The development of ethnic identity during adolescence

School belonging mediates the longitudinal effects of racial/ethnic identity on academic achievement and emotional well-being among Black and Latinx adolescents

Social Identity Theory proposes that a positive in-group social identification fosters students' academic motivation and psychological well-being. The present study, grounded in Social Identity Theory, investigated the roles of racial/ethnicity identity (REI) in the development of school adjustment among Black and Latinx youth as well as the psychological mechanisms underlying these longitudinal associations. We hypothesized that REI would positively predict the development of academic achievement and emotional symptoms. In addition, we hypothesized that the development of school belonging would mediate the predictive effects of REI on the growth of academic achievement and emotional symptoms. Participants were 475 (n = 182 Black, 48.9% female; 293 Latinx, 47.8% female) students in Grades 7-9. Students self-reported their REI, school belonging, and emotional symptoms. Academic achievement was assessed using standardized achievement test scores. The longitudinal mediation models indicated that REI indirectly predicted the development of academic achievement and emotional symptoms through students' sense of school belonging. Specifically, higher REI embedded achievement and lower REI awareness of racism predicted higher school belonging in Grade 7. Higher Grade 7 school belonging in turn predicted faster academic growth in Grade 7 to Grade 9 as well as lower emotional symptoms in Grade 7. In addition, the three dimensions of REI also directly predicted the growth of academic achievement and emotional symptoms in Grades 7-9. The mediated effects were smaller in size than the direct effects. These findings highlight the importance of fostering positive REI and a strong sense of school belonging in promoting school adjustment among racial/ethnic minoritized, academically at-risk youth.

Evaluating a School-Based Intervention on Adolescents' Ethnic-racial Identity in Sweden

Finding developmentally appropriate ways to support youth in understanding their own ethnic-racial identity is needed, particularly in contexts like Sweden where such support is not the norm. This preregistered longitudinal study examined whether an 8-week school-based intervention, the Identity Project, impacted youth ethnic-racial identity exploration (participation and search), resolution, private regard, and centrality. Participants were 509 adolescents in the 10th grade (Mage = 16.28, SD = 0.80; 65% self-identified girls; 52% minoritized ethnic background), who were randomized into an intervention or wait-list control group and assessed at baseline and three times post-intervention. The findings indicated an initial and simultaneous effect of the intervention only for exploration participation and resolution but did not show the expected chain of effects with earlier exploration predicting later resolution. Growth models indicated a greater increase in exploration participation over time for the intervention group than the control group. The findings indicate a mixed picture about the effectiveness of the intervention, with effects primarily narrowly targeted to exploration participation, but nevertheless highlight the potential for supporting Swedish youth in engaging with their ethnic-racial identities.

Different contexts - different stories: Adolescents' experiences of how ethnicity is addressed in schools and sports and on social media in Sweden

Ethnicity plays a significant role in adolescents' everyday lives, but there is a limited understanding of adolescents' own experiences with how ethnicity is addressed in different contexts. Three contexts of importance during adolescence are investigated in the present study: schools, social media, and sports. A closer contextual examination has the potential to provide insights into how multiple contexts shape experiences with ethnicity. The aim of the study was to understand more about adolescents' experiences of how ethnicity is addressed in schools, on social media, and in sports. Six focus groups with a total of 21 adolescents (Mage = 14.5, SDage = 0.5, female = 76%) discussed their experiences. Data were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using a close-to-data, inductive thematic analysis. The analysis resulted in three main themes and seven subthemes, indicating that ethnicity was addressed differently in the three studied contexts. For the main theme of how ethnicity was addressed in schools, the subthemes were: Addressing ethnicity is important; Ethnicity is addressed through stereotypes and Everyday racism. The main theme of ethnicity on social media consisted of two subthemes: Sharing ethnic and cultural narratives and Hateful remarks. The main theme of ethnicity in sports also consisted of two subthemes: On equal terms and Clear consequences for racist behaviors. To better understand the multiple contexts, the results are discussed guided by the ecological systems theory. The adolescents highlighted that there are many benefits of addressing ethnicity and that it is important to do so in multiple contexts of adolescent life, just not in the same way. When ethnicity was addressed carelessly, such as through stereotypes or via racism masked as jokes, it had the potential to cause harm. When ethnicity was addressed with reflection, it instead had the potential to build understanding, lead to positive experiences, and provide learning opportunities.

Ethnic-Racial Identity and Attitude Change: Assessments of Outgroup and Diversity Attitudes among Adolescents in Sweden

Outgroup and diversity attitudes are important components of intercultural understanding and well-being. Despite the potential of ethnic-racial identity development as a means to foster positive outgroup and diversity attitudes, little is known about its effectiveness in rapidly diversifying contexts such as Sweden. This pre-registered study filled this gap by examining if adolescents taking part in an intervention focused on ethnic-racial identity exploration, the Identity Project, also reported change in outgroup and diversity attitudes, and whether migration background, education type, and ethnic-racial identity development predicted such change. Twenty-three tenth-grade classes in Sweden (N = 509; Mage = 16.28; SDage = 0.80; 66% female; 51% migration background) participated in the intervention and were assessed in four waves over a period of 26 weeks. Whereas ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution increased for the intervention group, the adolescents reported no change in outgroup and diversity attitudes when compared to a control group. Increases in ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution co-varied with increases in attitudes, but only at Time 3. The results do not provide support for the link between ethnic-racial identity development and positive outgroup and diversity attitudes, and challenge the notion of attitude change as a cascading effect of the Identity Project intervention in non-US sociocultural contexts. All aspects of the study were pre-registered on the Open Science Framework platform ( https://osf.io/f5896 ).

Coping strategies of school-going adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic in the climate vulnerable Manafwa watershed, Uganda

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted daily life, economies, and health, prompting strict government measures, including nationwide lockdowns and school closures in Uganda, resulting in significant academic setbacks for adolescents. The coping strategies employed by school-going adolescents in Uganda amidst the COVID-19 pandemic remain inadequately understood. This study aimed to assess the coping strategies adopted by school-going adolescents (early, middle and late adolescents) in the Manafwa watershed, recognized as one of Uganda's most vulnerable regions, during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

A cross sectional study design was conducted from I5th May, 2023 to 30th June, 2023 on 762 school going adolescents from government-aided secondary schools within the Manafwa watershed area. The adolescent version of the KidCope tool was used to evaluate adolescents' coping strategies. Factor analysis identified correlations among adolescents' coping strategies. Independent Samples t-Test and One-Way Variance of Analysis (ANOVA) was used for comparing the mean score differences of the coping strategies among the gender and adolescents' stages respectively.

RESULTS

Majority (n = 141, 36.2%) of the participants employed adaptive coping followed by negative-emotion coping (n = 127, 32.6%) and avoidant coping (n = 122, 31.3%). Females employed statistically higher resignation as a coping strategy compared to males, (mean of 1.2 vs. 1.0, respectively; P = 0.026). A higher proportion (n = 88, 69.3%) of middle age adolescents employed negative-emotion regulation (P-value = 0.040). However, those in early adolescence significantly utilized distraction as a coping strategy more than those in middle adolescence (mean difference = 0.36, p = 0.013).

CONCLUSION

During the pandemic, majority of school-going adolescents employed adaptive coping mechanisms, including positive emotional regulation and social support. However, compared to males, females employed resignation more frequently. Moreover, middle-aged adolescents had a greater propensity for negative emotion copying. Findings from this study contribute valuable information for the development of targeted interventions and support mechanisms for adolescents facing unprecedented challenges.

Traditional and Race-based Bullying in Racial-Minority Majority and Racially Diverse Schools

Few studies in the U.S. have simultaneously examined general and race-based bullying with consideration of school-level racial composition. The current study examined victimization as a function of school racial composition, in minority-majority and diverse schools (N = 1911, Mage = 13.7 years) enrolled in 7th grade in 24 public schools (42.3% Hispanics, 9.0% non-Hispanic White, 28.9% non-Hispanic Black, and 19.7% non-Hispanic Asian). Multilevel regression analyses suggest student-level protective factors related to both forms of victimization, but, school racial composition was only significant in explaining race-based bullying. Specifically, minority-majority schools had lower levels of race-based victimization compared to racially diverse schools. Findings suggest that consideration of school contextual factors offers a more nuanced understanding of the relation between race and victimization.

Mexican-Origin Children's Trajectories of Ethnic-Racial Pride from Childhood through Emerging Adulthood: Associations with Mothers and Fathers' Trajectories

Ethnic-racial pride (positive feelings about one's ethnic-racial group) is critical to healthy identity development across the lifespan. Research on ethnic-racial pride development among Latinx populations has focused exclusively on youth, without regard to pride development amongst parents and relations between pride within family units. Using multivariate Latent Growth Curve Modelling among 674 Mexican-origin youth and their parents (673 mothers; 437 fathers), the trajectory of youth's pride from 5th grade through emerging adulthood (14 years/12 waves of data) as well as relations with parental pride trajectories were examined. Respondents' pride generally decreased from waves 1 to 7 (~age 11-17 in youth) and increased after wave 7. Youth's and mothers' trajectories were unrelated, but complex associations emerged between youth's and fathers' trajectories. This study supports the dynamic nature of ethnic-racial pride across distinct life stages and underscores the complex interplay of youth and parental pride trajectories, emphasizing the pivotal role parents may play in co-shaping identity development alongside their children.

Psychosocial development measures modification for adolescents with intellectual and developmental disabilities

BACKGROUND

Although diagnosis and identification of IDD is improving, adolescents with IDD receive limited attention in research, particularly concerning their psychosocial development. Measures developed and normed with typically developing populations may not be appropriate for IDD populations and may result in biased assessment.

AIM

This study aimed to develop and validate modified psychosocial development assessments for adolescents with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD), addressing the absence of such assessments.

METHOD

It involved two phases: modifying existing instruments and validating the revised versions. Four stakeholder groups participated: adolescents with IDD, parents, and scholars in adolescent developmental and disabilities. Validation included two groups: neurotypical adolescents completing both measures and IDD adolescents completing modified measures.

RESULTS

Confirmatory factor analyses identified the need to adjust or eliminate scales for better understanding by individuals with IDD. The modified instruments provided suitable measures for assessing psychosocial development in adolescents with IDD.

DISCUSSION

All the scales allowed for accommodation toward comprehension for those with IDD except for identity formation. Further work is needed to understand the challenges associated with assessing identity formation in adolescents with IDD. The active involvement of and participation from adolescents with IDD and their parents in this research was paramount to understanding their comprehension and needs.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the importance of tailored assessments for accurate measurement of IDD individuals' development, benefiting the assessment of all adolescents.

Differential impact of the school context on ethnic and racial identity and depression for monoracial and multiracial early adolescents

Introduction

This study examined the direct and indirect effects of school context (negative peer relationships, school environment) on ethnic and racial identity (ERI) development in middle school and later depression symptoms in high school. Differences by racial group were examined for non-Hispanic White (NHW) early adolescents, monoracial adolescents, and multiracial adolescents.

Methods

This study used existing data from a large, multiwave, longitudinal study that included 593 racial/ethnically diverse adolescents from sixth grade through ninth grade across three public middle schools in the Pacific Northwest.

Results

Using multigroup path analysis in structural equation modeling, the findings indicated differences by racial group-school environment was associated with positive ERI development in middle school for NHW and monoracial adolescents but not for multiracial adolescents. For multiracial adolescents, ERI predicted later depression symptoms.

Discussion

These findings demonstrated the importance of examining school context and peer relationships in relation to ERI development and psychological wellbeing.

A review of mental health disparities during COVID-19: Evidence, mechanisms, and policy recommendations for promoting societal resilience

Social and economic inequality are chronic stressors that continually erode the mental and physical health of marginalized groups, undermining overall societal resilience. In this comprehensive review, we synthesize evidence of greater increases in mental health symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic among socially or economically marginalized groups in the United States, including (a) people who are low income or experiencing homelessness, (b) racial and ethnic minorities, (c) women and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and questioning (LGBTQ+) communities, (d) immigrants and migrants, (e) children and people with a history of childhood adversity, and (f) the socially isolated and lonely. Based on this evidence, we propose that reducing social and economic inequality would promote population mental health and societal resilience to future crises. Specifically, we propose concrete, actionable recommendations for policy, intervention, and practice that would bolster five "pillars" of societal resilience: (1) economic safety and equity, (2) accessible healthcare, including mental health services, (3) combating racial injustice and promoting respect for diversity, equity, and inclusion, (4) child and family protection services, and (5) social cohesion. Although the recent pandemic exposed and accentuated steep inequalities within our society, efforts to rebuild offer the opportunity to re-envision societal resilience and policy to reduce multiple forms of inequality for our collective benefit.

A Longitudinal Mediation Analysis of the Interrelations among Exclusionary Immigration Policy, Ethnic Identity, and Self-Esteem of Latinx Early Adolescents

Little is known about how exclusionary immigration laws affect ethnic identity and self-esteem among Latinx middle school students. Arizona's SB 1070, which required local officers to verify the legal status of detained individuals, garnered national attention for its impact on immigrant and Latinx communities. This study tested a longitudinal parallel multiple mediation model where perceptions of the effects of an exclusionary immigration law (Arizona's SB 1070) on self-esteem were mediated by dimensions of ethnic identity (ethnic centrality, ethnic private regard, ethnic public regard). Data were collected from a two-wave survey of 891 early adolescents ranging in age from 10 to 14 years (M = 12.09 years; SD = 0.99), a majority (71%) of whom were of Mexican descent. Analyses revealed an indirect effect of T1 perceptions of this law on T2 self-esteem (7 months later), holding T1 measures constant, with T2 ethnic centrality, private regard, and public regard acting as mediators. Perceived effects of this exclusionary law led to increased self-esteem through increased dimensions of ethnic identity. Results reveal how ethnic identity functions as a multidimensional construct in the process through which exclusionary immigration policy may impact the self-esteem of Latinx early adolescents.

To Be in Harmony: Chinese American Adolescents' and Parents' Bicultural Integration During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Experiences of racial discrimination have been found to be associated with internalizing problems among ethnic-racial minority youth. However, mediating and moderating processes that might explain this association is less well understood. Thus, the present study aimed to examine whether Chinese American adolescents' bicultural identity integration harmony (BII-Harmony) mediated the association between their experiences of racial discrimination and internalizing behaviors. Furthermore, we examined the moderating role of their parents' BII-Harmony in this mediation model. Chinese American adolescents (Mage = 13.9 years; SD = 2.3; 48% female) reported their experiences of racial discrimination and BII-Harmony, and their parents (Mage = 46.2 years; SD = 5.2; 81% mothers) reported their BII-Harmony and their children's internalizing difficulties. Chinese American adolescents' racial discrimination experiences were negatively associated with BII-Harmony, and in turn, more internalizing problems, but only when their parents also reported low and mean levels of BII-Harmony.

Ethnic-Racial Identity Developmental Trajectories Across the Transition to College

There is limited longitudinal research examining multiple ethnic-racial identity (ERI) components from adolescence into young adulthood. The current study modeled Latino adolescents' ERI trajectories across the college transition (N = 206; Mage = 18.10 years, SD = 0.41; 65.0% female). Longitudinal data from a survey administered on five occasions across 3 years were analyzed using multilevel growth modeling. Prior to college, Latino heritage culture orientation was positively associated with ERI exploration and resolution. ERI exploration increased over time. ERI resolution was high with no average change; Latino heritage culture orientation predicted variability in resolution over time. Before college, male-identifying youth reported higher ERI public regard from teachers/professors compared to female-identifying youth. Public regard increased to a greater extent for female compared to male adolescents. The findings join evidence for lifespan and intersectional models of ERI development.

Adolescents' Evaluations of those who Challenge Exclusive and Inclusive Peer Norms

Early and middle adolescents' judgments and reasonings about peers who challenge exclusive and inclusive peer group norms were examined across three studies with varying intergroup contexts. Study 1 participants included (N = 199) non-Arab American participants responding to an Arab American/non-Arab American intergroup context. Study 2 included (N = 123) non-Asian and (N = 105) Asian American participants responding to an Asian/non-Asian American intergroup context. Study 3 included (N = 275) Lebanese participants responding to an American/Lebanese intergroup context. Across all three studies participants responded to ingroup and outgroup deviant group members who challenged their peer groups to either include or exclude an outgroup peer with similar interests. Findings indicated that adolescents approved of peers who challenged exclusive peer norms and advocated for inclusion of an ethnic and cultural outgroup, and disapproved of peers who challenged inclusive group norms and advocated for exclusion. Non-Arab and non-Asian American adolescents displayed ingroup bias when evaluating a deviant advocating for exclusion. Additionally, age differences were found among Asian American adolescents. Findings will be discussed in light of intergroup research on those who challenge injustices.

Social and Structural Influences on Multiracial Identification and Health: a Public Health Mandate to Precisely Measure, Theorize, and Better Understand Multiracial Populations

There is a growing group of adolescents and young adults in the USA who identify as multiracial. However, very little research, especially health research, focuses on understanding multiracial identification and health and behavioral outcomes for multiracial populations in comparison to their single-race counterparts. Understanding the intersectional influences on this identification process is critical to updating the literature on racial and ethnic identity and health with more accurate identifications and categories. It is especially critical that there is an explicit focus on understanding the impact of structural racism and discrimination when studying the process of racial identification and the impact on health. This review takes an interdisciplinary approach relying on a review of multiple research literatures: the historical literature on race, racism and categorization, psychological and adolescent medicine literatures on adolescent development, the sociological literature on racial and ethnic identification, and the limited public health research beginning to disentangle multiracial health outcomes. An empirically testable conceptual framework is offered to frame the organization of this review-demonstrating the multiple spheres of influence on racial and ethnic identification and the implication for health outcomes.

Developmental trajectories of ethnic and national identities in adolescents from migrant families: The role of social identification with family and classmates

Given that adolescents from migrant families live within at least two cultural contexts (i.e., the heritage and the destination cultures), they generally must negotiate and construct ethnic and national identities. Accordingly, the present three-wave longitudinal study was designed to identify distinct developmental trajectories of ethnic and national identities among adolescents from migrant families ( n = 244, 56.6% female; Mage = 14.90, SDage = 0.84 at Time 1). Multivariate latent class growth analyses indicated that participants could be classified into one of four groups based on their identity profiles: ethnic-oriented identity, national-oriented identity, dual identity, and marginalized identity. Further, social identification with family and classmates was examined as a predictor of memberships in these distinct identity profiles. Results of multinomial logistic regression analysis indicated that greater social identification with family increased the probability of being classified into the ethnic-oriented and dual identity profiles rather than into the marginalized identity profile, whereas greater social identification with classmates increased the likelihood of being classified into either national-oriented or dual identity profiles rather than into the marginalized identity profile. These findings provide novel insights into the roles of families and peers as influential socializing agents during the negotiation of ethnic and national identities among immigrant youth.

Weight Concerns in Black Youth: The Role of Body Mass Index, Gender, and Sociocultural Factors

Weight concerns are prevalent among Black adolescents and have negative ramifications for well-being. We examined racial identity and racial socialization as potential sociocultural resources that might mitigate the development of weight concerns among Black adolescents, and we evaluated gender differences in these links. Participants were 132 Black youth (45% female; M age = 14.33 years at Time 1) who completed two annual home interviews. Results revealed that for adolescents with high (but not low) body mass indices (BMI), racial identity may be protective against developing weight concerns. Further, fathers' (but not mothers') racial socialization was protective against weight concerns for girls with high BMI. Findings highlight the importance of sociocultural contexts toward refining theory and advancing evidence-based practice.

Black adolescents' appearance concerns, depressive symptoms, and self-objectification: Exploring the roles of gender and ethnic-racial identity commitment

There is a dearth of research examining Black adolescents' body image, with even less work examining gender differences or the influence of ethnic-racial identity (ERI) commitment. It is critical to understand how culturally relevant aspects of appearance-beyond commonly measured ideals such as thinness and muscularity-are particularly relevant to Black adolescents. The present study of Black youth (n = 252; 55% girls, 45% boys, ages 13-18, M_age = 15.5) explored the roles of gender and ERI commitment in the associations between skin tone, hair, and facial satisfaction and appearance esteem, depressive symptomatology, and self-objectification. With a few exceptions, satisfaction with skin tone, hair, and face were significantly associated with higher appearance esteem and lower self-objectification and depressive symptoms, even when controlling for weight and muscle tone satisfaction. Findings were similar across genders, with some associations stronger among Black girls relative to boys. Among youth with higher ERI commitment, associations were stronger between skin tone, hair, and facial satisfaction and some indicators of wellbeing. Findings elucidate the role of culturally relevant appearance concerns of Black adolescents and the potential benefits of ERI commitment. This work can inform culturally sensitive research practices and therapeutic interventions related to Black youth's body image experiences.

Reciprocal links between marijuana use and school adjustment in Black and White rural adolescents

Although research has established that school adjustment is associated with marijuana use (MU) in adolescence, few studies have tested these associations bidirectionally. Using random intercepts cross-lagged panel modeling, this study examined reciprocal associations between MU and school adjustment across 8th to 10th grade, including the transition to high school. Participants included 5470 rural adolescents (59% White, 41% Black) aged 12-17 years in 2002-2005. School adjustment factors predicted subsequent MU (i.e., higher self-reported grades were protective for Black and White youth; valuing education was protective for Black youth; school behavior problems predicted increased MU across the transition to high school for White youth). MU had several adverse effects on school adjustment, particularly during the transition to high school.

Flourishing Privately but Languishing Publicly: Ethnic Identity's Contribution to Understanding Eudaimonic Wellbeing

The paper probes the meaning of wellbeing by examining whether ethnic identity is related to private and public conceptualisations of eudaimonic wellbeing. Private and public eudaimonic wellbeing are assessed as positive relations with others and social integration. Ethnic identity is a type of social identity that is meaningful in contexts of enduring inter-ethnic group contact. Fiji and Trinidad and Tobago (TT), nations with contact between two major ethnic groups for over a century, are the contexts for a preliminary exploration. Young adults (Fiji N = 38, 19-26 years old; TT N = 41, 18-25 years old) completed measures of positive relations with others (private eudaimonic wellbeing), social integration (public eudaimonic wellbeing), and ethnic identity development. Across the nations, a stronger sense of ethnic identity, or commitment to the ingroup, predicted better positive relations with others but worse social integration. Ethnic identity thus seems to be a key construct in understanding positive private, but negative public eudaimonic wellbeing among young adults in contexts of ethnic diversity. Findings are discussed by considering how implications of ethnic diversity (competitive inter-group relations, inter-group contact making ethnic group membership salient) might be related to ethnic identity development, and private and public eudaimonic wellbeing.

Critical Action and Ethnic-Racial Identity: Tools of Racial Resistance at the College Transition

This study examines the reciprocal relationship between critical action and ethnic-racial identity (ERI) exploration in Black college students using a longitudinal cross-lagged model. Participants were Black students (N = 237; Mage  = 18.2; 74% female) from a longitudinal study of college transition. Analyses examined the temporal ordering and directionality of associations between critical action and ERI exploration over four time points from college entry through four years of college. Critical action positively predicted ERI exploration over each year of college, and ERI exploration positively predicted critical action in a reciprocal fashion over the same years. These findings underscore theoretical assertions that critical action and ERI are intertwined in Black youths' development and provide insight into how critical action and ERI overlap beyond adolescence.

An Assessment of Racial and Ethnic and Sexual Identity Centrality and Smoking Behavior

Although evidence indicates that identity centrality, or identity importance, can serve as a positive coping mechanism regarding well-being, less is known if it can also buffer against health risk behaviors like cigarette smoking. This study uses an intercategorical intersectional approach using data from 1,571 Black and Latino/a sexual and gender minority adults in the Social Justice Sexuality Project to assess the relationship between sexual and racial and ethnic identity centrality and smoking patterns. Relative risk ratios from multinomial logistic regressions highlight three findings. First, there is no evidence of a significant association between identity centrality and smoking behavior nor evidence of a significant interaction effect between racial and ethnic and sexual identity centrality. Once models were adjusted for education, the association between centrality and smoking was no longer significant. Second, results indicate that education, gender identity, familial support and outness were significant predictors of smoking behaviors. Third, results suggest that there are significant differences across the intersection of race and ethnicity and sexual identity in relative risk of smoking. In addition, findings highlight elevated risk of engaging in more casual behaviors of smoking as opposed to heightened smoking behavior among both Black and Latino/a sexual minority adults.

Minority stress process among older Black Americans: the role of age, perceived discrimination, and anxiety

Objective: Prolonged experiences of discrimination can be a major source of physical and health-related stress, particularly in older Black Americans. However, there is limited information on the relation between discrimination and anxiety, particularly within the context of other constructs that influence the manifestation of anxiety symptoms. For example, several studies have suggested that ethnic identification may provide psychological and social resources to deal with the effects of discrimination. This study aims to further understand these processes.Method: This study utilized structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine predictors of anxiety symptom severity in a sample of African American and Afro-Caribbean adults aged 55 and older from the National Survey of American Life (N = 1,032).Results: The final structural regression model revealed acceptable fit indices, and was successful in measuring latent anxiety symptom severity, showing that more experienced discrimination was related to higher anxiety and anxiety was directly related to mental health rating. While higher experience of discrimination was associated with higher anxiety, it was not directly related to mental health rating. However, contrary to expectation, ethnic identification did not serve as a protective factor between experienced discrimination and anxiety. As individuals aged, they experienced less discrimination and reported poorer self-rated mental health.Conclusions: While age served as a protective factor for perceived discrimination and anxiety symptom severity, ethnic identification did not. Implications for those working to reduce anxiety symptoms among Black Americans are discussed.

Deconstructing adolescent ethnicity: A longitudinal analysis of ethnic-racial identity development and self-categorization

BACKGROUND

The study of adolescent perceptions of their ethnicity/race has been investigated from an ethnic-racial identity (measurement) perspective or through an ethnic-racial classification lens.

AIMS

This study examines both, as it explores change in adolescents' ethnic-racial self-categorization; change in strength of ethnic-racial identity (ERI); and the relationship between change in self-categorization and strength of ERI. In so doing, it contributes to theorizing about the content and process of ERI formation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The longitudinal and mixed-methods study followed 732 middle and high school students biannually in a semi-rural, ethnically diverse school district. All students completed the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) in fall and spring each year and interviewed annually for qualitative inquiry.

RESULTS

The four waves of data demonstrated that: (1) 22% of students changed their ethnic-racial classification at least once; (2) Multiracial youth, boys, and 8th graders were significantly more likely to change self-classification compared to White youth, girls, and 10 th graders; (3) strength of ERI did not change over time, however, African American and Hispanic youth had the strongest ERI over time compared to the others; (4) change in self-classification was significantly related to change in strength of ERI, however, its direction varied by race of students.

DISCUSSION

While adolescent ethnic-racial identity development (ERI) appears to be related to ethnic-racial categorization, the direction of the relationship varies depending on ethnic self-categorization.

CONCLUSION

Results contribute to theory building of ERI in relation to: content and process, group consciousness, certainty and clarity, and public regard.

System Dynamics of Cognitive Vulnerabilities and Family Support Among Latina Children and Adolescents

The paper describes an approach to developing a data-driven development of a feedback theory of cognitive vulnerabilities and family support focused on understanding the dynamics experienced among Latina children, adolescents, and families. Family support is understood to be a response to avoidant and maladaptive behaviors that may be characteristic of cognitive vulnerabilities commonly associated depression and suicidal ideation. A formal feedback theory is developed, appraised, and analyzed using a combination of secondary analysis of qualitative interviews (N = 30) and quantitative analysis using system dynamics modeling and simulation. Implications for prevention practice, treatment, and future research are discussed.

Stereotype Threat in High School Classrooms: How It Links to Teacher Mindset Climate, Mathematics Anxiety, and Achievement

As stereotype threat was initially examined in experimental settings, the effects of such threats have often been tested by temporarily manipulating social identity threats. This study expands the literature by examining 9th-grade adolescents' naturalistic stereotype threat, using data from the National Study of Learning Mindsets in the United States (n ~= 6040, age: 13-17, Mage = 14.31, 6.9% Black boys, 6.5% Black girls, 13.1% Latinos, 12.3% Latinas, 31.5% White boys, 29.7% White girls). The results indicate that Black and Latinx students experience higher levels of stereotype threat in high school mathematics classrooms than do their White peers. When students perceive that their teachers have created fixed mindset climates, they experience greater stereotype threat. Stereotype threat, in turn, negatively predicts Black and Latino boys and White girls' later achievement via anxiety. These findings highlight the importance of creating mathematics classrooms that cultivate a growth mindset and minimize social identity threat.

Belief-related memories: autobiographical memories of the religious self

Autobiographical memories play important roles in the development of the self and identity by grounding the self in rich, meaningful experiences. In the present study, we explored whether there is a specific type of autobiographical memories tied to religious belief; namely, belief-related memories. We compared belief-related memories with important and word-cued memories across five religions. We found belief-related memories were characterised as important, positive, intense, vivid, and frequently retrieved. The characteristics of belief-related memories were markedly different from word-cued memories, and they also differed from important memories on several variables. Compared with important memories, belief-related memories were rated as less prevalent, less important, less scripted, and showed a different distribution across the life span. The temporal distributions of belief-related memories varied across religions and showed no reminiscence bump as opposed to important memories and word-cued memories. Our findings suggest belief-related memories form a distinct category of autobiographical memories, consistent with the self being multidimensional and with different types of memories supporting distinct aspects of the self.

From Apathy to Vigilance: Young Adolescents' Reactions to the Unite the Right Rally in Charlottesville

The present study examined middle school students' responses to the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia. Using a consensual qualitative research approach, we analyzed interviews from 73 local, seventh-grade students (58% female; 55% students of color) to explore the range of students' emotional responses and cognitive engagement with the events. The resulting six profiles document heterogeneity in meaning-making and personal impacts across youth. Individual and social factors including race and ethnic identity varied across profiles. Many students of color expressed fear and vigilance toward racial violence while many White students expressed sadness and sympathy. We discuss the role of developmental factors in students' reactions as well as implications for supporting early adolescents in the wake of bias-motivated violence.

The Affective Lives of Doubled-Up Latinx Youth: Influences of School Experiences, Familism, and Ethnic Identity Exploration

Doubled-up Latinx youth experience many daily challenges associated with ethnic minority status and residential instability. Doubled-up youth share housing with non-custodial caregivers such as friends and/or extended family members primarily because of economic hardship and a breakdown in available parental support. Using data from baseline and 10 days of twice-a-day surveys, this study examined how in-school positive experiences, familism (i.e., a perspective that gives precedence to the family), and ethnic identity (i.e. affirmation, exploration, and resolution) influence after school positive (e.g. feeling joyful/happy) and negative (e.g., feeling stressed/anxious) affect among doubled up Latinx youth (70% female; M age = 16.5). Results indicate that in-school positive experiences were associated with more after school positive affect and less after school negative affect. Additionally, youth with higher levels of familism reported experiencing less after school negative affect. However, gender moderated the relation of ethnic identity exploration and experiences of after school positive affect. Specifically, females with higher levels of ethnic identity exploration reported relatively lower levels of after school positive affect compared to males. Overall, study findings highlight the importance of both person-level and varying contextual influences on the affective lives of doubled-up Latinx youth.

A Lifespan Model of Ethnic-Racial Identity

The current paper presents a lifespan model of ethnic-racial identity (ERI) from infancy into adulthood. We conceptualize that ethnic-racial priming during infancy prompts nascent awareness of ethnicity/race that becomes differentiated across childhood and through adulthood. We propose that the components of ERI that have been tested to date fall within five dimensions across the lifespan: ethnic-racial awareness, affiliation, attitudes, behaviors, and knowledge. Further, ERI evolves in a bidirectional process informed by an interplay of influencers (i.e., contextual, individual, and developmental factors, as well as meaning-making and identity-relevant experiences). It is our goal that the lifespan model of ERI will provide important future direction to theory, research, and interventions.

Understanding the Influence of Sexual Risk Taking, Ethnic Identity, and Family and Peer Support on School Importance Among Hispanic Adolescents

Despite the broader academic gains experienced by Hispanic students, who represent the largest minority group in the United States, they remain the least educated of all major ethnic groups, and our understanding of their academic needs and strengths remains woefully inadequate. Therefore, this study examined the risk (e.g., sexual risk taking) and protective factors (e.g., family support, supportive peer networks, and ethnic identity) associated with school importance among Hispanic teens (N = 587) residing in a high-risk, resource poor urban community and the ways in which these relationships vary between adolescent males (46.5%) and adolescent females (53.5%). Schools that are able to harness the numerous assets embedded within the Hispanic community are well positioned to create learning environments that are encouraging, are culturally responsive, and can potentially reduce risk involvement that may interfere with valuing the role of school importance. Implications for school-based personnel are discussed.

Does classroom diversity improve intergroup relations? Short- and long-term effects of classroom diversity for cross-ethnic friendships and anti-immigrant attitudes in adolescence

This study examined short- and long-term effects of ethnic classroom diversity for intergroup relations in adolescence. Using a five-year panel of Swedish majority youth ( MageT1 = 13.40, MageT5 = 17.30), we found only limited direct effects of classroom diversity on anti-immigrant attitudes. However, classroom diversity increased the likelihood of cross-ethnic friendships, which in turn was associated with lower levels of anti-immigrant attitudes. Moreover, we found that the effect of classroom diversity on friendships remained also after adolescents transitioned to new schools. The findings highlight the importance of longitudinal analyses and contribute to a deeper understanding of how intergroup relations develop during adolescence. It brings new insights related to the longevity of classroom effects and to cross-ethnic friendships’ ability to mediate the diversity–attitudes relationship.

Association Between Group Identification at School and Positive Youth Development: Moderating Role of Rural and Urban Contexts

These studies are framed within Social Identity Theory and the Positive Youth Development approach. The aim is: (1) to analyze the relationship between group identification at school and key positive development variables (such as self-esteem, self-efficacy, assertiveness, empathy, alexithymia, satisfaction with life, and academic performance); and (2) examine the moderator role of context (rural or urban areas of residence) and sex in these relationships. The samples were composed of 246 adolescents from a rural context (Study 1) and 156 students from rural and urban contexts (Study 2). As proposed in our hypotheses, the results show statistically significant relationships between group identification and all the variables considered, higher group identification with the class in the rural context, and a moderator role of the context in the relationships between group identification and satisfaction with life, assertiveness, and empathy. These results are relevant for designing and implementing psychoeducational programs to promote positive youth development in both rural and urban contexts.

Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measurement invariance across adolescence and diverse ethnic groups

INTRODUCTION

Ethnic identity is an important protective factor for various ethnic groups and developmental periods. Although existing measures assessing ethnic identity are well known, less is known about the measurement invariance of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) across adolescent ethnic groups. The present study evaluates the factor structure of MEIM (Roberts et al., 1999) and tests the measurement invariance across early and middle adolescence and ethnic background (N = 4940).

METHODS

Data from an ethnic minority sample of youth (54% girls; M_age = 13.88, grades 6th - 12th; 60% African American, 22% multi-ethnic, 8% Latinx, 5% Asian, 5% American Indian) in the United States of America were examined using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and multi-group measurement invariance via a structural equation modeling (SEM) framework. Models for invariance were tested using full information maximum likelihood-robust (FIML-R) estimation in Mplus.

RESULTS

CFA supported a three-factor solution (i.e., cognitive clarity, behavioral engagement, and affective pride). The model indicated scalar invariance across early and middle adolescence and partial scalar invariance across the five self-identified racial/ethnic minority groups. There were no grade differences on the ethnic identity factors. Among the racial/ethnic groups, multi-ethnic youth reported the lowest levels on all three ethnic identity factors compared to the other groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Results of this study point to the validity of using the MEIM for meaningful comparisons of ethnic identity across ethnic groups and across early and middle adolescence. Implications for the interpretation and use of this measure with diverse adolescents are discussed.

Association of Media Coverage of Transgender and Gender Diverse Issues With Rates of Referral of Transgender Children and Adolescents to Specialist Gender Clinics in the UK and Australia

IMPORTANCE

Specialist gender clinics worldwide have witnessed an increase in referrals of transgender and gender diverse (TGD) children and adolescents, but the underlying factors associated with this increase are unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether increases in TGD young people presenting to specialist gender clinics are associated with related media coverage.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This cross-sectional study was conducted at 2 publicly funded, pediatric specialist gender services, one located in the UK and the other in Australia. Participants were all children and adolescents aged 0 to 18 years, referred between January 1, 2009, and December 31, 2016, to their respective gender services in the UK and Australia. Data analysis was performed in April 2019.

EXPOSURES

Media coverage of TGD issues.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Referral rates from each gender service were compared with local TGD-related media coverage during the study period.

RESULTS

Referral data for 5242 TGD young people were obtained (4684 in the UK, of whom 1847 [39.4%] were assigned male at birth and 2837 [60.6%] were assigned female at birth; 558 in Australia, of whom 250 [44.8%] were assigned male at birth and 308 [55.2%] were assigned female at birth), and a total of 2614 news items were identified (UK, 2194; Australia, 420). The annual number of TGD young people referred to both specialist gender clinics was positively correlated with the number of TGD-related local media stories appearing each year (Spearman r = 1.0; P < .001). Moreover, weekly referral rates in both the UK for week 1 (β̂ = 0.16; 95% CI, 0.03-0.29; P = .01) and Australia for week 2 (β̂ = 0.12; 95% CI, 0.04-0.20; P = .003) showed evidence of association with the number of TGD-related media items appearing within the local media. There was no evidence of association between referrals and media items appearing 3 weeks beforehand. Media predominantly focused on TGD issues showed some association with increased referral rates. Specifically, TGD-focused stories showed evidence of association with referral numbers at week 1 (β̂ = 0.16; 95% CI, 0.04-0.28; P = .007) and week 2 (β̂ = 0.23; 95% CI, 0.11-0.35; P < .001) in Australia and with referral numbers at week 1 (β̂ = 0.22; 95% CI, 0.01-0.44; P = .04) in the UK. No evidence of association was found between media peripherally related to TGD issues and referral rates.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This study found evidence of an association between increasing media coverage of TGD-related topics and increasing numbers of young people presenting to gender clinics. It is possible that media coverage acts as a precipitant for young people to seek treatment at specialist gender services, which is consistent with clinical experiences in which TGD young people commonly identify the media as a helpful source of information and a trigger to seek assistance.

Parallel Changes in Ethnic/Racial Discrimination and Identity in High School

Research has yet to understand how ethnic/racial discrimination and ethnic/racial identity change simultaneously in adolescence. In a multiethnic sample of 211 adolescents (58% female; 41% Asian American, 10% Black, 24% Latinx, 22% White, 4% other), this study used latent change modeling to examine parallel changes in adolescents' discrimination experiences (frequency and distress) and ethnic/racial identity (private regard, centrality) from 9th to 11th grade. The year immediately following the transition into high school, from 9th to 10th grade, emerged as a challenging period with higher levels of discrimination and accompanying declines in adolescents' private regard. In contrast, from 10th to 11th grade, discrimination distress declined, and adolescents' private regard remained relatively stable. Across both time periods, parallel changes were observed for discrimination (frequency, distress) and adolescents' private regard. Implications for considering the importance of school transition, as well as individual differences by adolescent characteristics and school contexts, are discussed.

“They Told Me What I Was Before I Could Tell Them What I Was”: Black Girls’ Ethnic-Racial Identity Development Within Multiple Worlds

Current research on ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development among Black youth derives primarily from studies that focus on the impact of parental racial socialization from a racial/monoidentity perspective without accounting for the roles of youth’s other worlds (i.e., schools, classrooms, and peers) and the intersection of their social identities in their identity development experiences. In using Phelan, Davidson, and Cao’s Multiple Worlds model as a framework as well as Black girls’ own words, we explore the beliefs and attitudes Black girls hold about race and their own racial categorization, as well as the processes that contribute to their learning about race (and racism) during early adolescence. We find that the Black girls in the present study are making meaning of their ERI, in part, in response to stereotypical and biased messages about their identities within their multiple worlds (i.e., schools, classrooms, families, and peers). The findings support the need for an expanded view of the messages and experiences that influence the ERI development process by illustrating that schools, classrooms, peers, and families are important socializing environments that influence the ERI development process for Black girls.

The Development of Ethnic Identity From Late Childhood to Young Adulthood: Findings From a 10-Year Longitudinal Study of Mexican-Origin Youth

Ethnic identity is a crucial developmental task for ethnic minority youth. The present study investigated the development of ethnic identity in a large sample of Mexican-origin youth ( N = 674) assessed biennially from age 10 to 19. Latent growth curve modeling was used to examine the trajectory of ethnic identity and its two facets: exploration (efforts to explore one’s ethnic group) and affirmation (positive connection to one’s ethnic group). Results showed a linear decline over time for ethnic identity and both facets; exploration declined more rapidly than affirmation. Using multigroup modeling, we tested whether the trajectories differ across gender and nativity. Compared to boys, girls’ ethnic identity, exploration, and affirmation decreased less. The trajectories did not differ for youth born in Mexico versus the United States. Discussion considers the impact of developmental, acculturative, and social–contextual processes on ethnic identity development as well unique features of our ethnic identity measure.

Does Participating in National and Ethnic Associations Promote Migrant Integration? A Study with Young First- and Second-Generation Migrants

On arrival to a new country, migrants usually face language barriers, cultural barriers, discrimination, and other sources of unjust contextual conditions that lower their chances of a successful life (Handy and Greenspan, Nonprofit Volunt Sect Q 38:956–982, 2009). This scenario compromises their levels of well-being and supports a tendency toward social fragmentation in places of settlement (García-Ramírez et al., Am J Community Psychol 47(1–2), 86–97, 2011). In response to this situation, migrants’ engagement in civic life has been identified as an important element for developing both individual well-being and cohesive communities (Gilster, J Community Psychol 40(7), 769–784, 2012) (Stoll and Wong, Int Migr Rev 41(4), 880–908, 2007). Using a qualitative study, the present work explores the effects of activism on youth of sub-Saharan African origin, of the first and second generations, who are active in national and ethnic associations. The work aims to explore (1) through narratives the meaning that integration has for young migrants; (2) how integrated they feel; and (3) the role of the association, both national and ethnic, in the perception of integration of these young people.

The participants were 21 young migrants (18–33 years old) of first and second generations, who participated in in-depth interviews. Tematic analysis was used. The results indicate that activism has positive implications for the integration and construction of migrants’ bicultural identity.

Why do first and second-generation young migrants volunteer? The Migrant Volunteerism Motivation Model (MVMM)

The following study aims at inquiring into the motivations behind young migrants’ volunteerism in civic organizations in Italy, namely in starting and maintaining their engagement (preliminary vs. maintenance phase). The term “young migrants” refers to first and second generation of migrants who deal with two challenges: the transition to adulthood and the acquisition of a cultural identity. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 37 Sub-Saharan young migrants living in Italy (18-32 years old), 19 of first generation (1G) and 18 of second generation (2G). The Omoto and Snyder’s Volunteer Process Model (VPM, 1995) was used as an underpinning theoretical framework and a guide for the interpretations of the results. The findings indicate that a) motivations included in the VPM are also found for young migrants, b) some of these motivations take particular meaning for young migrants, c) some motivations are not included in the VPM and are specific of this sample. We named these last motivations: social norms, advocacy and ethno-cultural. In addition, some considerations may be advanced regarding the generation and the phase of motivation: 1G migrants are particularly moved by the importance of integration in the Italian context and by the promotion of their ethnic group while 2G migrants reported mostly the desire to understand their roots. The values, the concern for the community and the longing to develop relationships are the motivations for which all young migrants continue to volunteer; however, 1G migrants are also sustained by advocacy and ethno-cultural motivations. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Interpersonal attitudes toward cross-ethnic peers in diverse middle schools: Implications for intergroup attitudes

To gain insights into whether schools striving to improve intergroup dynamics should curb disliking or facilitate liking across students of different ethnic groups, the current study examines the associations between interpersonal affect and intergroup relations in multiethnic schools. Given (i.e., outgoing) peer nominations of liked and disliked grade-mates were coded by ethnicity in 26 public middle schools, including all Asian, Black, Latinx, and White students ( N = 4,350). Controlling for earlier intergroup attitudes and the availability of ethnic ingroup and relevant outgroup grade-mates, multilevel analyses show that liking (but not disliking) of cross-ethnic grade-mates was associated with more positive attitudes toward that particular ethnic group. Implications of these findings for intergroup relations among adolescents in multiethnic schools are discussed.