Guilty pleasures and grim necessities: affective attitudes in dilemmas of self-control

Age matters: The effect of regret and loss aversion on cultured meat acceptance

Cultured meat shows great promise as a more sustainable alternative to conventional meat consumption. However, consumer acceptance of cultured meat remains a great challenge as studies indicate a general reluctance to adopt this product. Notably, while existing literature has provided various factors influencing consumer acceptance of cultured meat, there is a limited focus on the use of affective cues. The present research examines the impact of regret appeal on consumers' willingness to try cultured meat. In two experimental studies, the authors investigate (1) the interactive effect between regret and age on willingness to try cultured meat, and (2) the role of loss aversion as a mediating factor between regret and willingness to try cultured meat. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of regret appeal in increasing consumers' willingness to try cultured meat, particularly among older populations. This is because older populations exhibit higher levels of loss aversion. The present study is the first to shed light on the interactive effect of regret and age in influencing sustainable product acceptance. Furthermore, the study establishes the first empirical evidence to demonstrate that loss aversion is a valid self-regulating strategy adopted to cope with the feeling of regret in a consumption context.

Guidelines for assessment of affect-related constructs

Research on affect-related constructs as determinants of health behavior is increasing. The Affect and Health Behavior Framework (AHBF) provides a schematic structure to label, organize, and integrate affect-related constructs. To further facilitate research and theory development in health behavior science, the purpose of the present paper is to provide a critical review and guidelines for assessment of the affect-related constructs in the AHBF. The paper is organized based on the categories of constructs in the AHBF: Affective response to health behavior, incidental affect, affect processing, and affectively charged motivation. Future research should work toward parsing constructs where possible as well as identifying overlap. Researchers are advised to consider conceptual underpinnings and methodological nuances when assessing affect-related constructs in order to build a cumulative science of affective determinants of health behavior.

Compensatory health beliefs in women in the first, second and third trimester of pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Compensatory health beliefs may serve as one of many self-regulatory strategies that individuals employ to maintain healthy lifestyles. Past research with samples from a general population has shown, however, that compensatory beliefs are ineffective in this regard and may even lead to inaction in future health-related behaviors such as eating healthily or being active. To better understand this phenomenon, in the present study, changes in compensatory health beliefs regarding various life domains were examined in a group of pregnant women.

PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE

In a longitudinal study design, 166 women completed questionnaires in the first (t1), the second (t2), and the third (t3) trimester of their pregnancies. We assessed the level of their self-control as a trait (t1, t2, t3), compensatory health beliefs (t1, t2, t3), and unhealthy snacking (t3).

RESULTS

As predicted, self-control as a trait decreased and the levels of compensatory beliefs increased over time. A linear mixed effects analysis showed that self-control was the best predictor of compensatory beliefs in the third trimester. Finally, compensatory health beliefs in the third trimester mediated the effect of self-control at the beginning of pregnancy on unhealthy snacking in the third trimester.

CONCLUSIONS

It appears important to support pregnant women in opting for constructive self-regulatory strategies, especially in their final trimesters, when coping resources are exhausted by the challenges of this period.

Beyond enjoyment: Young children consider the normative goodness of activity engagement when attributing happiness

Individuals are typically happy when engaging in enjoyable activities. But many enjoyable activities could be harmful when engaged in to excess. Do children consider the normative goodness of activity engagement levels when attributing happiness? To examine this question, we presented children with enjoyable activities that are often harmless in moderation but harmful in excess. When told that engaging in their favorite activities at their preferred amount was either normatively good (i.e., harmless and permitted) or normatively bad (i.e., harmful and forbidden), 10- and 11-year-old and 7- and 8-year-old children (Study 1) and even 5-year-old children (Studies 2 and 3 with simplified methods) attributed less happiness when the engagement level was normatively bad than when it was normatively good both to themselves and to another child. Young children also perceived normatively bad engagement as less interesting and pleasurable (Study 3). The findings suggest that children consider the normative goodness of activity engagement (rather than enjoyment alone) when attributing happiness, illuminating how children understand happiness.

The Experience of Succeeding and Failing at Self-Control: A Qualitative Analysis

Despite the importance of emotions for learning and performance of future behaviors, few studies have attempted to qualitatively describe emotions that arise in response to self-control successes and failures. This study is the first qualitative analysis to examine the complexity of goals that give rise to self-control challenges of two types—initiation and inhibition—and the emotions that follow success and failure experiences. Thematic analysis revealed a sometimes blurred line between inhibition and initiation, and a variety of goals that challenge views that successful self-control is good and unsuccessful self-control is bad. Descriptions of self-control challenges and resulting experiences further uncovered distinctions and apparent emotional profiles characteristic of self-control dilemmas involving inhibition or initiation, suggesting that these two forms of self-control are not only theoretically but also experientially distinct.

Linking Categorical and Dimensional Approaches to Assess Food-Related Emotions

Reflecting the two main prevailing and opposing views on the nature of emotions, emotional responses to food and beverages are typically measured using either (a) a categorical (lexicon-based) approach where users select or rate the terms that best express their food-related feelings or (b) a dimensional approach where they rate perceived food items along the dimensions of valence and arousal. Relating these two approaches is problematic since a response in terms of valence and arousal is not easily expressed in terms of emotions (like happy or disgusted). In this study, we linked the dimensional approach to a categorical approach by establishing mapping between a set of 25 emotion terms (EsSense25) and the valence–arousal space (via the EmojiGrid graphical response tool), using a set of 20 food images. In two ‘matching’ tasks, the participants first imagined how the food shown in a given image would make them feel and then reported either the emotional terms or the combination of valence and arousal that best described their feelings. In two labeling tasks, the participants first imagined experiencing a given emotion term and then they selected either the foods (images) that appeared capable to elicit that feeling or reported the combination of valence and arousal that best reflected that feeling. By combining (1) the mapping between the emotion terms and the food images with (2) the mapping of the food images to the valence–arousal space, we established (3) an indirect (via the images) mapping of the emotion terms to the valence–arousal space. The results show that the mapping between terms and images was reliable and that the linkages have straightforward and meaningful interpretations. The valence and arousal values that were assigned to the emotion terms through indirect mapping to the valence–arousal space were typically less extreme than those that were assigned through direct mapping.

The Negative Effects of Long Time Physical Activity Calorie Equivalent Labeling on Purchase Intention for Unhealthy Food

(1) Background: Obesity has become a global epidemic that arouse much attention from governments, companies and scholar. Physical activity calorie equivalent (PACE) labels are introduced as a more effective nudge invention on less-calorie ordering. However, the effects of PACE labels are controversial in previous literature, thus, the research objective is to explore the effects of different PACE labels and furtherly to explore the underlying psychological mechanism; (2) Methods: Across four scenario-based experiments, involving potato chips, chocolate and cookies, this study manipulated the three calorie-information labeling (standard calorie label, long time PACE and short time PACE labels). Meanwhile, the mediating mechanism of the effects involving anticipatory guilt and the moderation effects between consumers’ future self-continuity and PACE labels are also measured; (3) Results: Results show that compared with the short time PACE and calorie labels, the longtime PACE labels have more negative influence on consumers’ purchase intention for unhealthy food. What’s more, the anticipatory guilt has negative effect of PACE labels as consumers are often prone to feeling guilty in the process of unhealthy food consumption. In addition, individuals with high future self-continuity have higher self-control and take more consideration of future outcomes, they are reluctant to choose unhealthy food than others; (4) Conclusions: Unhealthy food with a long time PACE label has more negative effect on consumers’ purchase intention rather than a short time PACE label. At the same time, companies that produce healthy foods should actively participate in the movement to label calories through the PACE labels.

Adding more portion-size options to a menu: A means to nudge consumers to choose larger portions of healthy food items

We propose and find that the extremeness aversion bias when choosing portion-sizes is stronger for healthy food as compared to unhealthy food items. In two studies (and a follow-up) we find that adding an extra-large option to a standard menu of small, medium, and large portions increases the choice share of the larger portion-sizes; but more so for healthy food than for unhealthy food. Furthermore, we find evidence for the lay belief that larger portions of healthy food do not have incremental health costs. When health costs of the larger portions of healthy food were made salient by providing calorie information, the above effects disappeared. These findings show (1) a boundary condition to the extremeness aversion effect when choosing portion sizes, and (2) imply that this bias can act as a nudge to increase the consumption of healthy food.

Acting inconsistently with an important goal predicts compensatory health behaviors through regret

OBJECTIVE

This study explored affective mechanisms of compensatory health behaviors after acting inconsistently with an important goal. Specifically, we propose and test a model in which regret over being in a situation that inhibits goal pursuit lays at the root of an individual's engagement in compensatory behaviors such as avoiding fatty foods and sweets.

METHODS

A total of 185 participants committed to being healthy took part in a longitudinal experiment (t₀-t₃). At t₀ we measured the extent to which the goal of being healthy was important to participants. At t₁ in the laboratory setting we manipulated inconsistency with the goal by asking participants to taste foods either more or less calorie-dense. After the manipulation (t₂) we measured experienced regret. Twenty-four hours later (t₃), participants declared whether they engaged in compensatory health behaviors such as avoiding fat-dense food and sweets.

RESULTS

As predicted, acting inconsistently with a goal was associated with higher levels of experienced regret. Higher regret, in turn, predicted engagement in compensatory health behaviors. Moreover, subjective importance of the goal moderated the effect of inconsistency on experienced regret in such a way that more committed individuals experienced more regret when they acted inconsistently with a goal.

CONCLUSIONS

We discuss the results and propose new avenues for research on compensation in broader contexts of situational and individual differences.

The Role of Attitudes, Affect, and Income in Predicting COVID-19 Behavioral Intentions

Handwashing is important in preventing infectious diseases like COVID-19. The current public health emergency has required rapid implementation of increased handwashing in the general public; however, rapidly changing health behavior, especially on this scale, is difficult. This study considers attitudes and affective responses to handwashing as possible factors predicting COVID-19 related changes to handwashing behavior, future intentions, and readiness to change during the early stages of the pandemic in the United States. Income was explored as a potential moderator to these relationships. To explore these issues, data from 344 community participants were analyzed. Results indicate that stronger affective responses toward handwashing relate to increases in handwashing since the outbreak of COVID-19, and both attitudes and affect uniquely predict handwashing intentions. Income significantly moderated the relationship between affect and readiness to change. Those with low income were more influenced by both affective responses and attitudes. These results suggest messages targeting both cognitions and affective responses are needed to increase the handwashing behavior during a global pandemic and these variables are critical in increasing readiness to change in low-income individuals.

Stop and Start Control: A Distinction within Self–Control

A theoretical distinction within self–control, between stop control and start control, was investigated in two studies. Study 1 consisted of a pilot study in which expert ratings of existing self–control items were used to distinguish between stop and start control items and a confirmatory factor analyses of these items using a student sample ( N = 474). Also, stop and start control were related to overall affect and behavioural outcomes. Stop control was negatively related to negative affect, whereas start control was positively related to positive affect. Study 2 ( N = 226) replicated some of these findings; stop control was the best predictor (−) of smoking and alcohol consumption whereas start control was the best predictor (+) of exercising and studying. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

When impulsive behaviours do not equal self-control failures: the (added) value of temptation enactments

Most work on self-control and impulsivity typically assumes, more or less tacitly, that people value self-control as more important than succumbing to temptations. According to this narrative, people regard impulsive behaviours as ‘failures’ of self-control and experience negative self-evaluations such as feelings of guilt or shame in response. Here, we direct attention to a neglected but crucial meta-behavioural valuation dimension of impulsive behaviour. We posit that individual differences in people's valuation of temptation enactment (VOTE) qualify whether and to what extent impulsive behaviours trigger negative self-evaluations and whether and to what extent people feel motivated to self-improve. Using a newly constructed VOTE scale, we first show that individual differences in VOTE can be reliably measured and clearly distinguished from traditional impulsivity or self-control scales (Studies 1–3; total N = 576). Across three subsequent studies (total N = 460), we then demonstrate that high VOTE, as compared with low VOTE, reduces the link between impulsive behaviours and negative self-conscious emotions (Studies 4 and 5), as well as between past impulsive behaviour and self-improvement motivation (Study 6). These findings have implications for the discourse on self-control failure and for the link between impulsive behaviour and self-evaluation, self-improvement motivation, and well-being.

No Regrets When It Comes to Your Health: Anticipated Regret, Subjective Norms, Information Insufficiency and Intent to Seek Health Information from Multiple Sources

Research suggests that a search for health information from diverse sources is crucial for obtaining accurate and quality information. As a result, this study examines motivators of intentions to use multiple information sources. Our guiding framework is the planned risk information seeking model, which poses a direct relationship between seeking-related subjective norms and information seeking intentions, and an indirect relationship between those two variables through information insufficiency (or perceived need for more information). To further explore these relationships, we integrate a novel variable, anticipated regret, as an additional mediator of both relationships. The information seeking behavior of interest in this study is intention to seek information through multiple sources. Survey results from 379 undergraduate students show that seeking-related subjective norms are positively related with information insufficiency through regret, and positively related with seeking intent through regret and information insufficiency. The implications of these findings are discussed.

When dessert comes close: The effects of anticipating indulgent consumption and dietary restraint on healthy food preference at restaurants

When dining in restaurants, diners often anticipate indulgent consumption, such as enjoying a dessert. This study examined the effects of anticipating such indulgence on preferences for healthy food among restrained and unrestrained eaters. Two experiments revealed that anticipating indulgent consumption reduced restrained eaters' preference for the immediate consumption of healthy food. Conversely, unrestrained eaters' expectation of indulgent consumption increased or did not change their preference for a healthy option. The interactive effect of indulgence anticipation and dietary restraint on healthy food preference held regardless of availability of nutrition information. The findings suggest that, despite increasing concern for healthy eating, restrained consumers ironically show a preference for unhealthy food options when anticipating a dessert consumption opportunity. The present study provides theoretical implications for consumption anticipation, sequential consumption, and dietary restraint, and practical implications for restaurateurs as well as for consumers, health professionals, and policymakers regarding healthy eating.

Moving beyond categorization to understand affective influences on real world health decisions

This paper provides an overview of affect and health decision-making research, with a focus on identifying gaps, opportunities, and challenges to guide future research. We begin by defining common categorical distinctions of affective processes that influence health decisions: integral (i.e., related to the decision) and incidental (i.e., normatively unrelated to the decision) influences, and current (experienced in the moment) and anticipated ("cognitive representations" of future affect) affect. We then summarize key discoveries within the most common categories of affective influences on health decision making: current integral affect, current incidental affect, and anticipated integral affect. Finally, we highlight research gaps, challenges, and opportunities for future directions for research aimed at translating affective and decision science theory to improve our understanding of, and ability to intervene upon, health decision making.

How Anticipated Emotions Guide Self-Control Judgments

When considering whether to enact or not to enact a tempting option, people often anticipate how their choices will make them feel, typically resulting in a “mixed bag” of conflicting emotions. Building on earlier work, we propose an integrative theoretical model of this judgment process and empirically test its main propositions using a novel procedure to capture and integrate both the intensity and duration of anticipated emotions. We identify and theoretically integrate four highly relevant key emotions, pleasure, frustration, guilt, and pride. Whereas the former two (basic hedonic) emotions are anticipated to dissipate relatively quickly, the latter two (self-conscious) emotions are anticipated to be more long-lived. Regarding the relative weighting of emotions, we obtained evidence for a relative guilt bias and pride neglect under default conditions. Furthermore, we identify situational influences on this judgment process and find that rendering self-conscious emotions more situationally salient positively impacts self-control decision-making. We discuss how these findings build on an integrative theory of self-control and how they are useful for the design of choice environments and interventions.

When virtue is not an option: Decision making in unhealthy food choices

BACKGROUND

Health conscious consumers often make choices from constrained sets of food options, such as a restaurant menu, in which healthy options may not be present.

AIM

The aim of this research was to examine how different decision strategies, such as selection versus rejection, influence the food option chosen when a choice set is restricted to unhealthy options. The mediating role of anticipated guilt was also explored.

METHODS

An experiment was conducted using a hypothetical choice scenario, in which participants were randomly assigned to a decision making strategy (select versus reject), health objective (diet versus indulge), and relative preference for the options (choice between two preferred options versus one preferred and one non-preferred option) was manipulated.

RESULTS

When using a selection strategy, consumers are more likely to choose their most preferred option, regardless of their health objectives, but when using a rejection strategy, health conscious consumers are more likely to avoid their most preferred option and consume a lesser liked alternative. Further, this effect is driven by reduced feelings of guilt. Important boundary conditions include consumer preference for the food options, as health conscious consumers will not reject their favorite option if they do not like the alternative.

CONCLUSIONS

Decision making strategy influences health conscious consumers' choices between unhealthy food options.

Regulating Emotional Responses to Climate Change - A Construal Level Perspective

This experimental study (N = 139) examines the role of emotions in climate change risk communication. Drawing on Construal Level Theory, we tested how abstract vs. concrete descriptions of climate threat affect basic and self-conscious emotions and three emotion regulation strategies: changing oneself, repairing the situation and distancing oneself. In a 2 × 2 between subjects factorial design, climate change consequences were described as concrete/abstract and depicted as spatially proximate/distant. Results showed that, as hypothesized, increased self-conscious emotions mediate overall positive effects of abstract description on self-change and repair attempts. Unexpectedly and independent of any emotional process, a concrete description of a spatially distant consequence is shown to directly increase self-change and repair attempts, while it has no such effects when the consequence is spatially proximate. “Concretizing the remote” might refer to a potentially effective strategy for overcoming spatial distance barriers and motivating mitigating behavior.

The Role of Social-Cognitive and Emotional Factors on Exclusive Breastfeeding Duration

BACKGROUND

Previous research has suggested that exclusive breastfeeding is likely to be predicted by social-cognitive variables and fear. However, there is little research assessing the role of regret and self-conscious emotions (e.g., pride and guilt) in promoting exclusive breastfeeding. Research aim: The primary aim of this research was to determine whether social-cognitive variables, fear, regret, and self-conscious emotions predict exclusive breastfeeding duration. The secondary aim of this research was to assess whether these factors predict infant-feeding choice (i.e., exclusively breastfed, combination fed, or generally formula fed).

METHODS

In this nonexperimental one-group self-report survey, 375 mothers rated social-cognitive variables toward breastfeeding (attitude, subjective norm, perceived control, and self-efficacy), their fear toward inadequate nutrition from breastfeeding and breastfeeding damaging their physical appearance, and the extent to which mothers may feel pride toward breastfeeding and negative self-conscious emotions (guilt and shame) and regret for not breastfeeding their infant.

RESULTS

Exclusive breastfeeding duration was positively predicted by self-efficacy, pride, and regret but negatively predicted by the fear toward inadequate nutrition. We also found that in contrast with exclusive breastfeeding, generally formula feeding an infant was associated with lower self-efficacy, pride, and regret but higher subjective norm and fear toward inadequate nutrition through breastfeeding.

CONCLUSION

The authors argue that it is important to consider the role of self-conscious emotions and regret on exclusive breastfeeding.

Self-control Predicts Exercise Behavior by Force of Habit, a Conceptual Replication of Adriaanse et al. (2014)

A recent study suggests that habits play a mediating role in the association between trait self-control and eating behavior, supporting a notion of effortless processes in trait self-control (Adriaanse et al., 2014). We conceptually replicated this research in the area of exercise behavior, hypothesizing that these associations would generalize to other self-control related behaviors. Sufficient exercise is essential for several health and well-being outcomes, and therefore many people intend to exercise. However, the majority of the population does not actually exercise to a sufficient or intended extent, due to competing temptations and short-term goals. This conflict makes exercise a typical example of a self-control dilemma. A within-subjects survey study was conducted to test associations between trait self-control, habit strength, and exercise behavior. Participants were recruited at a local gym. Results demonstrated that trait self-control predicted exercise behavior. Mediation analysis revealed that the association between self-control and exercise was mediated by stronger exercise habits, replicating findings by Adriaanse et al. (2014). These results highlight the relevance of self-control in the domain of exercise. In addition, they add to a growing body of knowledge on the underlying mechanisms of trait self-control on behavior that point to habit—rather than effortful impulse inhibition—as a potential key to self-control success.

To squeeze or not to squeeze: How squeeze tubes affect consumers' serving sizes

Squeeze tubes increasingly complement traditional packaging. But, would squeeze tubes - besides offering ease of use - also affect consumers' serving sizes? And if so, in what way? To answer these questions, we contrast the motor fluency hypothesis (i.e., bodily movements affect judgments) with the consumption monitoring hypothesis (i.e., paying attention to quantities eaten affects consumption). Two studies reveal that consumers use less of a product when it comes in a squeeze tube versus a traditional container, providing initial evidence for the consumption monitoring hypothesis. A third study also provides evidence that the ease of consumption monitoring drives the squeeze tube effect, which is more prominent for unrestrained eaters. These findings have important implications for consumers, public policy makers, and product manufacturers.

Self-Conscious Emotions and Self-Regulation in the Promotion of Condom Use

Two prospective studies examined the self-regulatory role of anticipated negative self-conscious emotions (ANSCE) in the theory of planned behavior. In Study 1, 147 undergraduates reported condom attitudes, perceived norms, self-efficacy, ANSCE (shame and guilt) should they not use condoms, and intentions to use condoms during the coming 6 weeks. At a 6-week follow-up, ANSCE predicted condom use intentions and behavior and partially mediated the effect of attitudes and norms on both. Study 2 experimentally tested the social nature of self-consciousness in ANSCE; 61 female undergraduates read a scenario priming the private-self or social-self or were assigned to a no-scenario control. They reported condom attitudes, perceived control, ANSCE, condom use intentions, and a 6-week follow-up. ANSCE again predicted condom use intentions. A test of moderated mediation indicated that ANSCE influenced condom intentions more in the social-self condition than in the control condition. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Beliefs Are Not Behavior

Abstract. Compensatory health beliefs (CHBs), defined as belief that an unhealthy behavior can be compensated by engaging in another healthy behavior, are negatively predictive of health-behavior change intentions and behavior. However, CHBs have to be distinguished from compensatory health behavior (CBs), which is defined as compensatory behavior that an individual engages in. As it has not been investigated to date, the aim of this study was to systematically examine the distinction between CHBs and CBs in the context of alcohol consumption. The baseline sample consisted of 898 participants (mainly students, mean age = 23.57 years). For running exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses on CHBs and CBs, the split-half sample method was used. Moreover, the relationships of CHBs and CBs with health-related variables were assessed by regression analyses. The cross-sectional analyses supported the distinction between CHBs and CBs. In contrast to the CHBs, CBs were positively predictive of the intention to drink less alcohol and alcohol consumption. The consideration of CBs when investigating health behavior is highly relevant.

Understanding the Reasons behind Anticipated Regret for Missing Regular Physical Activity

Anticipated affective reactions to missing physical activity (PA), often labeled anticipated regret, has reliable evidence as a predictor of PA intention and behavior independent of other standard social cognitive constructs. Despite this evidence, the sources of regret are understudied and may come from many different reasons. The purpose of this study was to theme the reasons for why people responded to anticipated regret over missing regular PA for 2 weeks. Participants were a random sample of 120 university students who were primed on the public health definition of PA, completed measures of regret, and were asked to list their reasons for regret. Ninety-five percent of participants expressed that they would regret not being active and gave a total of 357 reasons. The dominant theme (n = 247; 69%) was a missed opportunity to obtain the benefits of PA, followed by shame/guilt for not being able to follow-through with one's goals or self-categorized role (n = 99; 28%) with a final theme of perceived pressure from others (n = 11; 3%). From a practical perspective, the diversity of these reasons suggest that more clarity on the source of regret should be present in assessment, while building from both attitude and identity theories may help understand how regret motivates PA in future intervention.

'Imagined guilt' vs 'recollected guilt': implications for fMRI

Guilt is thought to maintain social harmony by motivating reparation. This study compared two methodologies commonly used to identify the neural correlates of guilt. The first, imagined guilt, requires participants to read hypothetical scenarios and then imagine themselves as the protagonist. The second, recollected guilt, requires participants to reflect on times they personally experienced guilt. In the fMRI scanner, participants were presented with guilt/neutral memories and guilt/neutral hypothetical scenarios. Contrasts confirmed a priori predictions that guilt memories, relative to guilt scenarios, were associated with significantly greater activity in regions associated with affect [anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), Caudate, Insula, orbital frontal cortex (OFC)] and social cognition [temporal pole (TP), precuneus). Similarly, results indicated that guilt memories, relative to neutral memories, were also associated with greater activity in affective (ACC, amygdala, Insula, OFC) and social cognition (mPFC, TP, precuneus, temporo-parietal junction) regions. There were no significant differences between guilt hypothetical scenarios and neutral hypothetical scenarios in either affective or social cognition regions. The importance of distinguishing between different guilt inductions inside the scanner is discussed. We offer explanations of our results and discuss ideas for future research.

Neural correlates of processing "self-conscious" vs. "basic" emotions

Self-conscious emotions are prevalent in our daily lives and play an important role in both normal and pathological behavior. Despite their immense significance, the neural substrates that are involved in the processing of such emotions are surprisingly under-studied. In light of this, we conducted an fMRI study in which participants thought of various personal events which elicited feelings of negative and positive self-conscious (i.e., guilt, pride) or basic (i.e., anger, joy) emotions. We performed a conjunction analysis to investigate the neural correlates associated with processing events that are related to self-conscious vs. basic emotions, irrespective of valence. The results show that processing self-conscious emotions resulted in activation within frontal areas associated with self-processing and self-control, namely, the mPFC extending to the dACC, and within the lateral-dorsal prefrontal cortex. Processing basic emotions resulted in activation throughout relatively phylogenetically-ancient regions of the cortex, namely in visual and tactile processing areas and in the insular cortex. Furthermore, self-conscious emotions differentially activated the mPFC such that the negative self-conscious emotion (guilt) was associated with a more dorsal activation, and the positive self-conscious emotion (pride) was associated with a more ventral activation. We discuss how these results shed light on the nature of mental representations and neural systems involved in self-reflective and affective processing.

Combining food type(s) and food quantity choice in a new food choice paradigm based on vice-virtue bundles

Given the prevalence and rising rates of obesity in many countries, including the United States, much food decision-making research ultimately aims at understanding how consumers can make healthier choices. The two predominant choice paradigms used in food decision-making research ask consumers to choose (a) between a "vice" (or unhealthy food) and a "virtue" (or healthy food) or (b) among varying portion sizes of "vice." We propose a new food choice paradigm that encourages consumers to jointly consider both food type(s) choice and food portion size at each decision point. The purpose of this paradigm is two-fold. First, it aims to allow examination of more comprehensive eating behavior (e.g., to examine the overall composition of a plate of food rather than choice of a single food). Second, it aims to shift consumers towards including large proportions of virtues and smaller proportions of vice in their overall consumption portfolios. For this paradigm, we draw upon a recently introduced food product innovation called "vice-virtue bundles" (Liu et al., 2015) that illustrates the basis of this new food choice paradigm, in which food type(s) and portion decisions are made simultaneously. Accordingly, we first discuss relevant findings on vice-virtue bundles as well as the differences between simultaneous and sequential choice of multiple products. Second, we examine the benefits for managing and controlling one's consumption that are provided by vice-virtue bundles and this joint food choice paradigm more generally. Third and finally, we point out opportunities for future research by discussing (a) multiple factors that influence food choices, (b) decision processes affected by food choice paradigms, and (c) issues of generalizability related to the presence of vice-virtue bundles.

Physical activity and food consumption: The moderating role of individual dieting tendency

Applying theory on justification and self-control, this research examines the impact of physical activity on dieters’ and nondieters’ food consumption patterns. The results from two studies demonstrate that dieters, but not nondieters, consume more food after exercising as compared to situations in which no exercise is involved. In addition, dieters consume more food when they anticipate engaging in physical activity as compared to when they have completed their exercising. When physical activity is framed as fun (vs work), dieters decrease the amount of food they consume after exercising. Estimation of calories burned through exercise underlies this result.