1
|
Jamil Al-Obaidi MM, Desa MNM. Understanding the mechanisms underlying the disruption of the blood-brain barrier in parasitic infections. J Neurosci Res 2024; 102. [PMID: 38284852 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.25288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
Parasites have a significant impact on the neurological, cognitive, and mental well-being of humans, with a global population of over 1 billion individuals affected. The pathogenesis of central nervous system (CNS) injury in parasitic diseases remains limited, and prevention and control of parasitic CNS infections remain significant areas of research. Parasites, encompassing both unicellular and multicellular organisms, have intricate life cycles and possess the ability to infect a diverse range of hosts, including the human population. Parasitic illnesses that impact the central and peripheral nervous systems are a significant contributor to morbidity and mortality in low- to middle-income nations. The precise pathways through which neurotropic parasites infiltrate the CNS by crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and cause neurological harm remain incompletely understood. Investigating brain infections caused by parasites is closely linked to studying neuroinflammation and cerebral impairment. The exact molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in this process remain incomplete, but understanding the exact mechanisms could provide insight into their pathogenesis and potentially reveal novel therapeutic targets. This review paper explores the underlying mechanisms involved in the development of neurological disorders caused by parasites, including parasite-derived elements, host immune responses, and modifications in tight junctions (TJs) proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mazen M Jamil Al-Obaidi
- University of Technology and Applied Sciences, Rustaq College of Education, Science Department (Biology Unit), Rrustaq, Sultante of Oman
| | - Mohd Nasir Mohd Desa
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
de Weerth C, Aatsinki AK, Azad MB, Bartol FF, Bode L, Collado MC, Dettmer AM, Field CJ, Guilfoyle M, Hinde K, Korosi A, Lustermans H, Mohd Shukri NH, Moore SE, Pundir S, Rodriguez JM, Slupsky CM, Turner S, van Goudoever JB, Ziomkiewicz A, Beijers R. Human milk: From complex tailored nutrition to bioactive impact on child cognition and behavior. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 63:7945-7982. [PMID: 35352583 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2053058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Human milk is a highly complex liquid food tailor-made to match an infant's needs. Beyond documented positive effects of breastfeeding on infant and maternal health, there is increasing evidence that milk constituents also impact child neurodevelopment. Non-nutrient milk bioactives would contribute to the (long-term) development of child cognition and behavior, a process termed 'Lactocrine Programming'. In this review we discuss the current state of the field on human milk composition and its links with child cognitive and behavioral development. To promote state-of-the-art methodologies and designs that facilitate data pooling and meta-analytic endeavors, we present detailed recommendations and best practices for future studies. Finally, we determine important scientific gaps that need to be filled to advance the field, and discuss innovative directions for future research. Unveiling the mechanisms underlying the links between human milk and child cognition and behavior will deepen our understanding of the broad functions of this complex liquid food, as well as provide necessary information for designing future interventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carolina de Weerth
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, EN Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Anna-Katariina Aatsinki
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Meghan B Azad
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Manitoba Interdisciplinary Lactation Centre, Children's Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Frank F Bartol
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA
| | - Lars Bode
- Department of Pediatrics and Mother-Milk-Infant Center of Research Excellence (MOMI CORE), University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Maria Carmen Collado
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology-National Research Council (IATA-CSIC), Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Amanda M Dettmer
- Yale Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Catherine J Field
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Meagan Guilfoyle
- Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
| | - Katie Hinde
- School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Aniko Korosi
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Center for Neuroscience, Brain Plasticity group, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hellen Lustermans
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, EN Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Nurul Husna Mohd Shukri
- Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Sophie E Moore
- Department of Women & Children's Health, King's College London, St Thomas' Hospital, London, UK
- School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Nutrition Theme, MRC Unit The Gambia and the London, Fajara, The GambiaBanjul
| | - Shikha Pundir
- The Liggins Institute, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Juan Miguel Rodriguez
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carolyn M Slupsky
- Department of Nutrition and Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Sarah Turner
- Department of Community Health Sciences, Manitoba Interdisciplinary Lactation Centre, Children's Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Johannes B van Goudoever
- Department of Pediatrics, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anna Ziomkiewicz
- Department of Anthropology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Roseriet Beijers
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, EN Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Social Development, Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Yang S, Wu J, Shi Y, Huang Y, Zhang Y, Chen Q. Development of the Blood-Brain Barrier in Ducks. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2022; 28:1-11. [PMID: 35234114 DOI: 10.1017/s143192762200006x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is an important internal barrier. Herein, the electron microscope examination of duck BBB was performed during the brain development. Meanwhile, the genes/proteins of tight junctions (TJs) including zonula occludens-1, occludin, and claudin-5 in the duck brain were detected by Q-PCR and immunohistochemistry. The results showed the density of capillaries in the brain gradually increased during the embryonic period. The generation of the BBB and the specialization of its components occurred mainly in the embryonic stage. During this period, the endothelial cells (ECs) became thinner and pinocytic vesicles decreased; the TJs between EC membranes became longer and more electron-dense; the basement membrane surrounding ECs and pericytes gradually thickened; and the astrocyte foot processes appeared to wrap around the vessels. By the day of hatching (P1), the whole set of duck BBB structures was completely assembled and gradually improved in the subsequent growth process. Interestingly, compared with the cerebrum and cerebellum, the maturity level of the midbrain BBB was earlier seen during the embryonic stage. The expression of TJs increased during the embryonic period and remained stable by post-hatching. The study systematically investigated the histochemical and ultrastructural features of duck BBB during development and explored the corresponding relationship between structure and function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Yang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province210095, China
| | - Jingxian Wu
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province210095, China
| | - Yonghong Shi
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province210095, China
- Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Shanghai200241, China
| | - Yufei Huang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province210095, China
| | - Yafei Zhang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province210095, China
| | - Qiusheng Chen
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province210095, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Menaceur C, Gosselet F, Fenart L, Saint-Pol J. The Blood-Brain Barrier, an Evolving Concept Based on Technological Advances and Cell-Cell Communications. Cells 2021; 11:cells11010133. [PMID: 35011695 PMCID: PMC8750298 DOI: 10.3390/cells11010133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The construction of the blood–brain barrier (BBB), which is a natural barrier for maintaining brain homeostasis, is the result of a meticulous organisation in space and time of cell–cell communication processes between the endothelial cells that carry the BBB phenotype, the brain pericytes, the glial cells (mainly the astrocytes), and the neurons. The importance of these communications for the establishment, maturation and maintenance of this unique phenotype had already been suggested in the pioneering work to identify and demonstrate the BBB. As for the history of the BBB, the evolution of analytical techniques has allowed knowledge to evolve on the cell–cell communication pathways involved, as well as on the role played by the cells constituting the neurovascular unit in the maintenance of the BBB phenotype, and more particularly the brain pericytes. This review summarises the key points of the history of the BBB, from its origin to the current knowledge of its physiology, as well as the cell–cell communication pathways identified so far during its development, maintenance, and pathophysiological alteration.
Collapse
|
5
|
Som Chaudhury S, Sinha K, Das Mukhopadhyay C. Intranasal route: The green corridor for Alzheimer's disease therapeutics. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2021.102791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
6
|
Archie SR, Al Shoyaib A, Cucullo L. Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction in CNS Disorders and Putative Therapeutic Targets: An Overview. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13111779. [PMID: 34834200 PMCID: PMC8622070 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13111779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a fundamental component of the central nervous system (CNS). Its functional and structural integrity is vital to maintain the homeostasis of the brain microenvironment by controlling the passage of substances and regulating the trafficking of immune cells between the blood and the brain. The BBB is primarily composed of highly specialized microvascular endothelial cells. These cells’ special features and physiological properties are acquired and maintained through the concerted effort of hemodynamic and cellular cues from the surrounding environment. This complex multicellular system, comprising endothelial cells, astrocytes, pericytes, and neurons, is known as the neurovascular unit (NVU). The BBB strictly controls the transport of nutrients and metabolites into brain parenchyma through a tightly regulated transport system while limiting the access of potentially harmful substances via efflux transcytosis and metabolic mechanisms. Not surprisingly, a disruption of the BBB has been associated with the onset and/or progression of major neurological disorders. Although the association between disease and BBB disruption is clear, its nature is not always evident, specifically with regard to whether an impaired BBB function results from the pathological condition or whether the BBB damage is the primary pathogenic factor prodromal to the onset of the disease. In either case, repairing the barrier could be a viable option for treating and/or reducing the effects of CNS disorders. In this review, we describe the fundamental structure and function of the BBB in both healthy and altered/diseased conditions. Additionally, we provide an overview of the potential therapeutic targets that could be leveraged to restore the integrity of the BBB concomitant to the treatment of these brain disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Rahman Archie
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA; (S.R.A.); (A.A.S.)
| | - Abdullah Al Shoyaib
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA; (S.R.A.); (A.A.S.)
| | - Luca Cucullo
- Department of Foundational Medical Studies, Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, Rochester, MI 48309, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-248-370-3884; Fax: +1-248-370-4060
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Neonatal Stroke and TLR1/2 Ligand Recruit Myeloid Cells through the Choroid Plexus in a CX3CR1-CCR2- and Context-Specific Manner. J Neurosci 2020; 40:3849-3861. [PMID: 32269105 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2149-19.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Neonatal stroke is as frequent as stroke in the elderly, but many pathophysiological injury aspects are distinct in neonates, including immune signaling. While myeloid cells can traffic into the brain via multiple routes, the choroid plexus (CP) has been identified as a uniquely educated gate for immune cell traffic during health and disease. To understand the mechanisms of myeloid cell trafficking via the CP and their influence on neonatal stroke, we characterized the phenotypes of CP-infiltrating myeloid cells after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) in neonatal mice of both sexes in relation to blood-brain barrier permeability, injury, microglial activation, and CX3CR1-CCR2 signaling, focusing on the dynamics early after reperfusion. We demonstrate rapid recruitment of multiple myeloid phenotypes in the CP ipsilateral to the injury, including inflammatory CD45+CD11b+Ly6chighCD86+, beneficial CD45+CD11b+Ly6clowCD206+, and CD45+CD11b+Ly6clowLy6ghigh cells, but only minor leukocyte infiltration into acutely ischemic-reperfused cortex and negligible vascular albumin leakage. We report that CX3CR1-CCR2-mediated myeloid cell recruitment contributes to stroke injury. Considering the complexity of inflammatory cascades triggered by stroke and a role for TLR2 in injury, we also used direct TLR2 stimulation as an independent injury model. TLR2 agonist rapidly recruited myeloid cells to the CP, increased leukocytosis in the CSF and blood, but infiltration into the cortex remained low over time. While the magnitude and the phenotypes of myeloid cells diverged between tMCAO and TLR2 stimulation, in both models, disruption of CX3CR1-CCR2 signaling attenuated both monocyte and neutrophil trafficking to the CP and cortex.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Stroke during the neonatal period leads to long-term disabilities. The mechanisms of ischemic injury and inflammatory response differ greatly between the immature and adult brain. We examined leukocyte trafficking via the choroid plexus (CP) following neonatal stroke in relation to blood-brain barrier integrity, injury, microglial activation, and signaling via CX3CR1 and CCR2 receptors, or following direct TLR2 stimulation. Ischemia-reperfusion triggered marked unilateral CX3CR1-CCR2 dependent accumulation of diverse leukocyte subpopulations in the CP without inducing extravascular albumin leakage or major leukocyte infiltration into the brain. Disrupted CX3CR1-CCR2 signaling was neuroprotective in part by attenuating monocyte and neutrophil trafficking. Understanding the migratory patterns of CP-infiltrating myeloid cells with intact and disrupted CX3CR1-CCR2 signaling could identify novel therapeutic targets to protect the neonatal brain.
Collapse
|
8
|
Raciti M, Salma J, Spulber S, Gaudenzi G, Khalajzeyqami Z, Conti M, Anderlid BM, Falk A, Hermanson O, Ceccatelli S. NRXN1 Deletion and Exposure to Methylmercury Increase Astrocyte Differentiation by Different Notch-Dependent Transcriptional Mechanisms. Front Genet 2019; 10:593. [PMID: 31316548 PMCID: PMC6610538 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2019.00593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Controversial evidence points to a possible involvement of methylmercury (MeHg) in the etiopathogenesis of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In the present study, we used human neuroepithelial stem cells from healthy donors and from an autistic patient bearing a bi-allelic deletion in the gene encoding for NRXN1 to evaluate whether MeHg would induce cellular changes comparable to those seen in cells derived from the ASD patient. In healthy cells, a subcytotoxic concentration of MeHg enhanced astroglial differentiation similarly to what observed in the diseased cells (N1), as shown by the number of GFAP positive cells and immunofluorescence signal intensity. In both healthy MeHg-treated and N1 untreated cells, aberrations in Notch pathway activity seemed to play a critical role in promoting the differentiation toward glia. Accordingly, treatment with the established Notch inhibitor DAPT reversed the altered differentiation. Although our data are not conclusive since only one of the genes involved in ASD is considered, the results provide novel evidence suggesting that developmental exposure to MeHg, even at subcytotoxic concentrations, induces alterations in astroglial differentiation similar to those observed in ASD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marilena Raciti
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jahan Salma
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Stefan Spulber
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Giulia Gaudenzi
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Mirko Conti
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Britt-Marie Anderlid
- Centre for Molecular Medicine, Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Clinical Genetics, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anna Falk
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ola Hermanson
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sandra Ceccatelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
Survival rates of children with cancer are steadily increasing. This urges our attention to neurocognitive and psychiatric outcomes, as these can markedly influence the quality of life of these children. Neurobehavioral morbidity in childhood cancer survivors affects diverse aspects of cognitive function, which can include attention, memory, processing speed, intellect, academic achievement, and emotional health. Reasons for neurobehavioral morbidity are multiple with one major contributor being chemotherapy-induced central nervous system (CNS) toxicity. Clinical studies investigating the effects of chemotherapy on the CNS in children with cancer have reported causative associations with the development of leukoencephalopathies as well as smaller regional grey and white matter volumes, which have been found to correlate with neurocognitive deficits.Preclinical work has provided compelling evidence that chemotherapy drugs are potent neuro- and gliotoxins in vitro and in vivo and can cause brain injury via excitotoxic and apoptotic mechanisms. Furthermore, chemotherapy triggers DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) damage directly or through increased oxidative stress. It can shorten telomeres and accelerate cell aging, cause cytokine deregulation, inhibit hippocampal neurogenesis, and reduce brain vascularization and blood flow. These mechanisms, when allowed to operate on the developing brain of a child, have high potential to not only cause brain injury, but also alter crucial developmental events, such as myelination, synaptogenesis, neurogenesis, cortical thinning, and formation of neuronal networks.This short review summarizes key publications describing neurotoxicity of chemotherapy in pediatric cancers and potential underlying pathomechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chrysanthy Ikonomidou
- Department of Neurology, Section of Child Neurology, University of Wisconsin Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Ockleford C, Adriaanse P, Hougaard Bennekou S, Berny P, Brock T, Duquesne S, Grilli S, Hernandez-Jerez AF, Klein M, Kuhl T, Laskowski R, Machera K, Pelkonen O, Pieper S, Smith R, Stemmer M, Sundh I, Teodorovic I, Tiktak A, Topping CJ, Gundert-Remy U, Kersting M, Waalkens-Berendsen I, Chiusolo A, Court Marques D, Dujardin B, Kass GEN, Mohimont L, Nougadère A, Reich H, Wolterink G. Scientific opinion on pesticides in foods for infants and young children. EFSA J 2018; 16:e05286. [PMID: 32625927 PMCID: PMC7009577 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Plant Protection Products and their Residues (PPR Panel) prepared a scientific opinion to provide a comprehensive evaluation of pesticide residues in foods for infants and young children. In its approach to develop this scientific opinion, the EFSA PPR Panel took into account, among the others, (i) the relevant opinions of the Scientific Committee for Food setting a default maximum residue level (MRL) of 0.01 mg/kg for pesticide residues in foods for infants and young children; (ii) the recommendations provided by EFSA Scientific Committee in a guidance on risk assessment of substances present in food intended for infants below 16 weeks of age; (iii) the knowledge on organ/system development in infants and young children. For infants below 16 weeks of age, the EFSA PPR Panel concluded that pesticide residues at the default MRL of 0.01 mg/kg for food for infants and young children are not likely to result in an unacceptable exposure for active substances for which a health-based guidance value (HBGV) of 0.0026 mg/kg body weight (bw) per day or higher applies. Lower MRLs are recommended for active substances with HBGVs below this value. For infants above 16 weeks of age and young children, the established approach for setting HBGVs is considered appropriate. For infants below 16 weeks of age the approach may not be appropriate and the application of the EFSA guidance on risk assessment of substances present in food intended for infants below 16 weeks of age is recommended. The contribution of conventional food to the total exposure to pesticide residues is much higher than that from foods intended for infants and young children. Because of the increased intake of conventional food by young children, these have the highest exposure to pesticide residues, whereas infants 3-6 months of age generally have lower exposure. The impact of cumulative exposure to pesticide residues on infants and young children is not different from the general population and the EFSA cumulative risk assessment methodology is also applicable to these age groups. Residue definitions established under Regulation (EC) No 396/2005 are in general considered appropriate also for foods for infants and young children. However, based on a tier 1 analysis of the hydrolysis potential of pesticides simulating processing, the particular appropriateness of existing residue definitions for monitoring to cover processed food, both intended for infants and young children as well as conventional food, is questionable.
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
Drug bioavailability to the developing brain is a major concern in the treatment of neonates and infants as well as pregnant and breast-feeding women. Central adverse drug reactions can have dramatic consequences for brain development, leading to major neurological impairment. Factors setting the cerebral bioavailability of drugs include protein-unbound drug concentration in plasma, local cerebral blood flow, permeability across blood-brain interfaces, binding to neural cells, volume of cerebral fluid compartments, and cerebrospinal fluid secretion rate. Most of these factors change during development, which will affect cerebral drug concentrations. Regarding the impact of blood-brain interfaces, the blood-brain barrier located at the cerebral endothelium and the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier located at the choroid plexus epithelium both display a tight phenotype early on in embryos. However, the developmental regulation of some multispecific efflux transporters that also limit the entry of numerous drugs into the brain through barrier cells is expected to favor drug penetration in the neonatal brain. Finally, drug cerebral bioavailability is likely to be affected following perinatal injuries that alter blood-brain interface properties. A thorough investigation of these mechanisms is mandatory for a better risk assessment of drug treatments in pregnant or breast-feeding women, and in neonate and pediatric patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jean-François Ghersi-Egea
- FLUID Team, Lyon Neurosciences Research Center, INSERM U1028 CRNS UMR 5292, Université Claude Bernard Lyon-1, 69008, Lyon, France.
- Blood-Brain Interfaces Exploratory Platform BIP, Lyon Neurosciences Research Center, 69008, Lyon, France.
| | - Elodie Saudrais
- FLUID Team, Lyon Neurosciences Research Center, INSERM U1028 CRNS UMR 5292, Université Claude Bernard Lyon-1, 69008, Lyon, France
- Blood-Brain Interfaces Exploratory Platform BIP, Lyon Neurosciences Research Center, 69008, Lyon, France
| | - Nathalie Strazielle
- FLUID Team, Lyon Neurosciences Research Center, INSERM U1028 CRNS UMR 5292, Université Claude Bernard Lyon-1, 69008, Lyon, France
- Blood-Brain Interfaces Exploratory Platform BIP, Lyon Neurosciences Research Center, 69008, Lyon, France
- Brain-I, 69008, Lyon, France
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Raciti M, Ceccatelli S. Epigenetic mechanisms in developmental neurotoxicity. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2018; 66:94-101. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2017.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
|
13
|
Bjorefeldt A, Illes S, Zetterberg H, Hanse E. Neuromodulation via the Cerebrospinal Fluid: Insights from Recent in Vitro Studies. Front Neural Circuits 2018; 12:5. [PMID: 29459822 PMCID: PMC5807333 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2018.00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) occupies the brain's ventricles and subarachnoid space and, together with the interstitial fluid (ISF), forms a continuous fluidic network that bathes all cells of the central nervous system (CNS). As such, the CSF is well positioned to actively distribute neuromodulators to neural circuits in vivo via volume transmission. Recent in vitro experimental work in brain slices and neuronal cultures has shown that human CSF indeed contains neuromodulators that strongly influence neuronal activity. Here we briefly summarize these new findings and discuss their potential relevance to neural circuits in health and disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Bjorefeldt
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
| | - Sebastian Illes
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- United Kingdom Dementia Research Institute, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Eric Hanse
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
The great barrier belief: The blood–brain barrier and considerations for juvenile toxicity studies. Reprod Toxicol 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2017.06.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
|
15
|
Patra A, Huang H, Bauer JA, Giannone PJ. Neurological consequences of systemic inflammation in the premature neonate. Neural Regen Res 2017; 12:890-896. [PMID: 28761416 PMCID: PMC5514858 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.208547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite substantial progress in neonatal care over the past two decades leading to improved survival of extremely premature infants, extreme prematurity continues to be associated with long term neurodevelopmental impairments. Cerebral white matter injury is the predominant form of insult in preterm brain leading to adverse neurological consequences. Such brain injury pattern and unfavorable neurologic sequelae is commonly encountered in premature infants exposed to systemic inflammatory states such as clinical or culture proven sepsis with or without evidence of meningitis, prolonged mechanical ventilation, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, necrotizing enterocolitis and chorioamnionitis. Underlying mechanisms may include cytokine mediated processes without direct entry of pathogens into the brain, developmental differences in immune response and complex neurovascular barrier system that play a critical role in regulating the cerebral response to various systemic inflammatory insults in premature infants. Understanding of these pathologic mechanisms and clinical correlates of such injury based on serum biomarkers or brain imaging findings on magnetic resonance imaging will pave way for future research and translational therapeutic opportunities for the developing brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aparna Patra
- OMNI Academic Service Line and Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Kentucky Children's Hospital, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Hong Huang
- OMNI Academic Service Line and Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Kentucky Children's Hospital, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - John A Bauer
- OMNI Academic Service Line and Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Kentucky Children's Hospital, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Peter J Giannone
- OMNI Academic Service Line and Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Kentucky Children's Hospital, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Sugammadex-Enhanced Neuronal Apoptosis following Neonatal Sevoflurane Exposure in Mice. Anesthesiol Res Pract 2016; 2016:9682703. [PMID: 27895665 PMCID: PMC5118529 DOI: 10.1155/2016/9682703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In rodents, neonatal sevoflurane exposure induces neonatal apoptosis in the brain and results in learning deficits. Sugammadex is a new selective neuromuscular blockade (NMB) binding agent that anesthesiologists can use to achieve immediate reversal of an NMB with few side effects. Given its molecular weight of 2178, sugammadex is thought to be unable to pass through the blood brain barrier (BBB). Volatile anesthetics can influence BBB opening and integrity. Therefore, we investigated whether the intraperitoneal administration of sugammadex could exacerbate neuronal damage following neonatal 2% sevoflurane exposure via changes in BBB integrity. Cleaved caspase-3 immunoblotting was used to detect apoptosis, and the ultrastructure of the BBB was examined by transmission electron microscopy. Exposure to 2% sevoflurane for 6 h resulted in BBB ultrastructural abnormalities in the hippocampus of neonatal mice. Sugammadex alone without sevoflurane did not induce apoptosis. The coadministration of sugammadex with sevoflurane to neonatal mice caused a significant increase (150%) in neuroapoptosis in the brain compared with 2% sevoflurane. In neonatal anesthesia, sugammadex could influence neurotoxicity together with sevoflurane. Exposure to 2% sevoflurane for 6 h resulted in BBB ultrastructural abnormalities in the hippocampus of neonatal mice.
Collapse
|
17
|
Vercruysse DCM, Deprez S, Sunaert S, Van Calsteren K, Amant F. Effects of prenatal exposure to cancer treatment on neurocognitive development, a review. Neurotoxicology 2016; 54:11-21. [PMID: 26952827 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2016.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Revised: 02/28/2016] [Accepted: 02/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Due to the increasing incidence of cancer during pregnancy, the need to better understand long-term outcome after prenatal exposure to chemo- and/or radiotherapy has become more urgent. This manuscript focuses on the neurocognitive development after prenatal exposure to cancer treatment. We will review possible pathways for brain damage that could explain the subtle changes in neurocognition and behavior found after in utero exposure to cancer treatment. Contrary to radiation, which has a direct effect on the developing nervous system, chemotherapy has to pass the placental and blood brain barrier to reach the fetal brain. However, there are also indirect effects such as inflammation and oxidative stress. Furthermore, the indirect effects of the cancer itself and its treatment, e.g., poor maternal nutrition and high maternal stress, as well as prematurity, can be related to cognitive impairment. Although the available evidence suggests that cancer treatment can be administered during pregnancy without jeopardizing the fetal chances, larger numbers and longer follow up of these children are needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dorothée C-M Vercruysse
- KU Leuven-University of Leuven, Department of Oncology, University Hospitals Leuven, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Gynecological Oncology, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Sabine Deprez
- KU Leuven-University of Leuven, Department of Radiology, University Hospitals Leuven, Department of Radiology, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Stefan Sunaert
- KU Leuven-University of Leuven, Department of Radiology, University Hospitals Leuven, Department of Radiology, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Kristel Van Calsteren
- KU Leuven-University of Leuven, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Hospitals Leuven, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Frederic Amant
- KU Leuven-University of Leuven, Department of Oncology, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium; The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Baello S, Iqbal M, Kearney S, Kuthiala S, Bloise E, Gibb W, Matthews SG. Glucocorticoids modify effects of TGF-β1 on multidrug resistance in the fetal blood-brain barrier. Growth Factors 2016; 34:33-41. [PMID: 27126232 DOI: 10.3109/08977194.2016.1162163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) increases P-glycoprotein (P-gp; encoded by Abcb1) activity in fetal brain endothelial cells (BECs). P-gp is important for fetal brain protection against xenobiotics including synthetic glucocorticoids (sGC). We hypothesized that antenatal sGC would modify P-gp responsiveness to TGF-β1 in fetal BECs. Pregnant guinea pigs were treated with dexamethasone or vehicle (N = 5/group) on gestational day (GD) 48-49 and BECs derived on GD50. In BECs from control fetuses, TGF-β1 increased Abcb1 mRNA and P-gp function, by approximately 5-fold and 55% respectively, as well as tight junction function. In contrast, TGF-β1 had no effect on these parameters in BECs from sGC-exposed fetuses. Moreover, levels of TGF-β1 responsive gene, Smad7, were increased 3-fold in BECs from control fetuses after TGF-β1 but not in sGC-exposed fetuses. In conclusion, antenatal sGC alters responsiveness to TGF-β1 in fetal BECs. This study has identified novel mechanisms by which TGF-β1 and sGC modulate fetal brain protection against xenobiotics and other P-gp substrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Baello
- a Department of Physiology , University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , Canada
| | - Majid Iqbal
- a Department of Physiology , University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , Canada
| | - Samantha Kearney
- a Department of Physiology , University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , Canada
| | - Shikah Kuthiala
- a Department of Physiology , University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , Canada
| | - Enrrico Bloise
- b Department of Morphology , Federal University of Minas Gerais , Belo Horizonte , Brazil
| | - William Gibb
- c Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , and Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa , Ottawa , ON , Canada
| | - Stephen G Matthews
- a Department of Physiology , University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , Canada
- d Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , Canada , and
- e Department of Medicine , Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , Canada
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Pandey PK, Sharma AK, Gupta U. Blood brain barrier: An overview on strategies in drug delivery, realistic in vitro modeling and in vivo live tracking. Tissue Barriers 2016; 4:e1129476. [PMID: 27141418 PMCID: PMC4836458 DOI: 10.1080/21688370.2015.1129476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Revised: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 12/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Blood brain barrier (BBB) is a group of astrocytes, neurons and endothelial cells, which makes restricted passage of various biological or chemical entities to the brain tissue. It gives protection to brain at one hand, but at the other hand it has very selective permeability for bio-actives and other foreign materials and is one of the major challenges for the drug delivery. Nanocarriers are promising to cross BBB utilizing alternative route of administration such as intranasal and intra-carotid drug delivery which bypasses BBB. In future more optimized drug delivery system can be achieved by compiling the best routes with the best carriers. Single photon emission tomography (SPECT) and different brain-on-a-chip in vitro models are being very reliable to study live in vivo tracking of BBB and its pathophysiology, respectively. In the current review we have tried to exploit mechanistically all these to understand and manage the various BBB disruptions in diseased condition along with crossing the hurdles occurring in drug or gene delivery across BBB.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pawan Kumar Pandey
- Department of Pharmacy; School of Chemical Sciences and Pharmacy, Central University of Rajasthan; Ajmer; Rajasthan, India
| | - Ashok Kumar Sharma
- Department of Pharmacy; School of Chemical Sciences and Pharmacy, Central University of Rajasthan; Ajmer; Rajasthan, India
| | - Umesh Gupta
- Department of Pharmacy; School of Chemical Sciences and Pharmacy, Central University of Rajasthan; Ajmer; Rajasthan, India
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) modulates the effect of serum albumin on brain development by restraining the neurotrophic effect of oleic acid. Brain Res 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
21
|
Wong CT, Wais J, Crawford DA. Prenatal exposure to common environmental factors affects brain lipids and increases risk of developing autism spectrum disorders. Eur J Neurosci 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christine T. Wong
- School of Kinesiology and Health Science; York University; Toronto ON Canada M3J 1P3
- Neuroscience Graduate Diploma Program; York University; Toronto ON Canada M3J 1P3
| | - Joshua Wais
- School of Kinesiology and Health Science; York University; Toronto ON Canada M3J 1P3
| | - Dorota A. Crawford
- School of Kinesiology and Health Science; York University; Toronto ON Canada M3J 1P3
- Neuroscience Graduate Diploma Program; York University; Toronto ON Canada M3J 1P3
- Department of Biology; York University; Toronto ON Canada M3J 1P3
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Dell'Ovo V, Rosenzweig J, Burd I, Merabova N, Darbinian N, Goetzl L. An animal model for chorioamnionitis at term. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2015; 213:387.e1-10. [PMID: 25979619 PMCID: PMC4806536 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2015.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2015] [Revised: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to develop an animal model for intrapartum inflammation at term to investigate the interactions between maternal and fetal inflammatory responses and adverse neurologic outcome. STUDY DESIGN Lipopolysaccharide (160, 320, or 640 μg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally to day 20 term-pregnant Sprague Dawley rat dams 2, 4, and 6 hours before sample collection. Maternal outcomes included dam core temperature and plasma interleukin 6 (IL-6). Fetal outcomes included plasma IL-6, brain IL-6 messenger RNA expression, and brain IL-6 protein expression. Primary cortical cell cultures were prepared to examine neuronal morphologic condition. Neurite counts were obtained with the use of automated Sholl analysis. RESULTS Maternal plasma IL-6 levels peaked 2 hours after lipopolysaccharide stimulus and rapidly resolved, except for an observed low level persistence at 6 hours with 640 μg/kg. Fetal plasma and placental IL-6 expression also peaked rapidly but only persisted in placental samples. Fetal brain IL-6 RNA and protein expression was significantly higher than control litters at 6 hours after the exposure to both 320 μg/kg (P ≤ .05) and 640 μg/kg (P ≤ .01). Cortical cells from fetuses that were exposed for 6 hours to maternal systemic inflammation showed reduced neurite number and neurite length (P < .001) with increasing lipopolysaccharide dose. CONCLUSION Our results demonstrate that fetal brain injury follows isolated systemic maternal inflammation and that fetal brain inflammation lags after maternal stimulus, which creates a potential 4-hour clinical window for therapeutic intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Dell'Ovo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Center for Neural Repair and Rehabilitation, Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center and Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Jason Rosenzweig
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Integrated Research Center for Fetal Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
| | - Irina Burd
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Integrated Research Center for Fetal Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
| | - Nana Merabova
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Center for Neural Repair and Rehabilitation, Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center and Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Nune Darbinian
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Center for Neural Repair and Rehabilitation, Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center and Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Laura Goetzl
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Center for Neural Repair and Rehabilitation, Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center and Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Garg T, Bhandari S, Rath G, Goyal AK. Current strategies for targeted delivery of bio-active drug molecules in the treatment of brain tumor. J Drug Target 2015; 23:865-87. [PMID: 25835469 DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2015.1029930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Brain tumor is one of the most challenging diseases to treat. The major obstacle in the specific drug delivery to brain is blood-brain barrier (BBB). Mostly available anti-cancer drugs are large hydrophobic molecules which have limited permeability via BBB. Therefore, it is clear that the protective barriers confining the passage of the foreign particles into the brain are the main impediment for the brain drug delivery. Hence, the major challenge in drug development and delivery for the neurological diseases is to design non-invasive nanocarrier systems that can assist controlled and targeted drug delivery to the specific regions of the brain. In this review article, our major focus to treat brain tumor by study numerous strategies includes intracerebral implants, BBB disruption, intraventricular infusion, convection-enhanced delivery, intra-arterial drug delivery, intrathecal drug delivery, injection, catheters, pumps, microdialysis, RNA interference, antisense therapy, gene therapy, monoclonal/cationic antibodies conjugate, endogenous transporters, lipophilic analogues, prodrugs, efflux transporters, direct conjugation of antitumor drugs, direct targeting of liposomes, nanoparticles, solid-lipid nanoparticles, polymeric micelles, dendrimers and albumin-based drug carriers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Saurav Bhandari
- b Department of Quality Assurance , ISF College of Pharmacy , Moga , Punjab , India
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Liddelow SA. Development of the choroid plexus and blood-CSF barrier. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:32. [PMID: 25784848 PMCID: PMC4347429 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2014] [Accepted: 01/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Well-known as one of the main sources of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), the choroid plexuses have been, and still remain, a relatively understudied tissue in neuroscience. The choroid plexus and CSF (along with the blood-brain barrier proper) are recognized to provide a robust protective effort for the brain: a physical barrier to impede entrance of toxic metabolites to the brain; a “biochemical” barrier that facilitates removal of moieties that circumvent this physical barrier; and buoyant physical protection by CSF itself. In addition, the choroid plexus-CSF system has been shown to be integral for normal brain development, central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis, and repair after disease and trauma. It has been suggested to provide a stem-cell like repository for neuronal and astrocyte glial cell progenitors. By far, the most widely recognized choroid plexus role is as the site of the blood-CSF barrier, controller of the internal CNS microenvironment. Mechanisms involved combine structural diffusion restraint from tight junctions between plexus epithelial cells (physical barrier) and specific exchange mechanisms across the interface (enzymatic barrier). The current hypothesis states that early in development this interface is functional and more specific than in the adult, with differences historically termed as “immaturity” actually correctly reflecting developmental specialization. The advanced knowledge of the choroid plexus-CSF system proves itself imperative to understand a range of neurological diseases, from those caused by plexus or CSF drainage dysfunction (e.g., hydrocephalus) to more complicated late-stage diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's) and failure of CNS regeneration. This review will focus on choroid plexus development, outlining how early specializations may be exploited clinically.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shane A Liddelow
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University CA, USA ; Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, The University of Melbourne Parkville, VIC, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Miller SL, Aroniadou-Anderjaska V, Figueiredo TH, Prager EM, Almeida-Suhett CP, Apland JP, Braga MFM. A rat model of nerve agent exposure applicable to the pediatric population: The anticonvulsant efficacies of atropine and GluK1 antagonists. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2015; 284:204-16. [PMID: 25689173 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2015.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2014] [Revised: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 02/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) after nerve agent exposure induces status epilepticus (SE), which causes brain damage or death. The development of countermeasures appropriate for the pediatric population requires testing of anticonvulsant treatments in immature animals. In the present study, exposure of 21-day-old (P21) rats to different doses of soman, followed by probit analysis, produced an LD50 of 62μg/kg. The onset of behaviorally-observed SE was accompanied by a dramatic decrease in brain AChE activity; rats who did not develop SE had significantly less reduction of AChE activity in the basolateral amygdala than rats who developed SE. Atropine sulfate (ATS) at 2mg/kg, administered 20 min after soman exposure (1.2×LD50), terminated seizures. ATS at 0.5mg/kg, given along with an oxime within 1 min after exposure, allowed testing of anticonvulsants at delayed time-points. The AMPA/GluK1 receptor antagonist LY293558, or the specific GluK1 antagonist UBP302, administered 1h post-exposure, terminated SE. There were no degenerating neurons in soman-exposed P21 rats, but both the amygdala and the hippocampus were smaller than in control rats at 30 and 90days post-exposure; this pathology was not present in rats treated with LY293558. Behavioral deficits present at 30 days post-exposure, were also prevented by LY293558 treatment. Thus, in immature animals, a single injection of atropine is sufficient to halt nerve agent-induced seizures, if administered timely. Testing anticonvulsants at delayed time-points requires early administration of ATS at a low dose, sufficient to counteract only peripheral toxicity. LY293558 administered 1h post-exposure, prevents brain pathology and behavioral deficits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steven L Miller
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA; Program in Neuroscience, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
| | - Vassiliki Aroniadou-Anderjaska
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA; Program in Neuroscience, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
| | - Taiza H Figueiredo
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
| | - Eric M Prager
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA; Program in Neuroscience, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
| | - Camila P Almeida-Suhett
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA; Program in Neuroscience, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
| | - James P Apland
- Neurotoxicology Branch, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010, USA.
| | - Maria F M Braga
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA; Program in Neuroscience, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Whish S, Dziegielewska KM, Møllgård K, Noor NM, Liddelow SA, Habgood MD, Richardson SJ, Saunders NR. The inner CSF-brain barrier: developmentally controlled access to the brain via intercellular junctions. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:16. [PMID: 25729345 PMCID: PMC4325900 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2014] [Accepted: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
In the adult the interface between the cerebrospinal fluid and the brain is lined by the ependymal cells, which are joined by gap junctions. These intercellular connections do not provide a diffusional restrain between the two compartments. However, during development this interface, initially consisting of neuroepithelial cells and later radial glial cells, is characterized by “strap” junctions, which limit the exchange of different sized molecules between cerebrospinal fluid and the brain parenchyma. Here we provide a systematic study of permeability properties of this inner cerebrospinal fluid-brain barrier during mouse development from embryonic day, E17 until adult. Results show that at fetal stages exchange across this barrier is restricted to the smallest molecules (286Da) and the diffusional restraint is progressively removed as the brain develops. By postnatal day P20, molecules the size of plasma proteins (70 kDa) diffuse freely. Transcriptomic analysis of junctional proteins present in the cerebrospinal fluid-brain interface showed expression of adherens junctional proteins, actins, cadherins and catenins changing in a development manner consistent with the observed changes in the permeability studies. Gap junction proteins were only identified in the adult as was claudin-11. Immunohistochemistry was used to localize at the cellular level some of the adherens junctional proteins of genes identified from transcriptomic analysis. N-cadherin, β - and α-catenin immunoreactivity was detected outlining the inner CSF-brain interface from E16; most of these markers were not present in the adult ependyma. Claudin-5 was present in the apical-most part of radial glial cells and in endothelial cells in embryos, but only in endothelial cells including plexus endothelial cells in adults. Claudin-11 was only immunopositive in the adult, consistent with results obtained from transcriptomic analysis. These results provide information about physiological, molecular and morphological-related permeability changes occurring at the inner cerebrospinal fluid-brain barrier during brain development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Whish
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | | | - Kjeld Møllgård
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Institute of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Natassya M Noor
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Shane A Liddelow
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne Parkville, VIC, Australia ; Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Mark D Habgood
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | | | - Norman R Saunders
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne Parkville, VIC, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Serlin Y, Shelef I, Knyazer B, Friedman A. Anatomy and physiology of the blood-brain barrier. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2015; 38:2-6. [PMID: 25681530 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2015.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Essential requisite for the preservation of normal brain activity is to maintain a narrow and stable homeostatic control in the neuronal environment of the CNS. Blood flow alterations and altered vessel permeability are considered key determinants in the pathophysiology of brain injuries. We will review the present-day literature on the anatomy, development and physiological mechanisms of the blood-brain barrier, a distinctive and tightly regulated interface between the CNS and the peripheral circulation, playing a crucial role in the maintenance of the strict environment required for normal brain function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yonatan Serlin
- Departments of Physiology, Cell Biology and Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Ilan Shelef
- Department of Radiology, Soroka University Medical Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, 84101 Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Boris Knyazer
- Department of Ophthalmology, Soroka University Medical Center and Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Alon Friedman
- Departments of Physiology, Cell Biology and Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel; Department of Medical Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, PO Box 15000, 5850 College Street, Halifax Nova Scotia B3H 4R2, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Hladky SB, Barrand MA. Mechanisms of fluid movement into, through and out of the brain: evaluation of the evidence. Fluids Barriers CNS 2014; 11:26. [PMID: 25678956 PMCID: PMC4326185 DOI: 10.1186/2045-8118-11-26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 393] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 11/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Interstitial fluid (ISF) surrounds the parenchymal cells of the brain and spinal cord while cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) fills the larger spaces within and around the CNS. Regulation of the composition and volume of these fluids is important for effective functioning of brain cells and is achieved by barriers that prevent free exchange between CNS and blood and by mechanisms that secrete fluid of controlled composition into the brain and distribute and reabsorb it. Structures associated with this regular fluid turnover include the choroid plexuses, brain capillaries comprising the blood-brain barrier, arachnoid villi and perineural spaces penetrating the cribriform plate. ISF flow, estimated from rates of removal of markers from the brain, has been thought to reflect rates of fluid secretion across the blood-brain barrier, although this has been questioned because measurements were made under barbiturate anaesthesia possibly affecting secretion and flow and because CSF influx to the parenchyma via perivascular routes may deliver fluid independently of blood-brain barrier secretion. Fluid secretion at the blood-brain barrier is provided by specific transporters that generate solute fluxes so creating osmotic gradients that force water to follow. Any flow due to hydrostatic pressures driving water across the barrier soon ceases unless accompanied by solute transport because water movements modify solute concentrations. CSF is thought to be derived primarily from secretion by the choroid plexuses. Flow rates measured using phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging reveal CSF movements to be more rapid and variable than previously supposed, even implying that under some circumstances net flow through the cerebral aqueduct may be reversed with net flow into the third and lateral ventricles. Such reversed flow requires there to be alternative sites for both generation and removal of CSF. Fluorescent tracer analysis has shown that fluid flow can occur from CSF into parenchyma along periarterial spaces. Whether this represents net fluid flow and whether there is subsequent flow through the interstitium and net flow out of the cortex via perivenous routes, described as glymphatic circulation, remains to be established. Modern techniques have revealed complex fluid movements within the brain. This review provides a critical evaluation of the data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen B Hladky
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1PD UK
| | - Margery A Barrand
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1PD UK
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Yu JE, Kim M, Lee JH, Chang BJ, Song CS, Nahm SS. Neonatal influenza infection causes pathological changes in the mouse brain. Vet Res 2014; 45:63. [PMID: 24917271 PMCID: PMC4063221 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-45-63] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus infections have been proposed to be associated with a broad spectrum of central nervous system complications that range from acute encephalitis/encephalopathy to neuropsychiatric disorders in humans. In order to study early influenza virus exposure in the brain, we created an influenza-infection model in neonatal mice to investigate infection route and resulting pathological changes in the brain. Real-time polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemical analyses showed that influenza virus infection induced by an intraperitoneal injection was first detected as early as 1 day post infection (dpi), and the peak infection was observed at 5 dpi. The viral antigen was detected in a wide range of brain regions, including: the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, and brainstem. Apoptotic cell death and gliosis were detected in the areas of viral infection. Significant increases in proinflammatory cytokine expression were also observed at 5 dpi. Viral RNAs were detected in the cerebrospinal fluid of infected adult mice as early as 1 dpi. In addition, many infected cells were observed near the ventricles, indicating that the virus may enter the brain parenchyma through the ventricles. These results demonstrate that influenza virus may effectively infect broad regions of the brain through the hematogenous route, potentially through the cerebrospinal fluid along the ventricles, and subsequently induce neuropathological changes in the neonatal mouse brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Sang-Soep Nahm
- Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdongro, Gwangjingu, Seoul 143-729, Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Núñez B, Martínez de Mena R, Obregon MJ, Font-Llitjós M, Nunes V, Palacín M, Dumitrescu AM, Morte B, Bernal J. Cerebral cortex hyperthyroidism of newborn mct8-deficient mice transiently suppressed by lat2 inactivation. PLoS One 2014; 9:e96915. [PMID: 24819605 PMCID: PMC4018440 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Accepted: 04/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormone entry into cells is facilitated by transmembrane transporters. Mutations of the specific thyroid hormone transporter, MCT8 (Monocarboxylate Transporter 8, SLC16A2) cause an X-linked syndrome of profound neurological impairment and altered thyroid function known as the Allan-Herndon-Dudley syndrome. MCT8 deficiency presumably results in failure of thyroid hormone to reach the neural target cells in adequate amounts to sustain normal brain development. However during the perinatal period the absence of Mct8 in mice induces a state of cerebral cortex hyperthyroidism, indicating increased brain access and/or retention of thyroid hormone. The contribution of other transporters to thyroid hormone metabolism and action, especially in the context of MCT8 deficiency is not clear. We have analyzed the role of the heterodimeric aminoacid transporter Lat2 (Slc7a8), in the presence or absence of Mct8, on thyroid hormone concentrations and on expression of thyroid hormone-dependent cerebral cortex genes. To this end we generated Lat2-/-, and Mct8-/yLat2-/- mice, to compare with wild type and Mct8-/y mice during postnatal development. As described previously the single Mct8 KO neonates had a transient increase of 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine concentration and expression of thyroid hormone target genes in the cerebral cortex. Strikingly the absence of Lat2 in the double Mct8Lat2 KO prevented the effect of Mct8 inactivation in newborns. The Lat2 effect was not observed from postnatal day 5 onwards. On postnatal day 21 the Mct8 KO displayed the typical pattern of thyroid hormone concentrations in plasma, decreased cortex 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine concentration and Hr expression, and concomitant Lat2 inactivation produced little to no modifications. As Lat2 is expressed in neurons and in the choroid plexus, the results support a role for Lat2 in the supply of thyroid hormone to the cerebral cortex during early postnatal development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bárbara Núñez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Raquel Martínez de Mena
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Maria Jesus Obregon
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Mariona Font-Llitjós
- Laboratorio de Genètica Molecular, IDIBELL, Barcelona, Spain
- Center for Biomedical Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER) Unit 730, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Virginia Nunes
- Laboratorio de Genètica Molecular, IDIBELL, Barcelona, Spain
- Center for Biomedical Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER) Unit 730, Barcelona, Spain
- Sección de Genética, Departamento de Ciencias Fisiológicas II, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manuel Palacín
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERER Unit 731, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alexandra M. Dumitrescu
- Department of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Beatriz Morte
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Madrid, Spain
- CIBERER Unit 708, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan Bernal
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Madrid, Spain
- CIBERER Unit 708, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Hladky SB, Barrand MA. Mechanisms of fluid movement into, through and out of the brain: evaluation of the evidence. Fluids Barriers CNS 2014. [PMID: 25678956 DOI: 10.1186/10.1186/2045-8118-11-26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Interstitial fluid (ISF) surrounds the parenchymal cells of the brain and spinal cord while cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) fills the larger spaces within and around the CNS. Regulation of the composition and volume of these fluids is important for effective functioning of brain cells and is achieved by barriers that prevent free exchange between CNS and blood and by mechanisms that secrete fluid of controlled composition into the brain and distribute and reabsorb it. Structures associated with this regular fluid turnover include the choroid plexuses, brain capillaries comprising the blood-brain barrier, arachnoid villi and perineural spaces penetrating the cribriform plate. ISF flow, estimated from rates of removal of markers from the brain, has been thought to reflect rates of fluid secretion across the blood-brain barrier, although this has been questioned because measurements were made under barbiturate anaesthesia possibly affecting secretion and flow and because CSF influx to the parenchyma via perivascular routes may deliver fluid independently of blood-brain barrier secretion. Fluid secretion at the blood-brain barrier is provided by specific transporters that generate solute fluxes so creating osmotic gradients that force water to follow. Any flow due to hydrostatic pressures driving water across the barrier soon ceases unless accompanied by solute transport because water movements modify solute concentrations. CSF is thought to be derived primarily from secretion by the choroid plexuses. Flow rates measured using phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging reveal CSF movements to be more rapid and variable than previously supposed, even implying that under some circumstances net flow through the cerebral aqueduct may be reversed with net flow into the third and lateral ventricles. Such reversed flow requires there to be alternative sites for both generation and removal of CSF. Fluorescent tracer analysis has shown that fluid flow can occur from CSF into parenchyma along periarterial spaces. Whether this represents net fluid flow and whether there is subsequent flow through the interstitium and net flow out of the cortex via perivenous routes, described as glymphatic circulation, remains to be established. Modern techniques have revealed complex fluid movements within the brain. This review provides a critical evaluation of the data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen B Hladky
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1PD UK
| | - Margery A Barrand
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1PD UK
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects all age groups in a population and is an injury generating scientific interest not only as an acute event, but also as a complex brain disease with several underlying neurobehavioral and neuropathological characteristics. We review early and long-term alterations after juvenile and adult TBI with a focus on changes in the neurovascular unit (NVU), including neuronal interactions with glia and blood vessels at the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Post-traumatic changes in cerebral blood-flow, BBB structures and function, as well as mechanistic pathways associated with brain aging and neurodegeneration are presented from clinical and experimental reports. Based on the literature, increased attention on BBB changes should be integrated in studies characterizing TBI outcome and may provide a meaningful therapeutic target to resolve detrimental post-traumatic dysfunction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- V Pop
- Department of Pediatrics, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92354 USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Chacko AM, Li C, Pryma DA, Brem S, Coukos G, Muzykantov V. Targeted delivery of antibody-based therapeutic and imaging agents to CNS tumors: crossing the blood-brain barrier divide. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2013; 10:907-26. [PMID: 23751126 PMCID: PMC4089357 DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2013.808184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Brain tumors are inherently difficult to treat in large part due to the cellular blood-brain barriers (BBBs) that limit the delivery of therapeutics to the tumor tissue from the systemic circulation. Virtually no large molecules, including antibody-based proteins, can penetrate the BBB. With antibodies fast becoming attractive ligands for highly specific molecular targeting to tumor antigens, a variety of methods are being investigated to enhance the access of these agents to intracranial tumors for imaging or therapeutic applications. AREAS COVERED This review describes the characteristics of the BBB and the vasculature in brain tumors, described as the blood-brain tumor barrier (BBTB). Antibodies targeted to molecular markers of central nervous system (CNS) tumors will be highlighted, and current strategies for enhancing the delivery of antibodies across these cellular barriers into the brain parenchyma to the tumor will be discussed. Noninvasive imaging approaches to assess BBB/BBTB permeability and/or antibody targeting will be presented as a means of guiding the optimal delivery of targeted agents to brain tumors. EXPERT OPINION Preclinical and clinical studies highlight the potential of several approaches in increasing brain tumor delivery across the BBB divide. However, each carries its own risks and challenges. There is tremendous potential in using neuroimaging strategies to assist in understanding and defining the challenges to translating and optimizing molecularly targeted antibody delivery to CNS tumors to improve clinical outcomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Marie Chacko
- University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, Nuclear Medicine & Clinical Molecular Imaging, Department of Radiology, 231 S. 34 Street, Room 288, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Lloyd-Burton S, Roskams AJ. SPARC-like 1 (SC1) is a diversely expressed and developmentally regulated matricellular protein that does not compensate for the absence of SPARC in the CNS. J Comp Neurol 2013; 520:2575-90. [PMID: 22173850 DOI: 10.1002/cne.23029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
SPARC-like 1 (SC1) is a member of the SPARC family of matricellular proteins that has been implicated in the regulation of processes such as cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation. Here we show that SC1 exhibits remarkably diverse and dynamic expression in the developing and adult nervous system. During development, SC1 localizes to radial glia and pial-derived structures, including the vasculature, choroid plexus, and pial membranes. SC1 is not downregulated in postnatal development, but its expression shifts to distinct time windows in subtypes of glia and neurons, including astrocytes, large projection neurons, Bergmann glia, Schwann cells, and ganglionic satellite cells. In addition, SC1 expression levels and patterns are not altered in the SPARC null mouse, suggesting that SC1 does not compensate for the absence of SPARC. We conclude that SC1 and SPARC may share significant homology, but are likely to have distinct but complementary roles in nervous system development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Lloyd-Burton
- Department of Zoology, Life Sciences Institute and Brain Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Zhao YZ, Lu CT, Li XK, Cai J. Ultrasound-mediated strategies in opening brain barriers for drug brain delivery. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2013; 10:987-1001. [DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2013.787987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
36
|
Byun YH, Ha M, Kwon HJ, Hong YC, Leem JH, Sakong J, Kim SY, Lee CG, Kang D, Choi HD, Kim N. Mobile phone use, blood lead levels, and attention deficit hyperactivity symptoms in children: a longitudinal study. PLoS One 2013; 8:e59742. [PMID: 23555766 PMCID: PMC3605379 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0059742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2012] [Accepted: 02/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Concerns have developed for the possible negative health effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure to children's brains. The purpose of this longitudinal study was to investigate the association between mobile phone use and symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) considering the modifying effect of lead exposure. METHODS A total of 2,422 children at 27 elementary schools in 10 Korean cities were examined and followed up 2 years later. Parents or guardians were administered a questionnaire including the Korean version of the ADHD rating scale and questions about mobile phone use, as well as socio-demographic factors. The ADHD symptom risk for mobile phone use was estimated at two time points using logistic regression and combined over 2 years using the generalized estimating equation model with repeatedly measured variables of mobile phone use, blood lead, and ADHD symptoms, adjusted for covariates. RESULTS The ADHD symptom risk associated with mobile phone use for voice calls but the association was limited to children exposed to relatively high lead. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that simultaneous exposure to lead and RF from mobile phone use was associated with increased ADHD symptom risk, although possible reverse causality could not be ruled out.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoon-Hwan Byun
- Department of Medicine, Dankook University College of Medicine, Cheonan, Korea
| | - Mina Ha
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Dankook University College of Medicine, Cheonan, Korea
- Environmental Health Center, Dankook University Medical Center, Cheonan, Korea
- * E-mail:
| | - Ho-Jang Kwon
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Dankook University College of Medicine, Cheonan, Korea
- Environmental Health Center, Dankook University Medical Center, Cheonan, Korea
| | - Yun-Chul Hong
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jong-Han Leem
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Inha University College of Medicine, Incheon, Korea
| | - Joon Sakong
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Yeungnam University College of Medicine, Daegu, Korea
| | - Su Young Kim
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Cheju National University College of Medicine, Jeju, Korea
| | - Chul Gab Lee
- Department of Occupational Medicine, Chosun University School of Medicine, Gwangju, Korea
| | - Dongmug Kang
- Department of Occupational Medicine, Busan National University School of Medicine, Busan, Korea
| | - Hyung-Do Choi
- Radio Technology Research Department, Electronics and Telecommunication Research Institute, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Nam Kim
- School of Information and Communication Engineering, Chungbuk National University College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Cheongju, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Depino AM. Peripheral and central inflammation in autism spectrum disorders. Mol Cell Neurosci 2013; 53:69-76. [PMID: 23069728 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2012.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2012] [Revised: 09/23/2012] [Accepted: 10/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Amaicha Mara Depino
- Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias, CONICET-UBA, C1428EHA Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Palanca JM, Aguirre-Rueda D, Granell MV, Aldasoro M, Garcia A, Iradi A, Obrador E, Mauricio MD, Vila J, Gil-Bisquert A, Valles SL. Sugammadex, a neuromuscular blockade reversal agent, causes neuronal apoptosis in primary cultures. Int J Med Sci 2013; 10:1278-85. [PMID: 23983586 PMCID: PMC3752716 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.6254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Accepted: 07/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sugammadex, a γ-cyclodextrin that encapsulates selectively steroidal neuromuscular blocking agents, such as rocuronium or vecuronium, has changed the face of clinical neuromuscular pharmacology. Sugammadex allows a rapid reversal of muscle paralysis. Sugammadex appears to be safe and well tolerated. Its blood-brain barrier penetration is poor (< 3% in rats), and thus no relevant central nervous toxicity is expected. However the blood brain barrier permeability can be altered under different conditions (i.e. neurodegenerative diseases, trauma, ischemia, infections, or immature nervous system). Using MTT, confocal microscopy, caspase-3 activity, cholesterol quantification and Western-blot we determine toxicity of Sugammadex in neurons in primary culture. Here we show that clinically relevant sugammadex concentrations cause apoptotic/necrosis neuron death in primary cultures. Studies on the underlying mechanism revealed that sugammadex-induced activation of mitochondria-dependent apoptosis associates with depletion of neuronal cholesterol levels. Furthermore SUG increase CytC, AIF, Smac/Diablo and CASP-3 protein expression in cells in culture. Potential association of SUG-induced alteration in cholesterol homeostasis with oxidative stress and apoptosis activation occurs. Furthermore, resistance/sensitivity to oxidative stress differs between neuronal cell types.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- José M Palanca
- Department of Surgery/Anaesthesiology, School of Medicine and Odontology, University of Valencia, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Bilbo SD, Schwarz JM. The immune system and developmental programming of brain and behavior. Front Neuroendocrinol 2012; 33:267-86. [PMID: 22982535 PMCID: PMC3484177 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2012.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 389] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2012] [Revised: 08/28/2012] [Accepted: 08/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The brain, endocrine, and immune systems are inextricably linked. Immune molecules have a powerful impact on neuroendocrine function, including hormone-behavior interactions, during health as well as sickness. Similarly, alterations in hormones, such as during stress, can powerfully impact immune function or reactivity. These functional shifts are evolved, adaptive responses that organize changes in behavior and mobilize immune resources, but can also lead to pathology or exacerbate disease if prolonged or exaggerated. The developing brain in particular is exquisitely sensitive to both endogenous and exogenous signals, and increasing evidence suggests the immune system has a critical role in brain development and associated behavioral outcomes for the life of the individual. Indeed, there are associations between many neuropsychiatric disorders and immune dysfunction, with a distinct etiology in neurodevelopment. The goal of this review is to describe the important role of the immune system during brain development, and to discuss some of the many ways in which immune activation during early brain development can affect the later-life outcomes of neural function, immune function, mood and cognition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Staci D Bilbo
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, 572 Research Drive, Box 91050, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Geysens S, Ferran JL, Van Herck SLJ, Tylzanowski P, Puelles L, Darras VM. Dynamic mRNA distribution pattern of thyroid hormone transporters and deiodinases during early embryonic chicken brain development. Neuroscience 2012; 221:69-85. [PMID: 22771619 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.06.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2012] [Revised: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 06/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Maternal thyroid hormones (THs) are important in early brain development long before the onset of embryonic TH secretion, but information about the regulation of TH availability in the brain at these early stages is still limited. We therefore investigated in detail the mRNA distribution pattern of the TH activating type 2 and inactivating type 3 deiodinases (D2 and D3) and the TH transporters, organic anion transporting polypeptide 1c1 (Oatp1c1) and monocarboxylate transporter 8 (Mct8), in chicken embryonic brain as well as in retina and inner ear from day 3 to day 10 of development. Oatp1c1, Mct8 and D3 are expressed in the choroid plexus and its precursors allowing selective uptake of THs at the blood-cerebrospinal fluid-barrier with subsequent inactivation of excess hormone. In contrast, the developing blood-brain-barrier does not express Oatp1c1 or Mct8 but appears to be a site for TH activation by D2. Expression of D3 in several sensory brain centers may serve as protection against premature TH action. Expression of D2 and Mct8 but not D3 in the developing pituitary gland allows accumulation of active THs even at early stages. Mct8 is widely expressed in gray matter throughout the brain. This is the first comprehensive study on the dynamic distribution pattern of TH-transporters and deiodinases at stages of embryonic brain development when only maternal THs are available. It provides the essential background for further research aimed at understanding early developmental processes depending on maternal THs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Geysens
- Laboratory of Comparative Endocrinology, Animal Physiology and Neurobiology Section, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Native and Complexed IGF-1: Biodistribution and Pharmacokinetics in Infantile Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinosis. JOURNAL OF DRUG DELIVERY 2012; 2012:626417. [PMID: 22778966 PMCID: PMC3384888 DOI: 10.1155/2012/626417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Revised: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 04/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (INCL) is a severe neurodegenerative disorder of childhood characterized by selective death of cortical neurons. Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is important in embryonic development and is considered as a potential therapeutic agent for several disorders of peripheral and central nervous systems. In circulation IGF-1 is mainly bound to its carrier protein IGFBP-3. As a therapeutic agent IGF-1 has shown to be more active as free than complexed form. However, this may cause side effects during the prolonged treatment. In addition to IGFBP-3 the bioavailability of IGF-1 can be modulated by using mesoporous silicon nanoparticles (NPs) which are optimal carriers for sustained release of unstable peptide hormones like IGF-1. In this study we compared biodistribution, pharmacokinetics, and bioavailability of radiolabeled free IGF-1, IGF-1/IGFBP-3, and IGF-1/NP complexes in a Cln1-/- knockout mouse model. IGF-1/NP was mainly accumulated in liver and spleen in all studied time points, whereas minor and more constant amounts were measured in other organs compared to free IGF-1 or IGF-1/IGFBP-3. Also concentration of IGF-1/NP in blood was relatively high and stable during studied time points suggesting continuous release of IGF-1 from the particles.
Collapse
|
42
|
Oliveira M, Rodrigues AJ, Leão P, Cardona D, Pêgo JM, Sousa N. The bed nucleus of stria terminalis and the amygdala as targets of antenatal glucocorticoids: implications for fear and anxiety responses. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 220:443-53. [PMID: 21935638 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2494-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Several human and experimental studies have shown that early life adverse events can shape physical and mental health in adulthood. Stress or elevated levels of glucocorticoids (GCs) during critical periods of development seem to contribute for the appearance of neurospyschiatric conditions such as anxiety and depression, albeit the underlying mechanisms remain to be fully elucidated. OBJECTIVES The aim of the present study was to determine the long-term effect of prenatal exposure to dexamethasone- DEX (synthetic GC widely used in clinics) in fear and anxious behavior and identify the neurochemical, morphological and molecular correlates. RESULTS Prenatal exposure to DEX triggers a hyperanxious phenotype and altered fear behavior in adulthood. These behavioral traits were correlated with increased volume of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), particularly the anteromedial subdivision which presented increased dendritic length; in parallel, we found an increased expression of synapsin and NCAM in the BNST of these animals. Remarkably, DEX effects were opposite in the amygdala, as this region presented reduced volume due to significant dendritic atrophy. Albeit no differences were found in dopamine and its metabolite levels in the BNST, this neurotransmitter was substantially reduced in the amygdala, which also presented an up-regulation of dopamine receptor 2. CONCLUSIONS Altogether, our results show that in utero DEX exposure can modulate anxiety and fear behavior in parallel with significant morphological, neurochemical and molecular changes; importantly, GCs seem to differentially affect distinct brain regions involved in this type of behaviors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mário Oliveira
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
The role of cytokines and inflammatory cells in perinatal brain injury. Neurol Res Int 2012; 2012:561494. [PMID: 22530124 PMCID: PMC3317045 DOI: 10.1155/2012/561494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2011] [Revised: 11/25/2011] [Accepted: 12/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Perinatal brain injury frequently complicates preterm birth and leads to significant long-term morbidity. Cytokines and inflammatory cells are mediators in the common pathways associated with perinatal brain injury induced by a variety of insults, such as hypoxic-ischemic injury, reperfusion injury, toxin-mediated injury, and infection. This paper examines our current knowledge regarding cytokine-related perinatal brain injury and specifically discusses strategies for attenuating cytokine-mediated brain damage.
Collapse
|
44
|
Morrow BA, Roth RH, Redmond DE, Diano S, Elsworth JD. Susceptibility to a parkinsonian toxin varies during primate development. Exp Neurol 2012; 235:273-81. [PMID: 22366325 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2011] [Revised: 01/18/2012] [Accepted: 02/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Symptoms of Parkinson's disease typically emerge later in life when loss of nigrostriatal dopamine neuron function exceeds the threshold of compensatory mechanisms in the basal ganglia. Although nigrostriatal dopamine neurons are lost during aging, in Parkinson's disease other detrimental factors must play a role to produce greater than normal loss of these neurons. Early development has been hypothesized to be a potentially vulnerable period when environmental or genetic abnormalities may compromise central dopamine neurons. This study uses a specific parkinsonian neurotoxin, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), to probe the relative vulnerability of nigrostriatal dopamine neurons at different stages of primate development. Measures of dopamine, homovanillic acid, 1-methyl-pyridinium concentrations and tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive neurons indicated that at mid-gestation dopamine neurons are relatively vulnerable to MPTP, whereas later in development or in the young primate these neurons are resistant to the neurotoxin. These studies highlight a potentially greater risk to the fetus of exposure during mid-gestation to environmental agents that cause oxidative stress. In addition, the data suggest that uncoupling protein-2 may be a target for retarding the progressive loss of nigrostriatal dopamine neurons that occurs in Parkinson's disease and aging.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- B A Morrow
- Neuropsychopharmacology Research Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Amant F, Van Calsteren K, Halaska MJ, Gziri MM, Hui W, Lagae L, Willemsen MA, Kapusta L, Van Calster B, Wouters H, Heyns L, Han SN, Tomek V, Mertens L, Ottevanger PB. Long-term cognitive and cardiac outcomes after prenatal exposure to chemotherapy in children aged 18 months or older: an observational study. Lancet Oncol 2012; 13:256-64. [PMID: 22326925 DOI: 10.1016/s1470-2045(11)70363-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chemotherapy for the treatment of maternal cancers during pregnancy has become more acceptable in the past decade; however, the effect of prenatal exposure to chemotherapy on cardiac and neurodevelopmental outcomes of the offspring is still uncertain. We aimed to record the general health, cardiac function, and neurodevelopmental outcomes of children who were prenatally exposed to chemotherapy. METHODS We did an interim analysis of a multicentre observational cohort study assessing children who were prenatally exposed to maternal cancer staging and treatment, including chemotherapy. We assessed children at birth, at age 18 months, and at age 5-6, 8-9, 11-12, 14-15, or 18 years. We did clinical neurological examinations, tests of the general level of cognitive functioning (Bayley or intelligence quotient [IQ] test), electrocardiography and echocardiography, and administered a questionnaire on general health and development. From age 5 years, we also did audiometry, the Auditory Verbal Learning Test, and subtasks of the Children's Memory Scale, and the Test of Everyday Attention for Children, and we also completed the Child Behavior Checklist. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00330447. FINDINGS 236 cycles of chemotherapy were administered in 68 pregnancies. We assessed 70 children, born at a median gestational age of 35·7 weeks (range 28·3-41·0; IQR 3·3; 47 women at <37 weeks), with a median follow-up period of 22·3 months (range 16·8-211·6; IQR 54·9). Although neurocognitive outcomes were within normal ranges, cognitive development scores were lower for children who were born preterm than for those born at full term. When controlling for age, sex, and country, the score for IQ increased by an average 11·6 points (95% CI 6·0-17·1) for each additional month of gestation (p<0·0001). Our measurements of the children's behaviour, general health, hearing, and growth corresponded with those of the general population. Cardiac dimensions and functions were within normal ranges. We identified a severe neurodevelopmental delay in both members of one twin pregnancy. INTERPRETATION Fetal exposure to chemotherapy was not associated with increased CNS, cardiac or auditory morbidity, or with impairments to general health and growth compared with the general population. However, subtle changes in cardiac and neurocognitive measurements emphasise the need for longer follow-up. Prematurity was common and was associated with impaired cognitive development. Therefore, iatrogenic preterm delivery should be avoided when possible. FUNDING Research Foundation-Flanders; Research Fund-K U Leuven; Agency for Innovation by Science and Technology; Stichting tegen Kanker; Clinical Research Fund-University Hospitals Leuven; and Belgian Cancer Plan, Ministery of Health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Frédéric Amant
- Leuven Cancer Institute, Gynaecologic Oncology, University Hospitals Leuven, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Ek CJ, Dziegielewska KM, Habgood MD, Saunders NR. Barriers in the developing brain and Neurotoxicology. Neurotoxicology 2011; 33:586-604. [PMID: 22198708 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2011.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2011] [Revised: 12/11/2011] [Accepted: 12/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The brain develops and grows within a well-controlled internal environment that is provided by cellular exchange mechanisms in the interfaces between blood, cerebrospinal fluid and brain. These are generally referred to by the term "brain barriers": blood-brain barrier across the cerebral endothelial cells and blood-CSF barrier across the choroid plexus epithelial cells. An essential component of barrier mechanisms is the presence of tight junctions between the endothelial and epithelial cells of these interfaces. This review outlines historical evidence for the presence of effective barrier mechanisms in the embryo and newborn and provides an up to date description of recent morphological, biochemical and molecular data for the functional effectiveness of these barriers. Intercellular tight junctions between cerebral endothelial cells and between choroid plexus epithelial cells are functionally effective as soon as they differentiate. Many of the influx and efflux mechanisms are not only present from early in development, but the genes for some are expressed at much higher levels in the embryo than in the adult and there is physiological evidence that these transport systems are functionally more active in the developing brain. This substantial body of evidence supporting the concept of well developed barrier mechanisms in the developing brain is contrasted with the widespread belief amongst neurotoxicologists that "the" blood-brain barrier is immature or even absent in the embryo and newborn. A proper understanding of the functional capacity of the barrier mechanisms to restrict the entry of harmful substances or administered therapeutics into the developing brain is critical. This knowledge would assist the clinical management of pregnant mothers and newborn infants and development of protocols for evaluation of risks of drugs used in pregnancy and the neonatal period prior to their introduction into clinical practice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Joakim Ek
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
McMaster ME. Heated indoor swimming pools, infants, and the pathogenesis of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a neurogenic hypothesis. Environ Health 2011; 10:86. [PMID: 21975145 PMCID: PMC3213202 DOI: 10.1186/1476-069x-10-86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2011] [Accepted: 10/05/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In a case-control study a statistically significant association was recorded between the introduction of infants to heated indoor swimming pools and the development of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS). In this paper, a neurogenic hypothesis is formulated to explain how toxins produced by chlorine in such pools may act deleteriously on the infant's immature central nervous system, comprising brain and spinal cord, to produce the deformity of AIS. PRESENTATION OF THE HYPOTHESIS Through vulnerability of the developing central nervous system to circulating toxins, and because of delayed epigenetic effects, the trunk deformity of AIS does not become evident until adolescence. In mature healthy swimmers using such pools, the circulating neurotoxins detected are chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform. Cyanogen chloride and dichloroacetonitrile have also been detected. TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS In infants, the putative portals of entry to the blood could be dermal, oral, or respiratory; and entry of such circulating small molecules to the brain are via the blood-brain barrier, blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, and circumventricular organs. Barrier mechanisms of the developing brain differ from those of adult brain and have been linked to brain development. During the first 6 months of life cerebrospinal fluid contains higher concentrations of specific proteins relative to plasma, attributed to mechanisms continued from fetal brain development rather than immaturity. IMPLICATIONS OF THE HYPOTHESIS The hypothesis can be tested. If confirmed, there is potential to prevent some children from developing AIS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marianne E McMaster
- Scottish National Paediatric Spine Deformity Centre, Royal Hospital for Sick Children, Edinburgh, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Sarchielli E, Pacini S, Morucci G, Punzi T, Marini M, Vannelli GB, Gulisano M. Cadmium induces alterations in the human spinal cord morphogenesis. Biometals 2011; 25:63-74. [PMID: 21796402 DOI: 10.1007/s10534-011-9483-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2011] [Accepted: 07/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The effects of cadmium on the central nervous system are still relatively poorly understood and its role in neurodegenerative diseases has been debated. In our research, cultured explants from 25 human foetal spinal cords (10-11 weeks gestational age) were incubated with 10 and 100 μM cadmium chloride (CdCl(2)) for 24 h. After treatment, an immunohistochemical study [for Sglial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)], a Western blot analysis (for GFAP, β-Tubulin III, nerve growth factor receptor, Caspase 8 and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase), and a terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase biotin-dUTP nick end labelling (TUNEL) assay (for detection of apoptotic bodies) were performed. The treatment with CdCl(2) induced a significant and dose-dependent change in the ratio motor neurons/glial cells in the ventral horns of human foetal spinal cord. The decrease of the choline acetyltransferase-positive cells (motor neurons) and the reduction of β Tubulin III indicate that CdCl(2) specifically affects motor neurons of the ventral horns. While the number of motor neurons decreased for the activation of apoptotic pathways (as shown by the increased expression of Caspase 8, nerve growth factor receptor, and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase), glial cells, both in the subependymal zone and in the gray matter of the ventral horns, increased (as shown by the increase of GFAP expression). These results provide the evidence that during human spinal cord development, CdCl(2) may affect the fate of neural and glial cells thus, being potentially involved in the etiopathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erica Sarchielli
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Forensic Medicine, University of Firenze, Viale Morgagni 85, 50134, Florence, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Szabo DT, Diliberto JJ, Huwe JK, Birnbaum LS. Differences in Tissue Distribution of HBCD Alpha and Gamma between Adult and Developing Mice. Toxicol Sci 2011; 123:256-63. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfr161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|
50
|
Abstract
Rodents eliminate antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) faster than humans, creating challenges for designing clinically relevant protocols. Half-lives of AEDs in immature mice are unknown. The pharmacokinetics of commonly used AEDs were examined in CD1 mice using a single-dose protocol at postnatal day 19. After intraperitoneal therapeutic dosing, blood serum concentrations spanning 1-48 h post-administration and corresponding brain tissue concentrations at 4 h were analyzed. Half-lives of valproate, phenobarbital, diazepam (and metabolites), phenytoin, and levetiracetam were 2.6, 15.8, 22.3, 16.3, and 3.2 h, respectively, compared to 0.8, 7.5, 7.7, 16.0, and 1.5 h reported for adult mice. Brain-to-blood ratios were comparable with adult ratios. AEDs tested had longer half-lives and maintained therapeutic plasma concentrations longer than reported in mature mice, making clinically relevant protocols feasible.
Collapse
|