The Affective Responses to Moderate Physical Activity: A Further Study to Prove the Convergent and the Discriminant Validity for the German Versions of the Feeling Scale and the Felt Arousal Scale

The present study proves the construct validity of the German versions of the Feeling Scale (FS) and the Felt Arousal Scale (FAS) for measuring the affective responses (affective valence and arousal) for a moderate-intensity jogging (JG) exercise. In previous studies, both scales were validated for a high-intensity bicycle ergometer exercise and for relaxation techniques. In the present study, 194 participants performed the JG exercise for 45 min and completed the FS and the FAS, as well as the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM), for a self-other comparison in a pre-test-intervention-post-test design. The results of the correlation analyses replicated the previous findings for the high-intensity bicycle ergometer exercise and the relaxation techniques, revealing significant positive correlations for the valence dimension between the FS and the SAM-Pleasure subscale (r = 0.50) and for the arousal dimension between the FAS and the SAM-Arousal subscale (r = 0.16). These findings suggest that the German versions of the FS and the FAS are also suitable for exercises of moderate intensity.

A systematic narrative review of extrinsic strategies to improve affective responses to exercise

Background

Extrinsic strategies affect the exercise experience but fall outside the frequency, intensity, time, and type (i.e., dose-determining) principles. To our knowledge, no systematic review has focused on extrinsic strategies to influence the affective responses to exercise. The objective was to identify extrinsic strategies that seek to influence affective responses during exercise and other motivationally relevant variables including post-exercise momentary affective valence, remembered and forecasted pleasure, and enjoyment.

Methods

For inclusion, eligible articles reported peer-reviewed original research, used acute bouts of exercise, and used a dimensional approach for measuring affective responses or measured enjoyment post-exercise. Web of Science, PubMed, and PsychINFO databases were last searched on 10th September 2021. Quality assessment was completed following the Effective Public Health Practice Project approach. Results were presented using a narrative synthesis.

Results

125 studies were included with sample descriptions, study design (extrinsic strategies, mode, type, intensity, and duration), measurement details, and results summarised for each study.

Conclusions

71% of studies were categorised as Weak according to the quality assessment tool with sampling practices (self-referred participants) and poor reporting of participant withdrawals/drop-outs the predominant reasons for Weak ratings. A wide variety of extrinsic strategies were reported with music, music videos, immersive virtual reality, outdoor exercise, caffeine, high-to-low pattern of exercise intensity, self-selected exercise intensity, and manipulation of self-efficacy offering promise as suitable strategies to positively change how people feel during exercise.

Systematic Review Registration

https://osf.io/jbh8v/.

A Validation Study for the German Versions of the Feeling Scale and the Felt Arousal Scale for a Progressive Muscle Relaxation Exercise

The aim of the present study is to prove the construct validity of the German versions of the Feeling Scale (FS) and the Felt Arousal Scale (FAS) for a progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) exercise. A total of 228 sport science students conducted the PMR exercise for 45 min and completed the FS, the FAS, and the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) in a pre-test-post-test design. A significant decrease in arousal (t(227) = 8.296, p < 0.001) and a significant increase in pleasure (t(227) = 4.748, p < 0.001) were observed. For convergent validity, the correlations between the FS and the subscale SAM-P for the valence dimension (r = 0.67, p < 0.001) and between the FAS and the subscale SAM-A for the arousal dimension (r = 0.31, p < 0.001) were significant. For discriminant validity, the correlations between different constructs (FS and SAM-A, FAS and SAM-P) were not significant, whereas the discriminant analysis between the FS and the FAS revealed a negative significant correlation (r = -0.15, p < 0.001). Together, the pattern of results confirms the use of the German versions of the FS and the FAS to measure the affective response for a PMR exercise.

The concept, influence, and mechanism of human work interruptions based on the grounded theory

With the development of mobile communication technology and the transformation of work methods and modes, work interruptions have become ubiquitous challenges for employees in the workplace. Less attention has been paid to work interruptions in China, especially the research on human work interruptions, which is different from virtual work interruptions. The present study carried out an in-depth interview with 29 employees. Based on the grounded theory method, a psychological and behavioral mechanism model of employees facing human work interruptions, namely, the "human work interruptions-cognitive appraisals-affective responses-behavioral changes" model, was constructed. It is found that (1) cognitive appraisals are the causes of different affective responses and behavioral changes of human work interruptions; (2) cognitive appraisals are feedback behaviors that refer to the reappraisals of the effectiveness and appropriateness of individuals' affective responses and behavioral changes; and (3) personal traits and environmental characteristics at work influence the affective responses and behavioral changes of human work interruptions at the individual and organizational level. The model constructed in this study further extends the interruption theory and provides implications on how to process human work interruptions in human resource management practice.

The Acute Effects of Cognitively Demanding Physical Activity on Inhibitory and Affective Responses in Children: An Online-Based Mixed Methods Approach

This online study investigated the acute effects of a cognitively demanding physical activity (CDPA) vs a simple physical activity (SPA) bout on children’s inhibitory and affective responses. Using a counterbalanced within-subjects’ crossover design, thirty-nine participants aged 9−12 years old (29 boys; Mage = 11 ± 1 years) performed a CDPA and a SPA bout online (via ZOOM) for 15 min. Inhibition (Stroop test) was measured at the baseline, 1 and 30 min following the physical activity (PA) bouts, and self-report measures of affect, mental and physical exertion were taken prior, during and post-PA. Additionally, 31 children took part in semi-structured focus groups to explore the factors affecting their enjoyment. The quantitative results suggest no significant differences on inhibitory responses, affect and physical exertion (all p > 0.05). However, the CDPA induced more mental exertion than the SPA did (p < 0.05). In the focus groups, four themes were identified: physical exertion (e.g., tiredness), social (e.g., teams/groups), environment (e.g., outdoors and competition) and emotional (e.g., fun/enjoyment). Some children (n = 18) reported that the CDPA condition confused them, and to make these activities more interesting and enjoyable, they suggested performing the activities outdoors (n = 15) and including other children as part of a group/team (n = 19). The findings suggest no additional benefit of a cognitively enriched physical activity compared to an SPA bout on the inhibitory responses, affect and enjoyment. Using the instructions provided and given the low cost, the easy administration and the minimal amount of equipment and time involved, either of the approaches may be used in a diversity of contexts (i.e., online, schools or outdoors), and it is worth exploring the effects of these conditions on other aspects of executive function.

Combined Training with Aerobic Exercise Performed Outdoors Can Promote Better Blood Pressure and Affective Responses in Individuals with Cardiovascular Risk Factors

The purpose of the study was to compare the effects of two models of combined training (CT) (aerobic and resistance exercise realized in the same training session), with aerobic training performed in different environments (indoor or outdoor), on blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR), and affective response in individuals with cardiovascular risk factors. Twenty-six participants were allocated, in a non-randomized design, into CT with aerobic exercise performed indoors (ICT) or outdoors (OCT). Both groups were submitted to three weekly CT sessions, with aerobic exercises performed on ergometers or an athletics track. Before and after nine weeks of training, BP and HR at rest were measured. In the last session of the training, the affective response was collected. The individuals were 65.8 ± 7.8 (ICT) and 67.3 ± 8.2 (OCT) years. Lower values of diastolic BP were observed for the OCT group at post-training (p < 0.001). Moreover, in OCT, a significant inverse correlation was identified between the affective response to training and changes in systolic BP (r = −0.60; p = 0.03) and mean BP (r = −0.62; p = 0.02). In conclusion, CT, with aerobic exercise performed outdoors, seems to be more effective in reducing BP with better affective responses to training.

Odor perception of aromatherapy essential oils with different chemical types: Influence of gender and two cultural characteristics

Olfactory perception, and especially affective responses of odors, is highly flexible, but some mechanisms involved in this flexibility remain to be elucidated. This study investigated the odor perceptions of several essential oils used in aromatherapy with emotion regulation functions among college students. The influences of people's characteristics including gender, hometown region, and fragrance usage habit on odor perception were further discussed. Odor perception of nine essential oils, which can be divided into the ester-alcohol type (e.g., lavender oil) and terpene type (e.g., lemon oil) were evaluated under three odor concentrations. The results indicated that chemical type, but not concentration, significantly influenced the odor perception and there was no interaction between the two factors in this study. The arousal and emotional perception scores of odors with terpene-type oil were significantly higher than odors with ester-alcohol type. In terms of people's characteristics, participants from the southern Yangtze river gave a higher familiarity rating to almost all of these odors. The habits of fragrance usage also significantly influenced some of the odors' subjective intensity and emotional perception ratings. However, there were no significant gender differences in most of the odor perceptions. In addition, familiarity and pleasantness were positively correlated, and emotional perception and subjective intensity also showed a weak correlation. These results suggested that users' cultural characteristics could be considered to be important factors that affect the essential oil's odor perception in aromatherapy.

Burnout, Social Comparison Orientation and the Responses to Social Comparison among Teachers in The Netherlands

(1) Background: Teaching is a profession in which burnout constitutes a prevalent issue and provides ample opportunity to compare oneself with one's colleagues, i.e., social comparison. The purpose of this research in the Netherlands was to examine responses to social comparison, in relation to burnout, and to individual differences in social comparison orientation (SCO). (2) Methods: Study 1 employed a retrospective measure to assess responses to social comparison. In Study 2, teachers were confronted with a scenario describing either a well or a poorly functioning colleague. (3) Results: Burnout was associated with more negative responses to well and to poorly functioning colleagues, with a less positive response to well-functioning colleagues. This last effect was fully due to the degree to which one identified or contrasted oneself with this colleague. Especially among high-SCO individuals, identification with a well-functioning colleague was accompanied by a positive affect. High-burnout individuals reported more identification with poorly functioning colleagues, and more contrast and less identification with well-functioning colleagues. Responses to well-functioning colleagues were more strongly related to burnout among those high in SCO. (4) Conclusions: An especially negative affect after comparison with well-functioning colleagues is typical for individuals high in burnout, particularly among individuals with a dispositional tendency to compare themselves with others.

The Role of Attitudes, Affect, and Income in Predicting COVID-19 Behavioral Intentions

Handwashing is important in preventing infectious diseases like COVID-19. The current public health emergency has required rapid implementation of increased handwashing in the general public; however, rapidly changing health behavior, especially on this scale, is difficult. This study considers attitudes and affective responses to handwashing as possible factors predicting COVID-19 related changes to handwashing behavior, future intentions, and readiness to change during the early stages of the pandemic in the United States. Income was explored as a potential moderator to these relationships. To explore these issues, data from 344 community participants were analyzed. Results indicate that stronger affective responses toward handwashing relate to increases in handwashing since the outbreak of COVID-19, and both attitudes and affect uniquely predict handwashing intentions. Income significantly moderated the relationship between affect and readiness to change. Those with low income were more influenced by both affective responses and attitudes. These results suggest messages targeting both cognitions and affective responses are needed to increase the handwashing behavior during a global pandemic and these variables are critical in increasing readiness to change in low-income individuals.

Intention to Engage in Winter Sport in Climate Change Affected Environments

Exercise, including winter sport activities, shows positive effects on physical and mental health, with additional benefits when participating in natural environments. Winter sport activities are particularly vulnerable to climate change, since global warming will decrease the duration and amount of snow. In the context of climate change in alpine environments, little is known on the determinants of winter sport behavior. Thus, the following study primarily aimed at comparing the effect of being exposed to a climate change affected scenario (CCA) or to a climate change unaffected scenario (CCU) on the intention to engage in recreational winter sport activities. Secondly, we aimed to analyze the role of anticipated affective responses during exercising based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). An experimental cross-sectional web-based study design was used. Participants were randomly allocated to pictures of either CCA or CCU. TPB variables and affective responses with regard to the displayed scenarios were assessed. Statistical analyses included Mann-Whitney-U Tests, linear regression, and mediation analyses. Significant group differences were seen in all TPB variables, p < 0.038; −0.13 < r < −0.30, as well as in affective responses, p < 0.001; −0.24 < r < −0.85. Lower intention to engage in winter sport activities and lower anticipated affective valence during exercising was found in CCA compared to CCU. Attitude toward winter sport was significantly positively associated with intention to engage in winter sport, beta = 0.66, p < 0.001. The effect of group allocation on attitude was mediated by anticipated affective valence, indirect effect = 0.37, p < 0.001. Intention to engage in recreational winter sport activities was lower in participants exposed to the climate change affected winter sport scenario. Since affective valence seems to influence attitude and consequently intention to exercise, the role of non-cognitive variables with regard to climate change related exposure should be considered in future studies. Therefore, winter sport resorts may consider altered winter sport behaviors due to the consequences of climate change as well as the importance of providing an optimal framework to enhance affective valence of their guests in order to mitigate potential changes in winter sports behavior.

Recall of Affective Responses to Exercise: Examining the Influence of Intensity and Time

Affective responses to exercise are noted to be dynamic and frequently vacillate between positive and negative valence during physical activity. Recalled affect following exercise can influence anticipated affective responses to exercise and guide future behaviors. Research examining affective memory processes indicates that the recall of an experience can substantially differ from the actual experience and change over time. Grounded in the dual mode model (Ekkekakis, 2003), this study examines individuals' recall of exercise-related affect over a period of 2 weeks. Forty-two adults (26 women, 16 men; M_age = 29.64, SD = 5.69) completed two 20-min treadmill exercise trials in a randomized control crossover design; the trials were set either at a low or high exercise intensity based upon individuals' ventilatory threshold. Data analyses indicate that the affective responses to the low-intensity condition were evaluated more positively than in the high-intensity condition. Recalled affect fluctuated over a 2-week time period following both the low- and high-intensity exercise trials. A significant reduction at the 24-h recall measurement point was observed in both exercise intensity conditions. Implications for future research and health promotion interventions aiming to optimize affective responses to exercise are presented.

Continuous walking and time- and intensity-matched interval walking: Cardiometabolic demand and post-exercise enjoyment in insufficiently active, healthy adults

We compared cardiometabolic demand and post-exercise enjoyment between continuous walking (CW) and time- and intensity-matched interval walking (IW) in insufficiently active adults. Sixteen individuals (13 females and three males, age 25.3 ± 11.1 years) completed one CW and one IW session lasting 30 min in a randomised-counterbalanced design. For CW, participants walked at a mean intensity of 65-70% predicted maximum heart rate (HR_max). For IW, participants alternated between 3 min at 80% HR_max and 2 min at 50% HR_max. Expired gas was measured throughout each protocol. Participants rated post-exercise enjoyment following each protocol. Mean HR and V˙O₂ showed small positive differences in IW vs. CW (2, 95%CL 0, 4 beat.min^-1; d = 0.23, 95%CL 0.06, 0.41 and 1.4, 95%CL 1.2 ml.kg^-1.min^-1, d = 0.36, 95%CL 0.05, 0.65, respectively). There was a medium positive difference in overall kcal expenditure in IW vs. CW (25, 95%CL 7 kcal, d = 0.58, 95%CL 0.33, 0.82). Post-exercise enjoyment was moderately greater following IW vs. CW (9.1, 95%CL 1.4, 16.8 AU, d = 0.62, 95%CL 0.06, 0.90), with 75% of participants reporting IW as more enjoyable. Interval walking elicits meaningfully greater energy expenditure and is more enjoyable than CW in insufficiently active, healthy adults.

Great Expectations: A Qualitative Analysis of the Factors That Influence Affective Forecasts for Exercise

The extent to which people expect to feel pleasure during exercise is proposed to influence an individual’s decision to be active. In order to identify the factors that shape this affective forecast for exercise, this study explored what people think about when creating their affective forecast for exercise. Thirty-one inactive participants provided an affective forecast for a moderate intensity exercise session using the global affective forecast questionnaire. Immediately after, they were asked a series of questions to verbally explain what they were thinking about in order to generate their forecast. Thematic analysis identified four themes relating to the exercise intensity, the exercise outcomes, the exercise environment, and the enjoyment of exercise that influenced affective forecast creation. Exercise practitioners should design strategies to manipulate these factors, and structure exercise environments to support a positive affective forecast and better motivate exercise participation.

Affective Responses From Different Modalities of Resistance Exercise: Timing Matters!

Resistance exercise provides positive changes in affect that may increase adherence. Little is known about the temporal dynamics of affect or the relationship between training modality and affect. This experiment investigated the temporal dynamics of affect during resistance exercise and compared the affective responses from machine and free weight exercises. Twenty-eight novice lifters (21 females) completed 2 workouts consisting of 4 machine or 4 free weight exercises for 3 sets of 9–11 repetitions at 80% 10 repetition-maximum. Feeling Scale was administered at baseline, during, 5- and 30-min post. During the workout, Feeling Scale was administered during the seventh repetition of the second set and after completion of the third set to provide an intra- and inter-set affective measurement. A Repeated Measures General Linear Model revealed a significant effect for time (p < 0.001) with affect more positive for all time points, 5- and 30-min following exercise compared to baseline levels (p's < 0.001). Additionally, affect was more positive at 5- compared to 30-min post (p = 0.015) and higher for the inter-set measurement compared to the intra-set measurement (p = 0.001). The results suggest that affective valence becomes more positive during and following resistance exercise. This preliminary evidence suggests affective rebounding may occur after cessation of the set. Lastly, there appears to be no differences in the affective responses from machine and free weight exercises among novice lifters although this finding may be confounded by other factors such as differences in muscle group selection or total amount of volume performed.

Moderation of the effects of discrimination-induced affective responses on health outcomes

OBJECTIVE

The goal of the study was to examine differential mediation of long-term effects of discrimination on health behaviour and health status by internalising (anxiety and depression) and externalising (hostility and anger), and to explore moderation of these effects, specifically, by the presence of support networks and coping tendencies.

DESIGN

The current analyses employed structural equation modelling of five waves of data from Black female participants of the Family and Community Health Study over 11 years (M age 37-48).

MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES

The main outcome variables were health status and alcohol use (frequency and problematic consumption).

RESULTS

Perceived racial discrimination was associated with increases in internalising and externalising. In addition, internalising reactions to discrimination were associated with deterioration in health status and increases in problematic drinking; externalising reactions were associated with increases in frequency of drinking. These relations were attenuated by availability of support networks, and exacerbated by use of avoidance coping.

CONCLUSION

The current study (a) replicated previous research suggesting that two different types of affective reactions mediate the relations between perceived racial discrimination and physical health status vs. health-impairing behaviours: internalising and externalising, and (b) revealed moderation of these effects by coping mechanisms.

Prevalence of Mental Health Problems and Factors Associated with Psychological Distress in Mountain Exercisers: A Cross-Sectional Study in Austria

Knowledge about potential protective factors against mental health problems is highly needed. Regular physical activity (PA) in an outdoor environment, like mountain exercising, might reduce psychological distress. Therefore, the aims of the present study were to assess the prevalence of mental health problems in mountain exercisers and to detect factors associated with psychological distress. In a cross-sectional design, we collected self-reported data of 1,536 Austrian mountain exercisers. The prevalence of mental health problems and psychological distress (Kessler Psychological Distress Scale), the level of PA International Physical Activity Questionnaire, and affective valence during PA (Feeling Scale) were obtained. Stepwise multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to assess factors influencing psychological distress. The prevalence of mental health problems in Austrian mountain exercisers was 14%. Health-enhancing PA level and higher affective valence during PA were significantly associated with lower psychological distress. Minimal PA level was not significantly associated with lower psychological distress compared to inactive PA level. Marital status, education, alpine association membership, and body mass index did not show a significant influence on psychological distress. The prevalence of mental health problems seems to be lower in Austrian mountain exercisers compared to the European population. A health-enhancing PA level and affective valence increasing forms of PA were shown to be associated with lower psychological distress. Results might lead to interventional studies focusing on the potential of outdoor PA, e.g., mountain exercise, as an adjunct treatment in people at risk or with mental health problems.

Negative psychological responses of injury and rehabilitation adherence effects on return to play in competitive athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Previous research offers evidence that psychological factors influence an injured athlete during the rehabilitation process. Our first objective was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of the results from all published studies that examined the relationships among negative affective responses after sport injuries, rehabilitation adherence, and return to play (RTP). The second objective was to use a meta-analytic path analysis to investigate whether an indirect effect existed between negative affective responses and RTP through rehabilitation adherence. This literature review resulted in seven studies providing 14 effect sizes. The results from the meta-analysis showed that negative affective responses had a negative effect on successful RTP, whereas rehabilitation adherence had a positive effect on RTP. The results from the meta-analytic path analysis showed a weak and nonsignificant indirect effect of negative affective responses on RTP via rehabilitation adherence. These results underline the importance of providing supportive environments for injured athletes to increase the chances of successful RTP via a decrease in negative affective responses and increase in rehabilitation adherence.

Does reactivity to accelerometers occur in a single trial? Brief report in a sample of young adults

This study aimed to test acute reactivity during a physical activity in an outdoor setting and to verify the relative perceived performance. In all, 38 volunteers wore accelerometers or not and completed two 20-minute sessions of self-selected pace physical activity. Covered distance, exertional responses, and perceived efficacy were recorded at the end of every session. Relevant finding of this study has been that reactivity to accelerometers also occurs in acute condition. Consequently, this condition leads to a better performance and a greater perceived exertion. Moreover, this situation seems to occur in a state of awareness.

Forced-choice decision-making in modified trolley dilemma situations: a virtual reality and eye tracking study

Based on the frameworks of dual-process theories, we examined the interplay between intuitive and controlled cognitive processes related to moral and social judgments. In a virtual reality (VR) setting we performed an experiment investigating the progression from fast, automatic decisions towards more controlled decisions over multiple trials in the context of a sacrificing scenario. We repeatedly exposed participants to a modified ten-to-one version and to three one-to-one versions of the trolley dilemma in VR and varied avatar properties, such as their gender and ethnicity, and their orientation in space. We also investigated the influence of arousing music on decisions. Our experiment replicated the behavioral pattern observed in studies using text versions of the trolley dilemma, thereby validating the use of virtual environments in research on moral judgments. Additionally, we found a general tendency towards sacrificing male individuals which correlated with socially desirable responding. As indicated by differences in response times, the ten-to-one version of the trolley dilemma seems to be faster to decide than decisions requiring comparisons based on specific avatar properties as a result of differing moral content. Building upon research on music-based emotion induction, we used music to induce emotional arousal on a physiological level as measured by pupil diameter. We found a specific temporal signature displaying a peak in arousal around the moment of decision. This signature occurs independently of the overall arousal level. Furthermore, we found context-dependent gaze durations during sacrificing decisions, leading participants to look prolonged at their victim if they had to choose between avatars differing in gender. Our study confirmed that moral decisions can be explained within the framework of dual-process theories and shows that pupillometric measurements are a promising tool for investigating affective responses in dilemma situations.

Stroke and TIA survivors' cognitive beliefs and affective responses regarding treatment and future stroke risk differentially predict medication adherence and categorised stroke risk

Cognitive beliefs and affective responses to illness and treatment are known to independently predict health behaviours. The purpose of the current study is to assess the relative importance of four psychological domains - specifically, affective illness, cognitive illness, affective treatment and cognitive treatment - for predicting stroke and transient ischemic attack (TIA) survivors' adherence to stroke prevention medications as well as their objective, categorised stroke risk. We assessed these domains among stroke/TIA survivors (n = 600), and conducted correlation and regression analyses with concurrent and prospective outcomes to determine the relative importance of each cognitive and affective domain for adherence and stroke risk. As hypothesised, patients' affective treatment responses explained the greatest unique variance in baseline and six-month adherence reports (8 and 5%, respectively, of the variance in adherence, compared to 1-3% explained by other domains). Counter to hypotheses, patients' cognitive illness beliefs explained the greatest unique variance in baseline and six-month objective categorised stroke risk (3 and 2%, respectively, compared to 0-1% explained by other domains). Results indicate that domain type (i.e. cognitive and affective) and domain referent (illness and treatment) may be differentially important for providers to assess when treating patients for stroke/TIA. More research is required to further distinguish between these domains and their relative importance for stroke prevention.

Recalled attributes of parents with Alzheimer's disease: relevance for caregiving

Health psychology has long been involved in studies of factors that lead to more effective caregiving. Drawing on the theory of distributive justice, the underlying hypothesis of this paper was that perceptions of what a demented parent was like, prior to becoming ill, influence an adult child caregiver's provision of care, as well as the caregiver's own well-being. A secondary question dealt with the nature of retrospective ratings by caregiver informants. The sample consisted of triads of two adult children (N = 385) and a parent (N = 201) diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease, although in a few instances only one adult child was interviewed. Both retrospective and current ratings of the parent were made by caregivers, who were administered a semantic differential instrument twice over a 10-month period. Comparison of ratings from first and second interview waves suggested that perceptions of what a parent was like, prior to the onset of dementia, were more stable over time than perceptions of what the parent was currently like, at each interview. Ratings of premorbid attributes were more strongly related to ratings of the present for those parents who displayed the least evidence of cognitive decline. Regression analyses supported the hypothesized relationship between adult children's perceptions and both provision of care and well-being variables. Results have implications for projections of caregiver burden and for placement into long-term care.

The virtual-hand illusion: effects of impact and threat on perceived ownership and affective resonance

The rubber hand illusion refers to the observation that participants perceive "body ownership" for a rubber hand if it moves, or is stroked in synchrony with the participant's real (covered) hand. Research indicates that events targeting artificial body parts can trigger affective responses (affective resonance) only with perceived body ownership, while neuroscientific findings suggest affective resonance irrespective of ownership (e.g., when observing other individuals under threat). We hypothesized that this may depend on the severity of the event. We first replicated previous findings that the rubber hand illusion can be extended to virtual hands-the virtual-hand illusion. We then tested whether hand ownership and affective resonance (assessed by galvanic skin conductance) are modulated by the experience of an event that either "impacted" (a ball hitting the hand) or "threatened" (a knife cutting the hand) the virtual hand. Ownership was stronger if the virtual hand moved synchronously with the participant's own hand, but this effect was independent from whether the hand was impacted or threatened. Affective resonance was mediated by ownership however: In the face of mere impact, participants showed more resonance in the synchronous condition (i.e., with perceived ownership) than in the asynchronous condition. In the face of threat, in turn, affective resonance was independent of synchronicity-participants were emotionally involved even if a threat was targeting a hand that they did not perceive as their own. Our findings suggest that perceived body ownership and affective responses to body-related impact or threat can be dissociated and are thus unlikely to represent the same underlying process. We argue that affective reactions to impact are produced in a top-down fashion if the impacted effector is assumed to be part of one's own body, whereas threatening events trigger affective responses more directly in a bottom-up fashion-irrespective of body ownership.