Br, and n-C n F2n+1 (n = 2, 3, 8) groups in good-to-high yields and enantioselectivities. Axial backbones and substituents on phosphorus atoms of chiral phosphine ligands critically influence the enantioselectivity. Moreover, the methylation of simple perfluoroalkylated ketones is found to be facilitated by only chiral phosphines without copper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohsuke Aikawa
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, School of Materials and Chemical Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan
| | - Kohei Yabuuchi
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, School of Materials and Chemical Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan
| | - Kota Torii
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, School of Materials and Chemical Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan
| | - Koichi Mikami
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, School of Materials and Chemical Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan
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12
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Synthesis and biological evaluation of (R)-3,3,3-trifluoro-2-hydroxy-2-methylpropionamides as pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 (PDK1) inhibitors to reduce the growth of cancer cells. Eur J Pharm Sci 2017; 110:87-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2017.03.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Revised: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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13
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Global view of cognate kinase activation by the human pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. Sci Rep 2017; 7:42760. [PMID: 28230160 PMCID: PMC5322387 DOI: 10.1038/srep42760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The human pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) comprises four multidomain components, E1, E3, E2 and an E3-binding protein (E3BP), the latter two forming the core as E2·E3BP sub-complex. Pyruvate flux through PDC is regulated via phosphorylation (inactivation) at E1 by four PDC kinases (PDKs), and reactivation by two PDC phosphatases. Up-regulation of PDK isoform gene expression is reported in several forms of cancer, while PDKs may be further activated by PDC by binding to the E2·E3BP core. Hence, the PDK: E2·E3BP interaction provides new therapeutic targets. We carried out both functional kinetic and thermodynamic studies to demonstrate significant differences in the activation of PDK isoforms by binding to the E2·E3BP core: (i) PDK2 needs no activation by E2·E3BP for efficient functioning, while PDK4 was the least effective of the four isoforms, and could not be activated by E2·E3BP. Hence, development of inhibitors to the interaction of PDK2 and PDK4 with E2·E3BP is not promising; (ii) Design of inhibitors to interfere with interaction of E2·E3BP with PDK1 and PDK3 is promising. PDK3 needs E2·E3BP core for activation, an activation best achieved by synergistic combination of E2-derived catalytic domain and tridomain.
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14
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Brough PA, Baker L, Bedford S, Brown K, Chavda S, Chell V, D'Alessandro J, Davies NGM, Davis B, Le Strat L, Macias AT, Maddox D, Mahon PC, Massey AJ, Matassova N, McKenna S, Meissner JWG, Moore JD, Murray JB, Northfield CJ, Parry C, Parsons R, Roughley SD, Shaw T, Simmonite H, Stokes S, Surgenor A, Stefaniak E, Robertson A, Wang Y, Webb P, Whitehead N, Wood M. Application of Off-Rate Screening in the Identification of Novel Pan-Isoform Inhibitors of Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase. J Med Chem 2017; 60:2271-2286. [PMID: 28199108 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b01478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Libraries of nonpurified resorcinol amide derivatives were screened by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) to determine the binding dissociation constant (off-rate, kd) for compounds binding to the pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDHK) enzyme. Parallel off-rate measurements against HSP90 and application of structure-based drug design enabled rapid hit to lead progression in a program to identify pan-isoform ATP-competitive inhibitors of PDHK. Lead optimization identified selective sub-100-nM inhibitors of the enzyme which significantly reduced phosphorylation of the E1α subunit in the PC3 cancer cell line in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Brough
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Lisa Baker
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Simon Bedford
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Kirsten Brown
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Seema Chavda
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Victoria Chell
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | | | | | - Ben Davis
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Loic Le Strat
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Alba T Macias
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Daniel Maddox
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Patrick C Mahon
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Andrew J Massey
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Natalia Matassova
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Sean McKenna
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | | | - Jonathan D Moore
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - James B Murray
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | | | - Charles Parry
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Rachel Parsons
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Stephen D Roughley
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Terry Shaw
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Heather Simmonite
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Stephen Stokes
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Allan Surgenor
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Emma Stefaniak
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Alan Robertson
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Yikang Wang
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Paul Webb
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Neil Whitehead
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
| | - Mike Wood
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd. , Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, U.K
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15
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Tso SC, Lou M, Wu CY, Gui WJ, Chuang JL, Morlock LK, Williams NS, Wynn RM, Qi X, Chuang DT. Development of Dihydroxyphenyl Sulfonylisoindoline Derivatives as Liver-Targeting Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase Inhibitors. J Med Chem 2017; 60:1142-1150. [PMID: 28085286 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b01540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases 1-4 (PDK1-4) negatively control activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) and are up-regulated in obesity, diabetes, heart failure, and cancer. We reported earlier two novel pan-PDK inhibitors PS8 [4-((5-hydroxyisoindolin-2-yl)sulfonyl)benzene-1,3-diol] (1) and PS10 [2-((2,4-dihydroxyphenyl)sulfonyl)isoindoline-4,6-diol] (2) that targeted the ATP-binding pocket in PDKs. Here, we developed a new generation of PDK inhibitors by extending the dihydroxyphenyl sulfonylisoindoline scaffold in 1 and 2 to the entrance region of the ATP-binding pocket in PDK2. The lead inhibitor (S)-3-amino-4-(4-((2-((2,4-dihydroxyphenyl)sulfonyl)isoindolin-5-yl)amino)piperidin-1-yl)-4-oxobutanamide (17) shows a ∼8-fold lower IC50 (58 nM) than 2 (456 nM). In the crystal structure, the asparagine moiety in 17 provides additional interactions with Glu-262 from PDK2. Treatment of diet-induced obese mice with 17 resulted in significant liver-specific augmentation of PDC activity, accompanied by improved glucose tolerance and drastically reduced hepatic steatosis. These findings support 17 as a potential glucose-lowering therapeutic targeting liver for obesity and type 2 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mingliang Lou
- Chemistry Center, National Institute of Biological Science , Beijing 102206, China.,Graduate School of Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences , Beijing 100730, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Xiangbing Qi
- Chemistry Center, National Institute of Biological Science , Beijing 102206, China.,Graduate School of Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences , Beijing 100730, China
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16
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Identification and characterization of a thermostable and cobalt-dependent amidase from Burkholderia phytofirmans ZJB-15079 for efficient synthesis of (R)-3,3,3-trifluoro-2-hydroxy-2-methylpropionic acid. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2016; 101:1953-1964. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-016-7921-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Revised: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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17
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Zhang SL, Hu X, Zhang W, Tam KY. Unexpected Discovery of Dichloroacetate Derived Adenosine Triphosphate Competitors Targeting Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase To Inhibit Cancer Proliferation. J Med Chem 2016; 59:3562-8. [PMID: 27006991 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b01828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases (PDKs) have recently emerged as an attractive target for cancer therapy. Herein, we prepared a series of compounds derived from dichloroacetate (DCA) which inhibited cancer cells proliferation. For the first time, we have successfully developed DCA derived inhibitors that preferentially bind to the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) pocket of PDK isoform 1 (PDK1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Shao-Lin Zhang
- Drug Development Core, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau , Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Xiaohui Hu
- Drug Development Core, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau , Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Wen Zhang
- Drug Development Core, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau , Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Kin Yip Tam
- Drug Development Core, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau , Taipa, Macau, China
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18
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Katayev D, Václavík J, Brüning F, Commare B, Togni A. Synthesis of quaternary α-perfluoroalkyl lactams via electrophilic perfluoroalkylation. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 52:4049-52. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cc00700g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The efficient one-pot perfluoroalkylation of lactams by hypervalent iodine reagents is catalysed by trimethylsilyl triflimide.
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Affiliation(s)
- D. Katayev
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
- ETH Zürich
- 8093 Zürich
- Switzerland
| | - J. Václavík
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
- ETH Zürich
- 8093 Zürich
- Switzerland
| | - F. Brüning
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
- ETH Zürich
- 8093 Zürich
- Switzerland
| | - B. Commare
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
- ETH Zürich
- 8093 Zürich
- Switzerland
| | - A. Togni
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
- ETH Zürich
- 8093 Zürich
- Switzerland
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19
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Moore JD, Staniszewska A, Shaw T, D'Alessandro J, Davis B, Surgenor A, Baker L, Matassova N, Murray J, Macias A, Brough P, Wood M, Mahon PC. VER-246608, a novel pan-isoform ATP competitive inhibitor of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase, disrupts Warburg metabolism and induces context-dependent cytostasis in cancer cells. Oncotarget 2015; 5:12862-76. [PMID: 25404640 PMCID: PMC4350332 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Accepted: 11/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) is a pivotal enzyme in cellular energy metabolism that has previously been implicated in cancer through both RNAi based studies and clinical correlations with poor prognosis in several cancer types. Here, we report the discovery of a novel and selective ATP competitive pan-isoform inhibitor of PDK, VER-246608. Consistent with a PDK mediated MOA, VER-246608 increased pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) activity, oxygen consumption and attenuated glycolytic activity. However, these effects were only observed under D-glucose-depleted conditions and required almost complete ablation of PDC E1α subunit phosphorylation. VER-246608 was weakly anti-proliferative to cancer cells in standard culture media; however, depletion of either serum or combined D-glucose/L-glutamine resulted in enhanced cellular potency. Furthermore, this condition-selective cytostatic effect correlated with reduced intracellular pyruvate levels and an attenuated compensatory response involving deamination of L-alanine. In addition, VER-246608 was found to potentiate the activity of doxorubicin. In contrast, the lipoamide site inhibitor, Nov3r, demonstrated sub-maximal inhibition of PDK activity and no evidence of cellular activity. These studies suggest that PDK inhibition may be effective under the nutrient-depleted conditions found in the tumour microenvironment and that combination treatments should be explored to reveal the full potential of this therapeutic strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan D Moore
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd, Granta Park, Cambridge, UK. Current address: Horizon discovery, Cambridge Research Park, Waterbeach, Cambridge, UK
| | | | | | | | - Ben Davis
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd, Granta Park, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Lisa Baker
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd, Granta Park, Cambridge, UK
| | | | | | - Alba Macias
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd, Granta Park, Cambridge, UK
| | - Paul Brough
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd, Granta Park, Cambridge, UK
| | - Mike Wood
- Vernalis (R&D) Ltd, Granta Park, Cambridge, UK
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20
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Zhang W, Zhang SL, Hu X, Tam KY. Targeting Tumor Metabolism for Cancer Treatment: Is Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinases (PDKs) a Viable Anticancer Target? Int J Biol Sci 2015; 11:1390-400. [PMID: 26681918 PMCID: PMC4671996 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.13325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer remains a lethal threat to global lives. Development of novel anticancer therapeutics is still a challenge to scientists in the field of biomedicine. In cancer cells, the metabolic features are significantly different from those of normal ones, which are hallmarks of several malignancies. Recent studies brought atypical cellular metabolism, such as aerobic glycolysis or the Warburg effect, into the scientific limelight. Targeting these altered metabolic pathways in cancer cells presents a promising therapeutic strategy. Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases (PDKs), key enzymes in the pathway of glucose metabolism, could inactivate the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) by phosphorylating it and preserving the substrates pyruvate, lactate and alanine for gluconeogenesis. Overexpression of PDKs could block the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to satisfy high oxygen demand in cancer cells, while inhibition of PDKs could upregulate the activity of PDC and rectify the balance between the demand and supply of oxygen, which could lead to cancer cell death. Thus, inhibitors targeting PDKs represent a promising strategy for cancer treatment by acting on glycolytic tumors while showing minimal side effects on the oxidative healthy organs. This review considers the role of PDKs as regulator of PDC that catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate in mitochondrion. It is concluded that PDKs are solid therapeutic targets. Inhibition of PDKs could be an attractive therapeutic approach for the development of anti-cancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Zhang
- Drug Development Core, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Shao-Lin Zhang
- Drug Development Core, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Xiaohui Hu
- Drug Development Core, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Kin Yip Tam
- Drug Development Core, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
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21
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Zhang SL, Hu X, Zhang W, Yao H, Tam KY. Development of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase inhibitors in medicinal chemistry with particular emphasis as anticancer agents. Drug Discov Today 2015; 20:1112-9. [PMID: 25842042 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2015.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Revised: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Many cancer cells demonstrate a high rate of glucose consumption via glycolysis to provide intermediates for macromolecule biosynthesis. To accomplish this metabolic change, the expression of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases (PDKs) is rapidly increased in cancer cells. Inhibition of PDKs could promote the function of mitochondria by increasing the oxidative metabolism of pyruvate, resulting in the death of cancer cells. In this review, we provide an overview of the structural information available for PDKs and their connections to known therapeutic effects. We then describe the development of small molecule PDK inhibitors in medicinal chemistry with particular emphasis as anticancer agents. Finally, directions for further development of PDK inhibitors as potential anticancer agents are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shao-Lin Zhang
- Drug Development Core, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Xiaohui Hu
- Drug Development Core, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Wen Zhang
- Drug Development Core, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Huankai Yao
- Drug Development Core, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Kin Yip Tam
- Drug Development Core, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China.
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22
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Elucidation of the interaction loci of the human pyruvate dehydrogenase complex E2·E3BP core with pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 and kinase 2 by H/D exchange mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance. Biochemistry 2014; 54:69-82. [PMID: 25436986 PMCID: PMC4295793 DOI: 10.1021/bi5013113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The human pyruvate dehydrogenase
complex (PDC) comprises three
principal catalytic components for its mission: E1, E2, and E3. The
core of the complex is a strong subcomplex between E2 and an E3-binding
protein (E3BP). The PDC is subject to regulation at E1 by serine phosphorylation
by four kinases (PDK1–4), an inactivation reversed by the action
of two phosphatases (PDP1 and -2). We report H/D exchange mass spectrometric
(HDX-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies in the first
attempt to define the interaction loci between PDK1 and PDK2 with
the intact E2·E3BP core and their C-terminally truncated proteins.
While the three lipoyl domains (L1 and L2 on E2 and L3 on E3BP) lend
themselves to NMR studies and determination of interaction maps with
PDK1 and PDK2 at the individual residue level, HDX-MS allowed studies
of interaction loci on both partners in the complexes, PDKs, and other
regions of the E2·E3BP core, as well, at the peptide level. HDX-MS
suggested that the intact E2·E3BP core enhances the binding specificity
of L2 for PDK2 over PDK1, while NMR studies detected lipoyl domain
residues unique to interaction with PDK1 and PDK2. The E2·E3BP
core induced more changes on PDKs than any C-terminally truncated
protein, with clear evidence of greater plasticity of PDK1 than of
PDK2. The effect of L1L2S paralleled HDX-MS results obtained with
the intact E2·E3BP core; hence, L1L2S is an excellent candidate
with which to define interaction loci with these two PDKs. Surprisingly,
L3S′ induced moderate interaction with both PDKs according
to both methods.
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23
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Nagao S, Yamane Y, Funasaka S, Tanaka K, Miyazaki K, Kotake Y, Kamata JI, Watanabe-Miyano S, Toyama O, Ozawa Y, Mizui Y, Okamoto K, Ito D. Synthesis and structure–activity relationships of novel, potent, orally active hypoxia-inducible factor-1 inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem 2014; 22:5513-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2014.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2014] [Revised: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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24
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Sánchez-Roselló M, Delgado O, Mateu N, Trabanco AA, Van Gool M, Fustero S. Diastereoselective Synthesis of 2-Phenyl-3-(trifluoromethyl)piperazines as Building Blocks for Drug Discovery. J Org Chem 2014; 79:5887-94. [DOI: 10.1021/jo500832j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- María Sánchez-Roselló
- Laboratorio de
Moléculas Orgánicas, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, E-46012 Valencia, Spain
| | - Oscar Delgado
- Neuroscience
Medicinal Chemistry Department, Janssen Research and Development, E-45007 Toledo, Spain
| | - Natalia Mateu
- Laboratorio de
Moléculas Orgánicas, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, E-46012 Valencia, Spain
| | - Andrés A. Trabanco
- Neuroscience
Medicinal Chemistry Department, Janssen Research and Development, E-45007 Toledo, Spain
| | - Michiel Van Gool
- Neuroscience
Medicinal Chemistry Department, Janssen Research and Development, E-45007 Toledo, Spain
| | - Santos Fustero
- Laboratorio de
Moléculas Orgánicas, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, E-46012 Valencia, Spain
- Departamento
de Química Orgánica, Universidad de Valencia, E-46100 Burjassot, Spain
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25
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Tso SC, Qi X, Gui WJ, Wu CY, Chuang JL, Wernstedt-Asterholm I, Morlock LK, Owens KR, Scherer PE, Williams NS, Tambar UK, Wynn RM, Chuang DT. Structure-guided development of specific pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase inhibitors targeting the ATP-binding pocket. J Biol Chem 2013; 289:4432-43. [PMID: 24356970 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.533885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isoforms (PDKs 1-4) negatively regulate activity of the mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase complex by reversible phosphorylation. PDK isoforms are up-regulated in obesity, diabetes, heart failure, and cancer and are potential therapeutic targets for these important human diseases. Here, we employed a structure-guided design to convert a known Hsp90 inhibitor to a series of highly specific PDK inhibitors, based on structural conservation in the ATP-binding pocket. The key step involved the substitution of a carbonyl group in the parent compound with a sulfonyl in the PDK inhibitors. The final compound of this series, 2-[(2,4-dihydroxyphenyl)sulfonyl]isoindoline-4,6-diol, designated PS10, inhibits all four PDK isoforms with IC50 = 0.8 μM for PDK2. The administration of PS10 (70 mg/kg) to diet-induced obese mice significantly augments pyruvate dehydrogenase complex activity with reduced phosphorylation in different tissues. Prolonged PS10 treatments result in improved glucose tolerance and notably lessened hepatic steatosis in the mouse model. The results support the pharmacological approach of targeting PDK to control both glucose and fat levels in obesity and type 2 diabetes.
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26
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Cuperlovic-Culf M, Culf AS, Touaibia M, Lefort N. Targeting the latest hallmark of cancer: another attempt at 'magic bullet' drugs targeting cancers' metabolic phenotype. Future Oncol 2013; 8:1315-30. [PMID: 23130930 DOI: 10.2217/fon.12.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The metabolism of tumors is remarkably different from the metabolism of corresponding normal cells and tissues. Metabolic alterations are initiated by oncogenes and are required for malignant transformation, allowing cancer cells to resist some cell death signals while producing energy and fulfilling their biosynthetic needs with limiting resources. The distinct metabolic phenotype of cancers provides an interesting avenue for treatment, potentially with minimal side effects. As many cancers show similar metabolic characteristics, drugs targeting the cancer metabolic phenotype are, perhaps optimistically, expected to be 'magic bullet' treatments. Over the last few years there have been a number of potential drugs developed to specifically target cancer metabolism. Several of these drugs are currently in clinical and preclinical trials. This review outlines examples of drugs developed for different targets of significance to cancer metabolism, with a focus on small molecule leads, chemical biology and clinical results for these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Cuperlovic-Culf
- National Research Council of Canada, Institute for Information Technology, 100 des Aboiteaux Street, Moncton, NB, E1A 7R1, Canada.
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Meirer K, Rödl CB, Wisniewska JM, George S, Häfner AK, Buscató EL, Klingler FM, Hahn S, Berressem D, Wittmann SK, Steinhilber D, Hofmann B, Proschak E. Synthesis and structure-activity relationship studies of novel dual inhibitors of soluble epoxide hydrolase and 5-lipoxygenase. J Med Chem 2013; 56:1777-81. [PMID: 23356879 DOI: 10.1021/jm301617j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Current research leads to the assumption that drugs affecting more than one target could result in a more efficient treatment of diseases and fewer safety concerns. Administration of drugs inhibiting only one branch of the arachidonic acid cascade is usually accompanied by side effects. We therefore designed and synthesized a library of hybrid molecules incorporating an imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine and an urea moiety as novel soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH)/5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) dual inhibitors. Evaluation of the compounds was accomplished by in vitro testing using recombinant enzyme assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Meirer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, ZAFES/LiFF/OSF, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Max-von-Laue-Str. 9, D-60438 Frankfurt/Main, Germany
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Li T, Yang Y, Cheng C, Tiwari AK, Sodani K, Zhao Y, Abraham I, Chen ZS. Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of N-arylphenyl-2,2-dichloroacetamide analogues as anti-cancer agents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:7268-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.07.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2012] [Revised: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 07/13/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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29
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Zhai H, Borzenko A, Lau YY, Ahn SH, Schafer LL. Catalytic Asymmetric Synthesis of Substituted Morpholines and Piperazines. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201206826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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30
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Zhai H, Borzenko A, Lau YY, Ahn SH, Schafer LL. Catalytic asymmetric synthesis of substituted morpholines and piperazines. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012; 51:12219-23. [PMID: 23109242 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201206826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Huimin Zhai
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z1
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31
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Granchi C, Minutolo F. Anticancer agents that counteract tumor glycolysis. ChemMedChem 2012; 7:1318-50. [PMID: 22684868 PMCID: PMC3516916 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201200176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2012] [Revised: 05/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Can we consider cancer to be a "metabolic disease"? Tumors are the result of a metabolic selection, forming tissues composed of heterogeneous cells that generally express an overactive metabolism as a common feature. In fact, cancer cells have increased needs for both energy and biosynthetic intermediates to support their growth and invasiveness. However, their high proliferation rate often generates regions that are insufficiently oxygenated. Therefore, their carbohydrate metabolism must rely mostly on a glycolytic process that is uncoupled from oxidative phosphorylation. This metabolic switch, also known as the Warburg effect, constitutes a fundamental adaptation of tumor cells to a relatively hostile environment, and supports the evolution of aggressive and metastatic phenotypes. As a result, tumor glycolysis may constitute an attractive target for cancer therapy. This approach has often raised concerns that antiglycolytic agents may cause serious side effects toward normal cells. The key to selective action against cancer cells can be found in their hyperbolic addiction to glycolysis, which may be exploited to generate new anticancer drugs with minimal toxicity. There is growing evidence to support many glycolytic enzymes and transporters as suitable candidate targets for cancer therapy. Herein we review some of the most relevant antiglycolytic agents that have been investigated thus far for the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlotta Granchi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa (Italy)
| | - Filippo Minutolo
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa (Italy)
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32
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De CK, Seidel D. Catalytic enantioselective desymmetrization of meso-diamines: a dual small-molecule catalysis approach. J Am Chem Soc 2011; 133:14538-41. [PMID: 21863902 DOI: 10.1021/ja2060462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The desymmetrization of meso-diamines was accomplished via enantioselective monobenzoylation facilitated by the cooperative action of two small-molecule catalysts. A chiral acyl-transfer reagent is formed in situ through the interplay of benzoic anhydride, 4-(dimethylamino)pyridine as a nucleophilic catalyst, and a chiral amide-thiourea cocatalyst.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandra Kanta De
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, USA
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33
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Marchini M, Mingozzi M, Colombo R, Gennari C, Durini M, Piarulli U. Selective O-acylation of unprotected N-benzylserine methyl ester and O,N-acyl transfer in the formation of cyclo[Asp-Ser] diketopiperazines. Tetrahedron 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2010.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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34
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Nie J, Guo HC, Cahard D, Ma JA. Asymmetric construction of stereogenic carbon centers featuring a trifluoromethyl group from prochiral trifluoromethylated substrates. Chem Rev 2010; 111:455-529. [PMID: 21117644 DOI: 10.1021/cr100166a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 870] [Impact Index Per Article: 62.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Nie
- Department of Chemistry, Tianjin University, China
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Zheng K, Yang Y, Zhao J, Yin C, Lin L, Liu X, Feng X. The Magnesium(II)-Catalyzed Asymmetric Ketone-Ene Reaction under Solvent-Free Conditions: Stereocontrolled Access to Enantioenriched Trifluoromethyl-Substituted Compounds. Chemistry 2010; 16:9969-72. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201001412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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36
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Ottesen LK, Olsen CA, Witt M, Jaroszewski JW, Franzyk H. Selectively N-protected enantiopure 2,5-disubstituted piperazines: avoiding the pitfalls in solid-phase Fukuyama-Mitsunobu cyclizations. Chemistry 2009; 15:2966-78. [PMID: 19191236 DOI: 10.1002/chem.200802044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
An efficient solid-phase route to ring-substituted piperazines from O-linked resin-bound (S)-aziridine-2-methanol is described. Regioselective microwave-assisted aminolysis followed by intramolecular Fukuyama-Mitsunobu cyclization constitute the key features of the protocol. Simple piperazines and diazepanes were readily obtained without preceding N-protection of the acyclic intermediate, whereas attempts to extend this protocol to chiral 2,5-disubstituted piperazines failed. Modifications encompassing N-carbamoylation prior to ring-closure were therefore investigated. However, standard carbamoylating agents, for example, Fmoc-Cl and Alloc-Cl tended to give bis-protected by-products. Thus, novel microwave-assisted solid-phase N-protection procedures were developed for efficient introduction of Fmoc, Boc and Alloc groups. The subsequent cyclization proceeded in moderate to excellent yields depending on the bulk of the side chain and type of N-protecting group. This protocol readily provided novel cis- and trans-2,5-disubstituted piperazines displaying a variety of N-protecting group patterns after further on-resin manipulations. Also, unexpected by-products obtained during these optimization studies were identified and characterized. This includes nosylated ureas arising from an alternative cyclization pathway. Finally, post-cleavage oxidation gave access to the Fmoc/Boc-protected alpha-amino acid as well as the corresponding aldehyde. The chiral piperazines described in this work will enable construction of combinatorial libraries with a higher chemical diversity compared to those containing simple N,N'-difunctionalized piperazines, often present in drug-like compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars K Ottesen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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Jeoung NH, Harris RA. Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase-4 deficiency lowers blood glucose and improves glucose tolerance in diet-induced obese mice. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2008; 295:E46-54. [PMID: 18430968 PMCID: PMC2493588 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00536.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The effect of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase-4 (PDK4) deficiency on glucose homeostasis was studied in mice fed a high-fat diet. Expression of PDK4 was greatly increased in skeletal muscle and diaphragm but not liver and kidney of wild-type mice fed the high-fat diet. Wild-type and PDK4(-/-) mice consumed similar amounts of the diet and became equally obese. Insulin resistance developed in both groups. Nevertheless, fasting blood glucose levels were lower, glucose tolerance was slightly improved, and insulin sensitivity was slightly greater in the PDK4(-/-) mice compared with wild-type mice. When the mice were killed in the fed state, the actual activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) was higher in the skeletal muscle and diaphragm but not in the liver and kidney of PDK4(-/-) mice compared with wild-type mice. When the mice were killed after overnight fasting, the actual PDC activity was higher only in the kidney of PDK4(-/-) mice compared with wild-type mice. The concentrations of gluconeogenic substrates were lower in the blood of PDK4(-/-) mice compared with wild-type mice, consistent with reduced formation in peripheral tissues. Diaphragms isolated from PDK4(-/-) mice oxidized glucose faster and fatty acids slower than diaphragms from wild-type mice. Fatty acid oxidation inhibited glucose oxidation by diaphragms from wild-type but not PDK4(-/-) mice. NEFA, ketone bodies, and branched-chain amino acids were elevated more in PDK4(-/-) mice, consistent with slower rates of oxidation. These findings show that PDK4 deficiency lowers blood glucose and slightly improves glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in mice with diet-induced obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nam Ho Jeoung
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine and the Research Service, Richard Roudebush Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
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38
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Hiromasa Y, Yan X, Roche TE. Specific ion influences on self-association of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isoform 2 (PDHK2), binding of PDHK2 to the L2 lipoyl domain, and effects of the lipoyl group-binding site inhibitor, Nov3r. Biochemistry 2008; 47:2312-24. [PMID: 18220415 DOI: 10.1021/bi7014772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Association of the PDHK2 and GST-L2 (glutathione-S-transferase fused to the inner lipoyl domain (L2) of dihydrolipoyl acetyltransferase (E2)) dimers was enhanced by K+ with higher affinity K+ binding than occurs at the PDHK2 active site. Supporting a distinct K+ binding site, the NH4+ ion did not effectively replace K+ in aiding GST-L2 binding. With 50 mM K+, Pi enhanced interference by ADP, ATP, or pyruvate of PDHK2 binding to GST-L2. The inclusion of Pi with ADP or ATP plus pyruvate greatly hindered PDHK2 binding to GST-L2 and promoted PDHK2 forming a tetramer. Reciprocally, GST-L2 interference with ATP/ADP binding also required elevated K+ and was increased by Pi. Potent inhibition by Nov3r of E2-activated PDHK2 activity (IC50 of approximately 7.8 nM) required elevated K+ and Pi. Nov3r only modestly inhibited the low activity of PDHK2 without E2. By binding at the lipoyl group binding site, Nov3r prevented PDHK2 binding to E2 and GST-L2. Nov3r interfered with high-affinity binding of ADP and pyruvate via a Pi-dependent mechanism. Thus, GST-L2 binding to PDHK2 is supported by K+ binding at a site distinct from the active site. Pi makes major contributions to ligands interfering with PDHK2 binding to GST-L2, the conversion of PDHK2 dimer to a tetramer, and Nov3r (an acetyl-lipoate analog) interfering with binding of ADP and pyruvate. Pi is suggested to facilitate transmission within PDHK2 of the stimulatory signal of acetylation from the distal lipoyl-group binding site to the active site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuaki Hiromasa
- Department of Biochemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
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39
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Hiromasa Y, Roche TE. Critical role of specific ions for ligand-induced changes regulating pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isoform 2. Biochemistry 2008; 47:2298-311. [PMID: 18220414 DOI: 10.1021/bi701475f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In the complete absence of K+ and phosphate (Pi), pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isoform 2 (PDHK2) was catalytically very active but with an elevated Km for ATP, and this activity is insensitive to effector regulation. We find that K+ or 5-fold lower levels of NH4+ markedly enhanced quenching of Trp383 fluorescence of PDHK2 by ADP and ATP. K+ binding caused an approximately 40-fold decrease in the equilibrium dissociation constants (Kd) for ATP from approximately 120 to 3.0 microM and an approximately 25-fold decrease in Kd for ADP from approximately 950 to 38 microM. Linked reductions in Kd of PDHK2 for K+ were from approximately 30 to approximately 0.75 mM with ATP bound and from approximately 40 to approximately 1.7 mM with ADP bound. Without K+, there was little effect of ADP on pyruvate binding, but with 100 mM K+ and 100 microM ADP, the L0.5 of PDHK2 for pyruvate was reduced by approximately 14 fold. In the absence of K+, Pi had small effects on ligand binding. With 100 mM K+, 20 mM Pi modestly enhanced binding of ADP and hindered pyruvate binding but markedly enhanced the binding of pyruvate with ADP; the L0.5 for pyruvate was specifically decreased approximately 125-fold with 100 microM ADP. Pi effects were minimal when NH4+ replaced K+. We have quantified coupled binding of K+ with ATP and ADP and elucidated how linked K+ and Pi binding are required for the potent inhibition of PDHK2 by ADP and pyruvate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuaki Hiromasa
- Department of Biochemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
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40
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Massicot F, Monnier-Benoit N, Deka N, Plantier-Royon R, Portella C. Synthesis of Enantiopure Trifluoromethyl Building Blocks via a Highly Chemo- and Diastereoselective Nucleophilic Trifluoromethylation of Tartaric Acid-Derived Diketones. J Org Chem 2007; 72:1174-80. [PMID: 17243715 DOI: 10.1021/jo062016z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A highly diastereoselective nucleophilic mono(trifluoromethylation) of a tartaric acid-based diketone, using trifluoromethyl(trimethyl)silane, afforded the corresponding gamma-keto trifluoromethylcarbinol. The scope and limitation of this reaction was studied. The acidic removal of the acetonide moiety protecting the two hydroxyl groups of the adducts was unsuccessful. Bis(O-methylation) of the aromatic derivatives under basic conditions, followed by acidic hydrolysis and oxidative cleavage, led to two different enantiopure products: an alpha-aryl-alpha-methoxy-alpha-trifluoromethyl ethanal and an alpha-aryl-alpha-methoxycarboxylic acid. The overall process is eventually an interesting way to convert one natural chiral raw material into two functionalized enantiopure building blocks including a trifluoromethyl one.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabien Massicot
- Laboratoire Réactions Sélectives et Applications, UMR 6519 CNRS-Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Faculté des Sciences, B.P. 1039, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
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41
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Knoechel TR, Tucker AD, Robinson CM, Phillips C, Taylor W, Bungay PJ, Kasten SA, Roche TE, Brown DG. Regulatory roles of the N-terminal domain based on crystal structures of human pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 2 containing physiological and synthetic ligands. Biochemistry 2006; 45:402-15. [PMID: 16401071 DOI: 10.1021/bi051402s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDHK) regulates the activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase multienzyme complex. PDHK inhibition provides a route for therapeutic intervention in diabetes and cardiovascular disorders. We report crystal structures of human PDHK isozyme 2 complexed with physiological and synthetic ligands. Several of the PDHK2 structures disclosed have C-terminal cross arms that span a large trough region between the N-terminal regulatory (R) domains of the PDHK2 dimers. The structures containing bound ATP and ADP demonstrate variation in the conformation of the active site lid, residues 316-321, which enclose the nucleotide beta and gamma phosphates at the active site in the C-terminal catalytic domain. We have identified three novel ligand binding sites located in the R domain of PDHK2. Dichloroacetate (DCA) binds at the pyruvate binding site in the center of the R domain, which together with ADP, induces significant changes at the active site. Nov3r and AZ12 inhibitors bind at the lipoamide binding site that is located at one end of the R domain. Pfz3 (an allosteric inhibitor) binds in an extended site at the other end of the R domain. We conclude that the N-terminal domain of PDHK has a key regulatory function and propose that the different inhibitor classes act by discrete mechanisms. The structures we describe provide insights that can be used for structure-based design of PDHK inhibitors.
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42
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Anstiss M, Nelson A. Catalytic and stoichiometric approaches to the desymmetrisation of centrosymmetric piperazines by enantioselective acylation: a total synthesis of Dragmacidin A. Org Biomol Chem 2006; 4:4135-43. [PMID: 17312969 DOI: 10.1039/b608910k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The enantioselective desymmetrisation of centrosymmetric piperazines was investigated using both catalytic and stoichiometric asymmetric acylation approaches. The catalytic approach involved the desymmetrisation of 2,5-trans-dimethylpiperazine under the control of chiral DMAP analogues. With one equivalent of piperazine, relative to the acylating agent, low yields of products were obtained in up to 70% ee. It was shown that an inevitable 'proof reading' effect was occurring which increased the enantiomeric excess of the desymmetrised product through its kinetic resolution. The desymmetrisation of centrosymmetric piperazines with chiral acylating agents [(1R,2R)-N-formyl-1,2-bis(pentafluoro-benzenesulfonamido)cyclohexane and (1R,2R)-N-acetyl-1,2-bis(trifluoromethanesulfonamido)-cyclohexane] was also studied. The yield and enantioselectivity of the process was highly dependent on the solvent used and the substitution of the piperazine. However, in some cases, good yields of enantiomerically enriched products could be obtained (up to 87% based on the limiting chiral reagent) in good enantiomeric excesses (up to 84% ee). The approach was exploited in the total synthesis of Dragmacidin A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Anstiss
- School of Chemistry, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
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43
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Kato M, Chuang JL, Tso SC, Wynn RM, Chuang DT. Crystal structure of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 3 bound to lipoyl domain 2 of human pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. EMBO J 2005; 24:1763-74. [PMID: 15861126 PMCID: PMC1142596 DOI: 10.1038/sj.emboj.7600663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2004] [Accepted: 04/06/2005] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The human pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) is regulated by reversible phosphorylation by four isoforms of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK). PDKs phosphorylate serine residues in the dehydrogenase (E1p) component of PDC, but their amino-acid sequences are unrelated to eukaryotic Ser/Thr/Tyr protein kinases. PDK3 binds to the inner lipoyl domains (L2) from the 60-meric transacetylase (E2p) core of PDC, with concomitant stimulated kinase activity. Here, we present crystal structures of the PDK3-L2 complex with and without bound ADP or ATP. These structures disclose that the C-terminal tail from one subunit of PDK3 dimer constitutes an integral part of the lipoyl-binding pocket in the N-terminal domain of the opposing subunit. The two swapped C-terminal tails promote conformational changes in active-site clefts of both PDK3 subunits, resulting in largely disordered ATP lids in the ADP-bound form. Our structural and biochemical data suggest that L2 binding stimulates PDK3 activity by disrupting the ATP lid, which otherwise traps ADP, to remove product inhibition exerted by this nucleotide. We hypothesize that this allosteric mechanism accounts, in part, for E2p-augmented PDK3 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masato Kato
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Jacinta L Chuang
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Shih-Chia Tso
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - R Max Wynn
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - David T Chuang
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Departments of Biochemistry and Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390-9038, USA. Tel.: +1 214 648 2457; Fax: +1 214 648 8856; E-mail:
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44
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Mayers RM, Leighton B, Kilgour E. PDH kinase inhibitors: a novel therapy for Type II diabetes? Biochem Soc Trans 2005; 33:367-70. [PMID: 15787608 DOI: 10.1042/bst0330367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The pyruvate dehydrogenase multienzyme complex catalyses the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate, which is an important regulatory step in oxidative metabolism. Phosphorylation of the E1 (pyruvate decarboxylase) subunit on one of three specific serine residues results in loss of enzyme activity. Four dedicated PDHK (pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase) isoenzymes have been identified, each of which display a distinct tissue-specific expression profile, and have differential regulatory properties. Thus PDHK play a key role in controlling the balance between glucose and lipid oxidation according to substrate supply. Increasing glucose oxidation by inhibiting PDHK may be an effective mechanism to increase glucose utilization; additionally, increasing pyruvate oxidation may further contribute to lowering of glucose level by decreasing the supply of gluconeogenic substrates. A number of PDHK inhibitors are now available to enable this mechanism to be evaluated as a therapy for diabetes. The isoenzyme selectivity profile of AZD7545 and related compounds will be described and evidence for their non-ATP-competitive mode of action presented. These compounds increase PDH activity in vivo, and when dosed chronically, improve glycaemic control in Zucker rats. Furthermore, glucose lowering has been demonstrated in the hyperglycaemic Zucker diabetic fatty rat. This result supports the hypothesis that inhibition of PDHK may be an effective therapy for Type II diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Mayers
- AstraZeneca, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire SK10 4TG, UK.
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45
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Smith G, Ruhland T, Mikkelsen G, Andersen K, Christoffersen CT, Alifrangis LH, Mørk A, Wren SP, Harris N, Wyman BM, Brandt G. The synthesis and SAR of 2-arylsulfanyl-phenyl piperazinyl acetic acids as glyT-1 inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2004; 14:4027-30. [PMID: 15225720 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2004.05.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2004] [Revised: 04/28/2004] [Accepted: 05/18/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Elevation of glycine levels and activation of the NMDA receptor by inhibition of the glycine transporter 1 (GlyT-1) is a potential strategy for the treatment of schizophrenia. A novel series of GlyT-1 inhibitors have been identified containing the 2-arylsulfanyl-phenylpiperazine motif. The most prominent member of this series, (R)-4-[5-chloro-2-(4-methoxy-phenylsulfanyl)-phenyl]-2-methyl-piperazin-1-yl-acetic acid (31) is a potent glycine transporter-1 inhibitor (IC(50)=150 nM), which elevated glycine levels in rat ventral hippocampus as measured by microdialysis in vivo at doses of 1.2-4.6 mg/kg s.c.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrick Smith
- Medicinal Chemistry Research, H. Lundbeck A/S, 9 Ottiliavej, DK 2500 Valby, Denmark.
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46
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Aggregation behavior of amphiphilic poly(2-alkyl-2-oxazoline) diblock copolymers in aqueous solution studied by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Colloid Polym Sci 2004. [DOI: 10.1007/s00396-004-1131-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Aboye TL, Sobhia ME, Bharatam PV. 3D-QSAR studies of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase inhibitors based on a divide and conquer strategy. Bioorg Med Chem 2004; 12:2709-15. [PMID: 15110852 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2004.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2004] [Revised: 03/05/2004] [Accepted: 03/05/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
PDHK is a highly specific enzyme, which inhibits PDC thereby reducing the conversion of pyruvate to AcetylCoA leading to increased glucose and lactate level contributing to various pathological disease states. 3D-QSAR CoMFA studies were performed on diverse PDHK inhibitors based on maximum common substructural alignments of different classes of molecules with the selected reference molecule using a divide and conquer strategy. Statistically robust CoMFA model was obtained with a cross-validated correlation coefficient of 0.561 and conventional correlation coefficient of 0.990. Predictive correlation coefficient r2(pred) was found to be 0.875.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teshome Leta Aboye
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Sector-67, S.A.S. Nagar (Mohali) 160062, India
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Masumoto S, Yabu K, Kanai M, Shibasaki M. Practical synthesis of chiral ligands for catalytic enantioselective cyanosilylation of ketones. Tetrahedron Lett 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4039(02)00450-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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49
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Mann WR, Dragland CJ, Vinluan CC, Vedananda TR, Bell PA, Aicher TD. Diverse mechanisms of inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase by structurally distinct inhibitors. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2000; 1480:283-92. [PMID: 11004568 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-4838(00)00079-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The mechanism of action of structurally distinct pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) inhibitors was examined in assays with experimental contexts ranging from an intact pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) with and without supplemental ATP or ADP to a synthetic peptide substrate to PDK autophosphorylation. Some compounds directly inhibited the catalytic activity of PDKs. Some of the inhibitor classes tested inhibited autophosphorylation of recombinant PDK1 and PDK2. During these studies, PDC was shown to be directly inhibited by a novel mechanism; the addition of supplemental recombinant PDKs, an effect that is ADP-dependent and partly alleviated by members of each of the compound classes tested. Overall, these data demonstrate that small molecules acting at diverse sites can inhibit PDK activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- W R Mann
- Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases Research, Novartis Institute for Biomedical Research, 556 Morris Avenue, Summit, NJ 07901-1398, USA.
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50
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Bebernitz GR, Aicher TD, Stanton JL, Gao J, Shetty SS, Knorr DC, Strohschein RJ, Tan J, Brand LJ, Liu C, Wang WH, Vinluan CC, Kaplan EL, Dragland CJ, DelGrande D, Islam A, Lozito RJ, Liu X, Maniara WM, Mann WR. Anilides of (R)-trifluoro-2-hydroxy-2-methylpropionic acid as inhibitors of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase. J Med Chem 2000; 43:2248-57. [PMID: 10841803 DOI: 10.1021/jm0000923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The optimization of a series of anilide derivatives of (R)-3,3, 3-trifluoro-2-hydroxy-2-methylpropionic acid as inhibitors of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDHK) is described that started from N-phenyl-3,3,3-trifluoro-2-hydroxy-2-methylpropanamide 1 (IC(50) = 35 +/- 1.4 microM). It was found that small electron-withdrawing groups on the ortho position of the anilide, i.e., chloro, acetyl, or bromo, increased potency 20-40-fold. The oral bioavailability of the compounds in this series is optimal (as measured by AUC) when the anilide is substituted at the 4-position with an electron-withdrawing group (i.e., carboxyl, carboxyamide, and sulfoxyamide). N-(2-Chloro-4-isobutylsulfamoylphenyl)-(R)-3,3, 3-trifluoro-2-hydroxy-2-methylpropionamide (10a) inhibits PDHK in the primary enzymatic assay with an IC(50) of 13 +/- 1.5 nM, enhances the oxidation of [(14)C]lactate into (14)CO(2) in human fibroblasts, lowers blood lactate levels significantly 2.5 and 5 h after oral doses as low as 30 micromol/kg, and increases the ex vivo activity of PDH in muscle, kidney, liver, and heart tissues. However, in contrast to sodium dichloroacetate (DCA), these PDHK inhibitors did not lower blood glucose levels. Nevertheless, they are effective at increasing the utilization and disposal of lactate and could be of utility to ameliorate conditions of inappropriate blood lactate elevation.
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Affiliation(s)
- G R Bebernitz
- Metabolic and Cardiovascular Disease Research, Novartis Institute for Biomedical Research, Summit, New Jersey 07901, USA.
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