Relations between executive functions and academic outcomes in elementary school children: A meta-analysis

Bridging the Connection between Fluency in Reading and Arithmetic

This study examines the contribution of early executive functions (EFs) in the association between fluency in reading and arithmetic. Kindergarten children (N = 1185) were assessed on executive functions skills and on reading and arithmetic fluency in Grade 1 and Grade 3. The analysis revealed that beyond the connection within each domain there is a unidirectional effect between fluency measures, with Grade 1 reading fluency significantly influencing the development of arithmetic fluency in Grade 3. Furthermore, the findings indicate that kindergarten EFs significantly contribute to arithmetic fluency at both time points and to reading fluency in the first grade. Early EF skills also emerged as significant contributors to the associations between fluency performance in reading and arithmetic, suggesting that the influence of EFs extends beyond individual academic domains. These findings have implications for understanding the cognitive mechanisms that underlie the relations between these academic skills.

The whole is greater than the sum of its parts: Using cognitive profiles to predict academic achievement

BACKGROUND

Executive functions (EFs) are thought to work in concert to support academic skill. However, EFs are often examined independently, obscuring their symbiotic contribution. We examined the relationship between students' holistic EF profiles and their academic success.

METHODS

We sampled over 1200 7-15 year old students from a diverse school district (16 % White; 32 % low income) in the United States. We used 9 EF assessments to construct cognitive profiles via self-organizing maps. We then related profiles to academic achievement scores from both laboratory-based assessments and state-administered standardized tests of reading and math.

RESULTS

Six profiles differed in EF performance, but their differences in academic achievement did not suggest a linear relationship between individual EFs and academic skill.

CONCLUSIONS

We show cognitive profiles based on individual strengths and weaknesses in EFs can reveal multiple cognitive paths to the same academic outcome.

Affective and cognitive factors associated with Chinese and Italian children's arithmetic performance

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to investigate the cognitive and affective factors associated with cross-cultural differences in arithmetic tasks.

METHODS

A total of 404 third- and fourth- graders were recruited from China and Italy to complete exact arithmetic, arithmetic estimation and cognitive tasks (i.e., short-term memory, executive functions, and fluid reasoning). Their mathematical anxiety was also measured.

RESULTS

The results showed that Chinese children performed better than Italian children in both arithmetic tasks and in shifting task. Italian children performed better in visuospatial updating task and reported higher levels of mathematical anxiety than their Chinese peers. Multi-group path analyses showed that the patterns of relations among cognitive factors (i.e., short-term memory, inhibition and shifting), mathematical anxiety, and arithmetic performance were similar across groups. The only exception was that visuospatial updating uniquely predicted arithmetic estimation for Chinese but not for Italian children.

CONCLUSIONS

Chinese children outperformed their Italian peers in the exact arithmetic task, likely due to the greater emphasis on arithmetic fluency in Chinese mathematics education, both in schools and at home. They also had a slight advantage than Italian peers in the arithmetic estimation task. The unique link between updating and arithmetic estimation found in Chinese children but not Italian children suggests that, although arithmetic estimation is not emphasized in the curricula of either country, instruction and practice in exact arithmetic may enhance Chinese children's efficiency in solving arithmetic estimation problems.

Associations Between Motor Competence and Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Motor competence and executive functions co-develop throughout childhood and adolescence, and there is emerging evidence that improvements in motor competence may have cognitive benefits in these populations. There is a need to provide a quantitative synthesis of the cross-sectional, longitudinal and experimental studies that have examined the association between motor competence and executive functions in school-aged youth.

OBJECTIVES

The primary aim of our systematic review was to synthesise evidence of the association between motor competence and executive functions in school-aged children and adolescents (5-18 years). Our secondary aim was to examine key moderators of this association.

METHODS

We searched the PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, Ovid MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus and EMBASE databases from inception up to 27 June 2023. We included cross-sectional, longitudinal and experimental studies that assessed the association between motor competence (e.g., general motor competence, locomotor skills, object control skills and stability skills) and executive functions (e.g., general executive functions, inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility) in children and adolescents aged 5-18 years.

RESULTS

In total, 12,117 records were screened for eligibility, and 44 studies were included. From the 44 included studies, we meta-analysed 37 studies with 251 effect sizes using a structural equation modelling approach in the statistical program R. We found a small positive association (r = 0.18, [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.13-0.22]) between motor competence and executive functions. The positive associations were observed in cross-sectional (r = 0.17, [95% CI 0.13-0.22]), longitudinal (r = 0.15, [95% CI 0.03-0.28]) and experimental studies (r = 0.25, [95% CI 0.01-0.45]). We also found that general motor competence (r = 0.25, [95% CI 0.18-0.33]), locomotor (r = 0.15, [95% CI 0.09-0.21]), object control (r = 0.14, [95% CI 0.08-0.20]) and stability (r = 0.14, [95% CI 0.08-0.20]) skills were associated with executive functions. We did not find any moderating effects for participants' age on the associations between motor competence and executive functions.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest a small-to-moderate positive association between motor competence and executive functions in children and adolescents. The small number of experimental studies included in this review support the assertion that interventions targeting children's motor competence may be a promising strategy to improve their executive functions; however, more research is needed to confirm these findings. Future studies should explore the underlying mechanisms linking motor competence and executive functions as their comprehension may be used to optimise future intervention design and delivery.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION

CRD42021285134.

Predictors of executive function trajectories in adolescents with and without ADHD: Links with academic outcomes

Changes in executive function (EF) occur during adolescence with several factors (e.g., parenting styles, socioeconomic status) influencing the development of EF abilities. These changes are important as EF has been strongly linked with a range of outcomes including academic achievement, job performance, and social-emotional well-being. However, few studies have examined variability in EF trajectories during this critical developmental period, or trajectories in samples known to have specific impairments with EF, such as adolescents diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The present study examined differential trajectories of three domains of parent-rated EF in 302 adolescents (167 males; Mage = 13.17 years) with and without ADHD (53.6% with ADHD) from grade 8 to 10. The study also explored whether adolescent ADHD, parent ADHD, and parents' own EF predicted EF trajectories in addition to the longitudinal relation between trajectories and academic outcomes. Findings suggest that adolescence is marked by significant variability in EF development due to factors such as ADHD status, parent ADHD, and parent EF ability. Additionally, adolescents who displayed poor EF abilities throughout middle and high school had significantly lower grade point averages and poorer parent-, teacher-, and self-reported academic outcomes. Implications for interventions targeting EF deficits among adolescents with and without ADHD are discussed.

The relevance of top-down self-regulation for children's and adolescents' developmental outcomes

A popular topic in developmental science is self-regulation, an aspect of functioning viewed as contributing to optimal development. Of particular theoretical importance is top-down (frontal cortically based) self-regulation (TDSR). This article briefly reviews recent research on TDSR's relation to four areas of development: maladjustment, social competence, prosocial development, and academic development. Recent studies on the topic often involve sophisticated methods and designs; moreover, several relevant meta-analyses have been published in the recent past. In general, a higher level of TDSR has been associated with better adjustment, social competence, prosociality, and success in the school setting. Limitations in the research and extant meta-analyses are briefly noted.

Cognitive characteristics of children with high mathematics achievement before they start formal schooling

This 5-year longitudinal study examined whether high mathematics achievers in primary school had cognitive advantages before entering formal education. High mathematics achievement was defined as performing above Pc 90 in Grades 1 and 3. The predominantly White sample (Mage in preschool: 64 months) included 31 high achievers (12 girls) and 114 average achievers (63 girls). We measured children's early numerical abilities, complex mathematical abilities, and general cognitive abilities in preschool (2017). High mathematics achievers had advantages on most tasks in preschool (ds > 0.62). Number order, numeral recognition, and proportional reasoning were unique predictors of belonging to the high-achieving group in primary school. This study shows that the cognitive advantages of high mathematics achievement are already observed in preschool.

Effect of Summer Holiday Programs on Children's Mental Health and Well-Being: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Poor youth mental health is an area of global concern. Summer holiday programs may provide environments that support mental health when the structures and supports of school are not available. The aim of this review was to determine the effectiveness of summer holiday programs in improving the mental health, social-emotional well-being, and cognitive (non-academic) outcomes of children and adolescents. Studies of summer holiday programs for school-aged children (5-18 years) were included if they measured any mental, socio-emotional or cognitive (non-academic) outcome. Studies were excluded if they were published prior to 2000, targeted clinical populations or lasted less than five days. Six databases were searched (April 2023). Risk of bias was assessed using the PEDro tool. Study outcomes were grouped according to three main constructs: mental health (psychological well-being, anxiety, depression, distress, and self-perception including self-esteem, self-worth, self-concept, confidence, and competence); social-emotional well-being (behavior and social skills, e.g., communication, bullying, conflict resolution, empathy, and social skills); and cognitive function (memory, selective attention, and executive function). A fourth "other" group captured substance use, personality traits, character skills, and values. Effect sizes were calculated as the standardized mean difference between pre- and post-intervention scores. The synthesis involved a random-effects meta-analysis (presented in forest plots), where possible, with the remaining outcomes narratively synthesized. Twenty-six studies (n = 6812 participants) were included. The results of the meta-analysis suggested that summer programs showed a statistically non-significant trend toward reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression (k = 2 studies, SMD = -0.17, 95% CI -2.94, 2.60), psychological distress (k = 2 studies, SMD -0.46, 95% CI -1.71, 0.79), and no effect on self-esteem (k = 6 studies, SMD = 0.02, 95% CI -0.02, 0.06) or self-worth (k = 3 studies, SMD = 0.05, 95% CI 0.00, 0.11). Narrative syntheses indicated a pattern toward improvements in general mental health, self-perception, social-emotional outcomes, and cognition. Studies were generally small, with a high risk of bias. Summer holiday programs for children and adolescents show trends toward improving mental, social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes. Programs targeting disadvantaged children showed stronger patterns of improvement related to mental health and self-perception than programs targeting the general population. While effect sizes are small to negligible, they consistently indicate improvements. Summer programs present a promising avenue to promote mental health in children; however, further rigorously designed, clearly reported control-group studies are required to more fully understand their effects.

Is there sufficient evidence for the association between executive dysfunction and academic performance in adolescents with major depressive disorder?: a systematic review

Adult depression, undoubtedly associated with executive dysfunction, leads to poor work performance. As depression in adolescents may have a negative impact on school performance, we aimed to analyse the possible relationship between selected executive deficits and academic performance. Executive dysfunctions may have more severe consequences on school performance at high school, as this stage of education requires engagement in long-term goals, whether writing an essay or preparing for an exam. Whilst inhibitory control is necessary at all educational stages, it seems that planning and decision-making play a greater role in high school than in primary school. We reviewed studies on executive functions conducted in adolescents diagnosed with major depressive disorder (MDD) to establish the possible relationship between executive processes and school performance in depressed adolescents. The search identified 5 studies addressing planning and decision-making in adolescents with MDD, but none of those studies reported educational achievement. We identified a considerable gap in the research on the functional impact of depression in adolescents. Identifying the link between specific executive deficits and school performance could guide tailored therapeutic interventions.

Executive functioning in child victims of sexual abuse: A multi-informant comparative study

BACKGROUND

Research examining the association between child sexual abuse and executive functions is limited. Yet, exposure to traumatic situations at a young age has been associated with changes in the prefrontal cortex, which hosts executive functions (Wesarg et al., 2020). These functions are crucial for social adaptation, as they make it possible to inhibit maladaptive behavior and respond flexibly to the demands of the environment. As middle childhood is a sensitive period for the development of self-regulatory abilities, exploring executive functioning in school-age children could provide potential intervention targets (Dajani & Uddin, 2015).

OBJECTIVE

Using multiple informants, this study compared executive functioning of sexually abused children to that of non-sexually victimized children and examined whether the differences were moderated by sex.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 225, 6-to-12 years old children with a history of child sexual abuse (CSA) and 97 children without a history of CSA. Children completed two executive functioning tasks measuring cognitive flexibility and inhibition. Parents and teachers completed questionnaires evaluating children's executive functioning.

RESULTS

In comparison to non-abused children, children with a history of CSA displayed greater executive functioning difficulties as assessed by both informant-reported questionnaires and self-completed tasks. Significant interaction effects were found, such as CSA predicting lower inhibition and executive functions at school in boys but not in girls.

CONCLUSION

This study is a first step in understanding the association between CSA and executive functioning and offers a clearer picture of the differential impact of sexual trauma according to children's sex.

Unveiling the cognitive network organization through cognitive performance

The evaluation of cognitive functions interactions has become increasingly implemented in the cognition exploration. In the present study, we propose to examine the organization of the cognitive network in healthy participants through the analysis of behavioral performances in several cognitive domains. Specifically, we aim to explore cognitive interactions profiles, in terms of cognitive network, and as a function of participants' handedness. To this end, we proposed several behavioral tasks evaluating language, memory, executive functions, and social cognition performances in 175 young healthy right-handed and left-handed participants and we analyzed cognitive scores, from a network perspective, using graph theory. Our results highlight the existence of intricate interactions between cognitive functions both within and beyond the same cognitive domain. Language functions are interrelated with executive functions and memory in healthy cognitive functioning and assume a central role in the cognitive network. Interestingly, for similar high performance, our findings unveiled differential organizations within the cognitive network between right-handed and left-handed participants, with variations observed both at a global and nodal level. This original integrative network approach to the study of cognition provides new insights into cognitive interactions and modulations. It allows a more global understanding and consideration of cognitive functioning, from which complex behaviors emerge.

Null cross-modal effects of olfactory training on visual, auditory or olfactory working memory in 6- to 9-year-old children

Systematic exposure to odours (olfactory training, OT) is a method of smell loss treatment. Due to olfactory system projections to prefrontal brain areas, OT has been hypothesized to enhance cognitive functions, but its effects have been studied predominantly in adults. This study tested OT effects on working memory (WM), i.e., the ability to store and manipulate information for a short time, in healthy children aged 6-9 years. We expected OT to improve olfactory WM and establish cross-modal transfer to visual and auditory WM. Participants performed 12 weeks of bi-daily OT with either 4 odours (lemon, eucalyptus, rose, cloves; OT group) or odourless propylene glycol (placebo group). Pre- and post-training, participants' WM was measured utilizing odours (olfactory WM) or pictures (visual WM) and a word-span task (auditory WM). 84 children (40 girls) completed the study. The analyses revealed no changes in the WM performance following OT. The olfactory WM task was the most difficult for children, highlighting the need to include olfactory-related tasks in educational programmes to improve children's odour knowledge and memory, just as they learn about sounds and pictures. Further neuroimaging research is needed to fully understand the impact of OT on cognitive functions in children.

Inhibitory control mediates the association between body mass index and math performance in children: A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Overweight and obesity affect more than 18% of children and adolescents in the world. Obesity-related associations with brain morphology might be associated with reduced efficiency of inhibitory control. This association highlights a possible mechanism by which obesity impacts intelligence and academic achievement. Prior work indicates a mediating effect of inhibitory control on the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and intelligence and academic achievement. However, although obesity is associated with impaired math performance, we do not know whether inhibitory control also mediates the relationship between BMI and math performance. This study tests the hypothesis that inhibitory control statistically mediates the relationship between BMI and math performance.

METHODS

161 children (9 to 13 years old, 80 female) participated in the present study. We evaluated BMI; math performance, in a test composed of 20 arithmetic equations of the type x = (a × b) - c; and inhibitory control through the Flanker test. We carried out Spearman correlation tests, hierarchical multiple linear regression, and tested the confidence of the model where inhibitory control statistically mediates the indirect association between BMI and math performance. Mediation analysis in this cross-sectional study aimed to improve understanding of indirect relationships and offer insights into possible causal connections.

RESULTS

Better math performance and lower BMI were associated with greater accuracy on the inhibitory control test and greater accuracy on the inhibitory control test was associated with better performance on math test. We found an indirect association between higher BMI in children and impairments in math performance, that was mediated by inhibitory control (a: -0.008, p = 0.025; b: 7.10, p = 0.0004; c: 0.05, p = 0.592; c': 0.11, p = 0.238; Indirect Effect: -0.0599, 95% CI: -0.13, -0.005).

CONCLUSIONS

An indirect association between higher body mass indices in children and impairments in math performance was detected, through the impact that BMI has on inhibitory control.

Latent Network Analysis of Executive Functions Across Development

Executive functions (EFs) are crucial for academic achievement, physical health, and mental well-being. Previous studies using structural equation models revealed EFs' developmental organization, evolving from one factor in childhood to three factors in adults: inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and updating. Recent network model studies confirmed this differentiation from childhood to adulthood. Reanalyzing previously published data from 1019 children (aged 7.8 to 15.3; 50.4% female; 59.1% White, 15.0% Latinx, 14.3% Bi-racial, 6.7% African American, 4.2% Asian American, 0.6% Other), this study compared three analytical methods to explore EF development: structural equation model, network model, and the novel latent variable network model. All approaches supported fine-grained EF-specific trajectories and differentiation throughout development, with inhibition being central in childhood and updating in early adolescence.

Comparison of Executive Function Skills between Patients with Cerebral Palsy and Typically Developing Populations: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: Children with CP show deficits in executive function compared to their typically developing peers, based on the majority of the available evidence. However, the magnitude of these deficits, as well as the proportions of the shortfalls in the three main components, have not yet been examined. This is the first meta-analysis to synthesize evidence on the magnitude of differences between patients with cerebral palsy (CP) and typically developing populations in different components of executive function skills (working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility), and thus makes recommendations on which areas of executive functioning are in greatest need of intervention. Methods: We conducted a systematic literature search of four databases for studies that measured executive functions in these two groups until 31 August 2023. We calculated the standardized mean difference (Hedges' g), an average effect size overall, and for the three components of executive function skills separately, we used several moderator analyses, including methodological differences between the primary studies. Results: Fifteen articles were included in the meta-analysis. The average mean difference in executive functioning overall was large (g+ = -0.82). Furthermore, large significant differences were found in working memory (g+ = -0.92) and inhibitory control (g+ = -0.82) and a moderate difference was identified in cognitive flexibility (g+ = -0.57). In addition, results of moderator analyses reveal the importance of a rigorous matching of control group participants and CP patients. Conclusions: The results demonstrate a severe impairment in all executive functions among CP patients compared to typically developing peers, which do not decrease over time.

Drivers of the socio-economic disadvantage gap in England: Sequential pathways that include the home learning environment and self-regulation as mediators

BACKGROUND

Socio-economic status (SES) is a powerful predictor of attainment. Research has identified multiple mechanisms that underpin the effect of SES on attainment. For example, self-regulation (processes through which individuals direct and control their attention, emotion and behaviour) has been identified as one mechanism mediating the SES attainment gap. However, previous studies have not directly tested the statistical pathways by which children from lower SES backgrounds develop low self-regulation skills and subsequently poor attainment at the end of primary school. Adding the home learning environment, which is associated with both SES and self-regulation, further fleshes out the longitudinal pathways.

AIMS

We propose and test a new model where the relationship between SES and school attainment is sequentially mediated by the family home learning environment and the child's self-regulation.

SAMPLE

This study uses the Effective Pre-school, Primary and Secondary Education data set to study 2311 English children.

METHODS

We measured SES (via socio-economic disadvantage) based on an index of low parental education, occupation and income at age 3+. The home learning environment was measured by the Home Learning Environment Index at age 3+; self-regulation was a teacher report on the Child Social Behaviour Questionnaire at age 4+ and attainment was measured via scores on national assessments of English and Maths at age 11.

RESULTS

Our measure of disadvantage predicted attainment. The home learning environment predicted children's self-regulation skills. The relationship between disadvantage and attainment was sequentially mediated by the home learning environment and self-regulation.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that home learning environment and self-regulation may play a sequential role in perpetuating socio-economic disparities in education.

Comparative efficacy of physical activity types on executive functions in children and adolescents: A network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

OBJECTIVES

This study investigates the impact of various physical activity (PA) types on executive functions (EFs) in children and adolescents.

DESIGN

A systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.

METHODS

We searched databases such as PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, and Web of Science up to April 2023, including randomized controlled trials involving 6 distinct PA types for healthy children and adolescents. The Cochrane risk of bias tool was used to assess the risk of bias, and a random-effects model in STATA 17.0 was used to calculate standardized mean differences (SMDs) and 95 % confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

Ball Games emerged as the most effective modality for improving updating accuracy, securing a SUCRA score of 94.4 %, and for reducing inhibition reaction time, with a SUCRA score of 94.8 %. Cognitively Engaging Physical Activity led in improving inhibition accuracy with a SUCRA score of 71.7 %. Dance excelled in improving update accuracy and reducing shifting reaction time, with SUCRA scores of 86.6 % and 99.5 %, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

PA has a significant benefit in EFs in children and adolescents, however the size of the effect varies by type of PA. Ball Games emerged as the most efficacious modality for enhancing updating accuracy and for expediting inhibition reaction time. Cognitively Engaging Physical Activity proved to be the preeminent strategy for improving inhibition accuracy. Dance was distinguished as the optimal approach for improving updating accuracy and reducing shifting reaction time.

Differences between parent- and teacher-reported executive functioning behaviors after traumatic injuries

Deficits in executive functioning (EF) behaviors are very common following pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) and can linger well after acute injury recovery. Raters from multiple settings provide information that may not be appreciated otherwise. We examined differences between parent and teacher ratings of EF using data examining longitudinal outcomes following pediatric TBI in comparison to orthopedic injury (OI). We used linear mixed models to determine the association of rater type and injury type with scores on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning (BRIEF). After controlling for demographic variables, rater type and injury type accounted for a small but significant proportion of the variance in EF. Teachers' ratings on the BRIEF were significantly higher than parent ratings for global EF and metacognition, but not for behavior regulation, regardless of injury type, indicating greater EF concerns. All BRIEF ratings, whether from teachers or parents, were higher for children with TBI than for those with OI. Results suggest that parents and teachers provide unique information regarding EF following traumatic injuries and that obtaining ratings from persons who observe children at school as well as at home can result in a better understanding of situation-specific variability in outcomes.

Aerobic fitness and academic achievement: Disentangling the indirect role of executive functions and intelligence

Research in children points to aerobic fitness as a source of individual differences in academic achievement. By examining the indirect effects of executive functions (EF) and intelligence on the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic achievement, the present study provides novel insight about the cognitive mechanisms underlying this relationship. 218 children (8-10 years) completed the following assessments: (i) a VO2max test to assess aerobic fitness; (ii) four tasks tapping components of EF (i.e., inhibition and cognitive flexibility); (iii) sub-tests of the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test to assess fluid and crystallized intelligence; and (iv) sub-tests of arithmetic, spelling, and reading achievement (WRAT 3rd edition). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted to examine the indirect role of EF and intelligence on the relationship between aerobic fitness and sub-domains of academic achievement. Covariate analyses included age, pubertal timing, and socio-economic status. Preliminary analysis via linear regression showed a direct effect of aerobic fitness on arithmetic achievement, whereas no effect was observed on spelling and reading achievement. Importantly, multiple mediation SEM revealed the direct effect of aerobic fitness on arithmetic achievement disappeared after accounting for the indirect effects of EF, whereas intelligence did not contribute significantly on this complex mediation process. Moreover, among EF components, cognitive flexibility, was the main driver of the relationship between aerobic fitness and arithmetic achievement. Unpacking which components of EF and intelligence affect the link between aerobic fitness and academic achievement, holds the promise of better understanding the heterogeneity still present in the literature.

Cognitive Predictors of the Overlap of Reading and Math in Middle School

Math and reading skills are known to be related, and predictors of each are well researched. What is less understood is the extent to which these predictors, uniquely and collectively, overlap with one another, are differentially important for different academic skills, and account for the overlap of math and reading. We examined 20 potential predictors from four domains (working memory, processing speed, attention, and language) using latent variables and both timed and untimed achievement skill, in a sample (N=212) of at-risk middle schoolers, half of whom were English learners. The predictors accounted for about half of the overlap among achievement skills, suggesting that other factors (e.g., domain specific skills) might also be relevant for the overlap. We also found some differential prediction (language for reading, working memory for math). The present results extend and refine our understanding of the contribution of these cognitive predictors for reading and math.

The Association of Physical Activity and Stress-induced Neurocognitive Impairments in Inhibitory Control in Children

Background

Evaluation stress can impair inhibitory control, limiting the ability of children to perform cognitively. However, evidence on protective factors is lacking as stress-induced cognitive impairments are poorly understood. High physical activity has been related to better inhibitory control and has the potential to buffer the response to a stressor. We investigated the association of physical activity and stress-induced changes in inhibitory control as well as its underlying cognitive control processes (i.e., conflict monitoring and resolution).

Method

Participants (10 to 13 y) with either low (N = 55) or high moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (N = 55) completed the Trier Social Stress Test for Children (TSST-C) and a control task in a randomized order. During both conditions, salivary cortisol was collected. Additionally, a computerized Stroop task was administered before and after the experimental conditions. The N200 and positive slow wave (PSW) components of event-related potentials elicited by the Stroop task were recorded using electroencephalography.

Results

In comparison to the control task, the TSST-C elicited a pre-to post-test decrease of accuracy on incompatible trials. Path-analyses further revealed that this decrease was related to low physical activity and a reduced PSW amplitude. However, both the N200 and PSW amplitudes did not mediate the relation between physical activity groups and performance on the Stroop task.

Conclusion

In children, evaluation stress decreases inhibitory control partly due to a reduced effectiveness of conflict resolution processes. Only children with high physical activity maintain inhibitory control after facing the stressor. However, this protective effect cannot be attributed to changes in conflict monitoring and resolution.

Daily breath-based mindfulness exercises in a randomized controlled trial improve primary school children's performance in arithmetic

Mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) have been shown to improve children's academic achievements. Because MBIs include different exercises (possibly with differential effects), the teacher-led Breathing Break Intervention (BBI) was developed which focuses exclusively on breathing exercises and body awareness. The short daily breathing practices of BBI were evaluated in terms of their effects on children's performance in mathematics. In a randomized controlled trial, N = 140 third and fourth graders (49% female) either received BBI (IG, n = 81) or participated in an active control group (ACG, n = 59). Students took a standardized arithmetic test and teachers rated their mathematics performance before (T1) and after (T2) the nine weeks of BBI, and in a follow-up five months later (T3). A mixed multilevel model with a quadratic term of time indicated a significant interaction effect between group and time on the arithmetic test after controlling for working memory updating and parental educational attainment. IG children did not show a steeper linear increase but differed significantly from ACG children in their trajectory of arithmetic performance. At T3, IG children outperformed ACG children. A multilevel ordinal logistic regression of teachers' ratings of students' mathematics performance revealed no significant differences between IG and ACG. Results suggest that daily breathing exercises in primary school classrooms contribute to enhancing children's performance in arithmetic.Preregistration: The study was preregistered at aspredicted.org (#44925).

Cognitive Foundations of Early Mathematics: Investigating the Unique Contributions of Numerical, Executive Function, and Spatial Skills

There is an emerging consensus that numerical, executive function (EF), and spatial skills are foundational to children's mathematical learning and development. Moreover, each skill has been theorized to relate to mathematics for different reasons. Thus, it is possible that each cognitive construct is related to mathematics through distinct pathways. The present study tests this hypothesis. One-hundred and eighty 4- to 9-year-olds (Mage = 6.21) completed a battery of numerical, EF, spatial, and mathematics measures. Factor analyses revealed strong, but separable, relations between children's numerical, EF, and spatial skills. Moreover, the three-factor model (i.e., modelling numerical, EF, and spatial skills as separate latent variables) fit the data better than a general intelligence (g-factor) model. While EF skills were the only unique predictor of number line performance, spatial skills were the only unique predictor of arithmetic (addition) performance. Additionally, spatial skills were related to the use of more advanced addition strategies (e.g., composition/decomposition and retrieval), which in turn were related to children's overall arithmetic performance. That is, children's strategy use fully mediated the relation between spatial skills and arithmetic performance. Taken together, these findings provide new insights into the cognitive foundations of early mathematics, with implications for assessment and instruction moving forward.

The behavioral and neurobiological relationships between executive function and reading: A review and preliminary findings

Despite decades of prior research, the mechanisms for how skilled reading develops remain elusive. Numerous studies have identified word recognition and oral language ability as key components to explain later reading comprehension performance. However, these components alone do not fully explain differences in reading achievement. There is ongoing work exploring other candidate processes important for reading, such as the domain-general cognitive ability of executive function (EF). Here, we summarize our work on the behavioral and neurobiological connections between EF and reading and present preliminary neuroimaging findings from ongoing work. Together, these studies suggest 1) that EF plays a supportive and perhaps indirect role in reading achievement and 2) that EF-related brain regions interface with the reading and language networks. While further work is needed to dissect the specifics of how EF interacts with reading, these studies begin to reveal the complex role that EF plays in reading development.

Longitudinal association between executive function and academic achievement in children with neurofibromatosis type 1 and plexiform neurofibromas

OBJECTIVE

To examine how executive functioning (EF) relates to academic achievement longitudinally in children with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) and plexiform neurofibromas (PNs) and whether age at baseline moderates this relationship.

METHOD

Participants included 88 children with NF1 and PNs (ages 6-18 years old, M = 12.05, SD = 3.62, 50 males) enrolled in a natural history study. Neuropsychological assessments were administered three times over 6 years. EF (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and attention) was assessed by performance-based (PB) and parent-reported (PR) measures. Multilevel growth modeling was used to examine how EF at baseline related to initial levels and changes in broad math, reading, and writing across time, controlling for demographic variables.

RESULTS

The relationship between EF and academic achievement varied across EF and academic domains. Cognitive flexibility (PB) uniquely explained more variances in initial math, reading, and writing scores; working memory (PB) uniquely explained more variances in initial levels of reading and writing. The associations between EF and academic achievement tended to remain consistent across age groups with one exception: Lower initial levels of inhibitory control (PR) were related to a greater decline in reading scores. This pattern was more evident among younger (versus older) children.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings emphasize the heterogeneous nature of academic development in NF1 and that EF skills could help explain the within-group variability in this population. Routine cognitive/academic monitoring via comprehensive assessments and early targeted treatments consisting of medication and/or systematic cognitive interventions are important to evaluate for improving academic performance in children with NF1 and PNs.

Understanding the interplay between executive functions and reading development: A challenge for researchers and practitioners alike

In June of 2022, The Dyslexia Foundation (TDF) organized a convening of dyslexia researchers and practitioners around the topic of executive functions. There was consensus on the importance of executive functions for reading development. However, the difficulty of defining, measuring, and training executive functions emerged as a challenge for researchers and practitioners alike. This special issue presents a collection of articles that survey different perspectives, define the current knowledge base, highlight challenges and inconsistencies in research, and chart a path towards a more nuanced understanding of the role of executive functions in reading and dyslexia.

Emotional intelligence, spelling performance and intelligence quotient differences based on the executive function profile of schoolchildren

The aim of this study was to determine the correlation of intelligence quotient with spelling performance, executive functions and emotional intelligence and to analyse the profiles in executive functions presented by the participants and the differences at the level of intelligence quotient, spelling performance and emotional intelligence. The sample consisted of 125 Spanish primary school students (58 girls and 67 boys) in a rural environment, with a mean age of 10.92 (±.68) years. Intelligence quotient and spelling performance were measured using the BADyG test; executive functions were assessed using the NIH EXAMINER battery and emotional intelligence was assessed using the Bar-On questionnaire. The results show a high correlation of intelligence quotient with spelling performance, executive functions and two emotional intelligence dimensions (adaptability and interpersonal). Two clusters were observed: a high executive functions profile (n = 74, 59.7%), with high scores on all measured variables (working memory, planning, cognitive flexibility, inhibition and verbal fluency), and a low executive functions profile (n = 50, 40.3%) with low scores on all executive functions-related variables. The multivariate analysis of variance (MANCOVA) found variations between the different clusters in the intelligence quotient, spelling performance and interpersonal emotional intelligence variables, showing that students with a higher executive functions profile had a higher intelligence quotient, spelling performance and interpersonal emotional intelligence values. This study could help to better define what kind of teaching methodology favours the development of academic performance in schoolchildren and the connections between important educational aspects such as emotional intelligence and executive functions.

A deeper dive, a wider pool: Preschool benefits sustain to first grade on a broader set of outcomes

The current study provides new evidence on the sustained benefits of preschool attendance on a broader range of skills-both academic and executive functioning (EF)-than many prior studies have examined. Using propensity score methods, we predicted children's (N = 920, M age at 1st = 6.5 years) literacy, language, math, and EF skills in kindergarten and again at first-grade (2020-2021) based on whether they had attended public preschool (school-based pre-k; Head Start) versus no preschool. In our race-ethnically diverse sample of children (48% Hispanic/Latinx; 21% Black; 14% White; 9% Native American; 9% multiracial) from low-income families, preschool attenders showed advantages on English literacy, English language, and math in kindergarten, which mostly persisted into first-grade. Preschool did not boost EF in kindergarten or first-grade.

Understanding the complexities of mathematical cognition: A multi-level framework

Mathematics skills are associated with future employment, well-being, and quality of life. However, many adults and children fail to learn the mathematics skills they require. To improve this situation, we need to have a better understanding of the processes of learning and performing mathematics. Over the past two decades, there has been a substantial growth in psychological research focusing on mathematics. However, to make further progress, we need to pay greater attention to the nature of, and multiple elements involved in, mathematical cognition. Mathematics is not a single construct; rather, overall mathematics achievement is comprised of proficiency with specific components of mathematics (e.g., number fact knowledge, algebraic thinking), which in turn recruit basic mathematical processes (e.g., magnitude comparison, pattern recognition). General cognitive skills and different learning experiences influence the development of each component of mathematics as well as the links between them. Here, I propose and provide evidence for a framework that structures how these components of mathematics fit together. This framework allows us to make sense of the proliferation of empirical findings concerning influences on mathematical cognition and can guide the questions we ask, identifying where we are missing both research evidence and models of specific mechanisms.

Improving the Reliability of Cognitive Task Measures: A Narrative Review

Cognitive tasks are capable of providing researchers with crucial insights into the relationship between cognitive processing and psychiatric phenomena. However, many recent studies have found that task measures exhibit poor reliability, which hampers their usefulness for individual differences research. Here, we provide a narrative review of approaches to improve the reliability of cognitive task measures. Specifically, we introduce a taxonomy of experiment design and analysis strategies for improving task reliability. Where appropriate, we highlight studies that are exemplary for improving the reliability of specific task measures. We hope that this article can serve as a helpful guide for experimenters who wish to design a new task, or improve an existing one, to achieve sufficient reliability for use in individual differences research.

Better together: novel methods for measuring and modeling development of executive function diversity while accounting for unity

INTRODUCTION

Executive functions (EFs) are linked to positive outcomes across the lifespan. Yet, methodological challenges have prevented precise understanding of the developmental trajectory of their organization.

METHODS

We introduce novel methods to address challenges for both measuring and modeling EFs using an accelerated longitudinal design with a large, diverse sample of students in middle childhood (N = 1,286; ages 8 to 14). We used eight adaptive assessments hypothesized to measure three EFs, working memory, context monitoring, and interference resolution. We deployed adaptive assessments to equate EF challenge across ages and a data-driven, network analytic approach to reveal the evolving diversity of EFs while simultaneously accounting for their unity.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Using this methodological paradigm shift brought new precision and clarity to the development of these EFs, showing these eight tasks are organized into three stable components by age 10, but refinement of composition of these components continues through at least age 14.

A meta-analysis of the validity of the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task in predicting young children's academic performance

The present study represents the first meta-analytic synthesis of the utility of a widely used early-childhood self-regulation measure, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task, in predicting children's academic achievement. A systematic review of the literature yielded 69 studies accessed from peer reviewed journals representing 413 effect sizes and 19,917 children meeting the complete set of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Robust variance analysis demonstrated that the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task was a consistent predictor of children's academic achievement across literacy, oral language, and mathematical outcomes. A moderator analysis indicated that in accordance with prior research, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task was more strongly associated with children's mathematics performance relative to their performance on language and literacy measures. The results of this meta-analysis suggest that the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task demonstrated statistically significant, positive associations with children's overall academic performance. These associations remained stable across different participant and measurement factors and are comparable to meta-analyses examining the self-regulation and academic association with multiple measures of self-regulation and executive function.

Executive functioning in preschoolers with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and the impact of congenital heart defects

BACKGROUND

Executive functioning (EF) is an umbrella term for various cognitive functions that play a role in monitoring and planning to effectuate goal-directed behavior. The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS), the most common microdeletion syndrome, is associated with a multitude of both somatic and cognitive symptoms, including EF impairments in school-age and adolescence. However, results vary across different EF domains and studies with preschool children are scarce. As EF is critically associated with later psychopathology and adaptive functioning, our first aim was to study EF in preschool children with 22q11DS. Our second aim was to explore the effect of a congenital heart defects (CHD) on EF abilities, as CHD are common in 22q11DS and have been implicated in EF impairment in individuals with CHD without a syndromic origin.

METHODS

All children with 22q11DS (n = 44) and typically developing (TD) children (n = 81) were 3.0 to 6.5 years old and participated in a larger prospective study. We administered tasks measuring visual selective attention, visual working memory, and a task gauging broad EF abilities. The presence of CHD was determined by a pediatric cardiologist based on medical records.

RESULTS

Analyses showed that children with 22q11DS were outperformed by TD peers on the selective attention task and the working memory task. As many children were unable to complete the broad EF task, we did not run statistical analyses, but provide a qualitative description of the results. There were no differences in EF abilities between children with 22q11DS with and without CHDs.

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge, this is the first study measuring EF in a relatively large sample of young children with 22q11DS. Our results show that EF impairments are already present in early childhood in children with 22q11DS. In line with previous studies with older children with 22q11DS, CHDs do not appear to have an effect on EF performance. These findings might have important implications for early intervention and support the improvement of prognostic accuracy.

Longitudinal effects of early psychosocial deprivation on macaque executive function: Evidence from computational modelling

Executive function (EF) describes a group of cognitive processes underlying the organization and control of goal-directed behaviour. Environmental experience appears to play a crucial role in EF development, with early psychosocial deprivation often linked to EF impairment. However, many questions remain concerning the developmental trajectories of EF after exposure to deprivation, especially concerning specific mechanisms. Accordingly, using an 'A-not-B' paradigm and a macaque model of early psychosocial deprivation, we investigated how early deprivation influences EF development longitudinally from adolescence into early adulthood. The contribution of working memory and inhibitory control mechanisms were examined specifically via the fitting of a computational model of decision making to the choice behaviour of each individual. As predicted, peer-reared animals (i.e. those exposed to early psychosocial deprivation) performed worse than mother-reared animals across time, with the fitted model parameters yielding novel insights into the functional decomposition of group-level EF differences underlying task performance. Results indicated differential trajectories of inhibitory control and working memory development in the two groups. Such findings not only extend our knowledge of how early deprivation influences EF longitudinally, but also provide support for the utility of computational modelling to elucidate specific mechanisms linking early psychosocial deprivation to long-term poor outcomes.

Childhood trauma and violent behavior in adolescents are differentially related to cognitive-emotional deficits

Introduction

Converging neurobiological and epidemiological evidence indicates that exposure to traumatic events in the early stages of development, that is, adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), negatively affects the likelihood of being involved in violent behavior later in life. These problems are hypothesized to be mediated by the disruption of executive functions, in particular, the ability to inhibit inappropriate actions. Here we aimed to distinguish the contribution of inhibition in non-emotional and emotional situations (i.e., emotion regulation) and assessed the modulating influence of stress, testing Nairobi county high school students in a two-experiment study.

Methods

In Experiment 1, neutral and emotional inhibition, working memory, and fluid intelligence were measured alongside questionnaires about ACE and violent behavior. Experiment 2 replicated these relations in an independent sample and assessed whether they would be aggravated after acute experimentally induced stress.

Results

Experiment 1 results showed that ACE was positively related to both non-emotional and emotional inhibition; in contrast, violent behavior was only associated with deficient emotional inhibition. Experiment 2 findings showed that stress did not significantly affect the relation of ACE to non-emotional inhibition and emotion regulation; however, it increased deficits of violent participants in their ability to down-regulate emotions.

Discussion

Together, results suggest that deficits in emotion regulation, especially under stressful conditions, are more critical than impairments in non-emotional inhibition in predicting violent behavior in victims of childhood trauma. These findings open perspectives toward more targeted research and interventions.

Language in autism: domains, profiles and co-occurring conditions

This article reviews the current knowledge state on pragmatic and structural language abilities in autism and their potential relation to extralinguistic abilities and autistic traits. The focus is on questions regarding autism language profiles with varying degrees of (selective) impairment and with respect to potential comorbidity of autism and language impairment: Is language impairment in autism the co-occurrence of two distinct conditions (comorbidity), a consequence of autism itself (no comorbidity), or one possible combination from a series of neurodevelopmental properties (dimensional approach)? As for language profiles in autism, three main groups are identified, namely, (i) verbal autistic individuals without structural language impairment, (ii) verbal autistic individuals with structural language impairment, and (iii) minimally verbal autistic individuals. However, this tripartite distinction hides enormous linguistic heterogeneity. Regarding the nature of language impairment in autism, there is currently no model of how language difficulties may interact with autism characteristics and with various extralinguistic cognitive abilities. Building such a model requires carefully designed explorations that address specific aspects of language and extralinguistic cognition. This should lead to a fundamental increase in our understanding of language impairment in autism, thereby paving the way for a substantial contribution to the question of how to best characterize neurodevelopmental disorders.

Contribution of sustained attention abilities to real-world academic skills in children

Sustained attention is a critical cognitive ability that improves over the course of development and predicts important real-world outcomes, such as academic achievement. However, the majority of work demonstrating links between sustained attention and academic skills has been conducted in lab-based settings that lack the ecological validity of a more naturalistic environment, like school. Further, most studies focus on targeted academic measures of specific sub-skills and have not fully examined whether this relationship generalizes to broad measures of academic achievement that are used for important, real-world, academic advancement decisions, such as standardized test scores. To address this gap, we examined the role of sustained attention in predicting targeted and broad assessments of academic abilities, where all skills were assessed in group-based environments in schools. In a sample of over 700 students aged 9-14, we showed that attention was positively related to performance on targeted assessments (math fluency and reading comprehension), as well as broad academic measures (statewide standardized test scores). Moreover, we found that attention was more predictive of targeted math sub-skills compared to assessments of broad math abilities, but was equally predictive of reading for both types of measures. Our findings add to our understanding of how sustained attention is linked to academic skills assessed in more 'real-world', naturalistic school environments and have important implications for designing tools to support student's academic success.

Embedding Executive Function Training Into Early Literacy Instruction for Dual Language Learners: A Pilot Study

PURPOSE

Early literacy skills are key indicators of future reading development for young dual language learners (DLLs). Additionally, emerging evidence indicates that young children's executive function (EF) skills are uniquely associated with elementary school reading outcomes (Ribner et al., 2017). Therefore, the purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate the potential for embedding strategies to support EF development within evidence-based early language and literacy instruction for young DLLs.

METHOD

Sixty-nine preschool DLLs were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups: a business-as-usual control group (BAU), a group that received early literacy instruction only (EL group), and a group that received early literacy instruction with embedded EF strategies (EL + EF group). The intervention focused on improving children's early literacy skills, including letter-name knowledge, phonological awareness, and oral language. Children completed assessments of early literacy and EF immediately before and after the intervention.

RESULTS

The EL and EL + EF groups significantly outperformed the BAU control group for two early literacy outcomes, and effects of evidence-based early literacy instruction were strongest for children with poor EF skills. Results indicated that there were no significant differences between the EL + EF and EL groups.

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot study indicated that there was no significant benefit to adding supports for EF skills within evidence-based early literacy instruction. Additional research is needed with larger samples to replicate observed effects.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.21834465.

Positive Parenting and Early Childhood Cognition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

This review examines the effectiveness of positive parenting interventions aimed at improving sensitivity, responsiveness, and/or non-harsh discipline on children's early cognitive skills, in four meta-analyses addressing general mental abilities, language, executive functioning, and pre-academics. The objectives are to assess the magnitude of intervention effectiveness and identify moderators of effectiveness. We include randomized controlled trials of interventions targeting positive parenting to improve cognition in children < 6 years. Studies that include children with neurodevelopmental and/or hearing disorders were excluded. MEDLINE, PsycINFO, ERIC, and ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (October 2021) and citation chaining identified relevant records. Five reviewers completed screening/assessments, extraction, and risk of bias. Pooled analysis in Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (Version 3) used random effects modeling, with moderation via Q-statistics and meta-regression. Positive parenting interventions led to significant improvements in mental abilities (g = 0.46, N = 5746; k = 33) and language (g = 0.25, N = 6428; k = 30). Effect sizes were smaller and nonsignificant for executive functioning (g = 0.07, N = 3628; k = 14) and pre-academics (g = 0.16, N = 2365; k = 7). Robust moderators emerged for language and cognition. For cognition, studies with higher risk of bias scores yielded larger intervention effects. For language, studies with younger children had larger effect sizes. Studies mitigated selection and detection bias, though greater transparency of reporting is needed. Interventions that promote parental sensitivity, responsiveness, and non-harsh discipline improve early mental abilities and language. Studies examining executive functioning and pre-academics are needed to examine moderators of intervention effectiveness. Trial registration Systematic review PROSPERO registration. CRD42020222143.

Why doesn't executive function training improve academic achievement? Rethinking individual differences, relevance, and engagement from a contextual framework

Performance on lab assessments of executive functions predicts academic achievement and other positive life outcomes. A primary goal of research on executive functions has been to design interventions that improve outcomes like academic achievement by improving executive functions. These interventions typically involve extensive practice on abstract lab-based tasks and lead to improvements on these practiced tasks. However, interventions rarely improve performance on non-practiced tasks and rarely benefit outcomes like academic achievement. Contemporary frameworks of executive function development suggest that executive functions develop and are engaged within personal, social, historical, and cultural contexts. Abstract lab-based tasks do not well-capture the real-world contexts that require executive functions and should not be expected to provide generalized benefits outside of the lab. We propose a perspective for understanding individual differences in performance on executive function assessments that focuses on contextual influences on executive functions. We extend this contextual approach to training executive function engagement, rather than training executive functions directly. First, interventions should incorporate task content that is contextually relevant to the targeted outcome. Second, interventions should encourage engaging executive functions through reinforcement and contextual relevance, which may better translate to real-world outcomes than training executive functions directly. While such individualized executive functions interventions do not address systemic factors that greatly impact outcomes like academic achievement, given the extensive resources devoted to improving executive functions, we hypothesize that interventions designed to encourage children's engagement of executive functions hold more promise for impacting real-world outcomes than interventions designed to improve executive function capacities.

Teacher perceptions of working memory and executive function improvements following school-day cognitive training

Considerable research has documented the impact of teacher perceptions on students’ academic-related outcomes (e.g., classroom performance). This body of literature clearly shows that teacher perceptions (resulting from direct interactions with students) can have both positive and negative effects with respect to student behaviors and experiences in the classroom. What remains unclear is whether teachers perceive changes that result from interventions administered outside of their classrooms. The purpose of this study was to examine changes in teacher perceptions of working memory and executive function concerns (two important predictors of academic success) among students who participated in a computerized cognitive training program designed to enhance working memory skills. The current results indicate that teachers perceived fewer concerns following students’ participation in the training; this outcome was supplemented with significant improvements in the students’ working memory capabilities following the training program. These findings have important implications given the literature highlighting the relation between teacher perceptions and student outcomes as a function of a school-based computerized cognitive training intervention.