Childhood self-regulation as a mechanism through which early overcontrolling parenting is associated with adjustment in preadolescence

How can white parents raise anti-racist children? Introducing the routes to effective anti-racist parenting (REAP) model

In response to highly publicized instances of overt racial injustice, there has been a recent resurgence of interest and commitment to identifying processes through which anti-racist behaviors develop among White individuals. One particularly important context in which anti-racist behaviors can develop is within families and as a result of childrearing. Theories of anti-racism typically neglect the role of families and family science research typically neglects a focus on anti-racist parenting outcomes. To further research and applied work on fostering anti-racism within White families, this paper introduces a new integrative model called routes to effective anti-racist parenting (REAP). The model draws on theories from various fields, including family science and social psychology, and uses a metaphor of nurturing a plant to explain the nuanced, multi-faceted approaches to anti-racist parenting. The model incorporates factors related to the "pot" (i.e., fundamental values and structure necessary to contain more specific anti-racist skills and behaviors), "soil" (i.e., characteristics that define anti-racist commitment), "seeds" (i.e., direct transmission of anti-racism skills), and "environment" (i.e., influential external factors). Finally, we describe the intended benefits that can be reaped from this intentional approach to anti-racist parenting. The REAP model contributes to the family science literature by providing an empirically grounded theoretical model describing the roles that parents can play in children's anti-racist development.

Community-Delivered Evidence-Based Practice and Usual Care for Adolescent Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Examining Mechanistic Outcomes

Previous research suggests that routine psychosocial care for adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is an eclectic and individualized mix of diluted evidence-based practices (EBPs) and low-value approaches. This study evaluated the extent to which a community-delivered EBP and usual care (UC) for adolescents with ADHD produce differential changes in theorized behavioral, psychological, and cognitive mechanisms of ADHD. A randomized community-based trial was conducted with double randomization of adolescent and community therapists to EBP delivery supports (Supporting Teens' Autonomy Daily [STAND]) versus UC delivery. Participants were 278 culturally diverse adolescents (ages 11-17) with ADHD and caregivers. Mechanistic outcomes were measured at baseline, post-treatment, and follow-up using parent-rated, observational, and task-based measures. Results using linear mixed models indicated that UC demonstrated superior effects on parent-rated and task-based executive functioning relative to STAND. However, STAND demonstrated superior effects on adolescent motivation and reducing parental intrusiveness relative to UC when it was delivered by licensed therapists. Mechanisms of community-delivered STAND and UC appear to differ. UC potency may occur through improved executive functioning, whereas STAND potency may occur through improved teen motivation and reducing low-value parenting practices. However, when delivered by unlicensed, community-based therapists, STAND did not enact proposed mechanisms. Future adaptations of community-delivered EBPs for ADHD should increase supports for unlicensed therapists, who comprise the majority of the community mental health workforce.

Research Review: Child emotion regulation mediates the association between family factors and internalizing symptoms in children and adolescents - a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Parental influence on children's internalizing symptoms has been well established; however, little is known about the underlying mechanisms. One possible mechanism is child emotion regulation given evidence (a) of its associations with internalizing symptoms and (b) that the development of emotion regulation during childhood and adolescence is influenced by aspects of the family environment. This meta-analysis aimed to systematically investigate the mediating role of child emotion regulation in the relationship between various family factors and internalizing symptoms in children and adolescents.

METHODS

We searched Medline, Embase, PsychInfo, and Web of Science for English articles up until November 2022. We included studies that examined child emotion regulation as a mediator between a family factor and child/adolescent internalizing symptoms. Random-effects models were used to calculate pooled indirect effects and total effects for nine family factors. Heterogeneity and mediation ratio were also calculated.

RESULTS

Of 49 studies with 24,524 participants in this meta-analysis, family factors for which emotion regulation mediated the association with child/adolescent internalizing symptoms included: unsupportive emotion socialization, psychological control, secure attachment, aversiveness, family conflict, parent emotion regulation and parent psychopathology, but not supportive emotion socialization and behavioral control.

CONCLUSIONS

Various family factors impact children's emotion regulation development, and in turn, contribute to the risk of internalizing symptoms in young people. Findings from this study highlight the need for interventions targeting modifiable parenting behaviors to promote healthy emotion regulation and better mental health in children and adolescents.

Effects of Helicopter Parenting, Tiger Parenting and Inhibitory Control on the Development of Children's Anxiety and Depressive Symptoms

Helicopter parenting and tiger parenting may increase the risks of anxiety and depression in children. However, it is unclear how these parenting styles affect the developmental outcomes and trajectories of anxiety and depressive symptoms, and how children's internal inhibitory control (IC) moderates such effects. The present study aimed to examine this issue. A sample of 172 typically developing children (77 girls; Mage = 7.14, SDage = 0.33) and their parents participated in the study. Parents reported children's anxiety and depressive symptoms using the Child Behavior Checklist each year from the first measurement (T1) to the third measurement (T3) and reported their helicopter parenting and tiger parenting at T1. Children completed the Go/No-go task at T1 to measure their IC. Higher T1 helicopter parenting impeded the declines in anxiety and depression over time, and higher T1 tiger parenting predicted more anxiety and depressive symptoms at T3. However, such effects were only observed in children with low IC, and higher IC buffered the adverse impacts of both helicopter parenting and tiger parenting on children's anxiety and depressive symptoms. These findings revealed that helicopter parenting and tiger parenting had negative impacts on the developmental trajectories and outcomes of anxiety and depression in children and suggest that IC plays an important role in alleviating the risks of anxiety and depression among children in adverse environments.

Exploring self-care practices of African American informal kinship caregivers

African American caregivers providing informal kinship care are vulnerable to chronic stress. Research has indicated stress increases individuals' risk for many adverse physical and mental health outcomes, including cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer's disease and depression. Given the adverse outcomes related to stress, identifying mechanisms to help these caregivers lower and manage their stress is critical to their overall health and well-being. This pilot qualitative study aimed to explore the self-care practices of 12 African Americans providing informal kinship care using a phenomenological approach. Three themes emerged: (a) behaviours to manage stress levels, (b) support network reminding caregivers to take care of themselves and (c) prioritizing my own needs. Specifically, our findings indicate that some caregivers have high-stress levels and engage in maladaptive coping behaviours. The children they cared for reminded them to take care of themselves by attending doctors' appointments or getting their nails done. Nevertheless, some caregivers prioritized their needs by participating in positive self-care behaviours, such as listening to jazz and gospel music and exercising. Prevention and intervention programs that focus on improving caregivers' health should consider the role of self-care practices.

Potentially Traumatic Events, Socioemotional and Adaptive Functioning: Associations with Self-Regulatory Skills in a Community Sample of Primarily Black and Latinx 3-5-year-olds

Early childhood is a heightened risk period for exposure to potentially traumatic events (PTEs) and a critical period for the development of foundational self-regulatory competencies that have potential cascading effects on future socioemotional functioning. This cross-sectional study examined associations between PTE exposure and socioemotional and adaptive functioning, and self-regulatory skills, in a community-based sample of 280 primarily Black and Latinx 3-5-year-olds. Results supported direct relations between PTE exposure and socioemotional and adaptive functioning. Attentional regulation was associated with PTEs and internalizing behaviors, externalizing behaviors, and adaptive behaviors. There was also a significant association of emotional regulation on the relationship between PTEs and internalizing and externalizing behaviors, but not adaptive functioning. Findings have implications for early intervention and educational and public policy, including the importance of scaffolding the development of self-regulatory skills among preschoolers with high PTE exposure.

Impact of Parental Representations and Related Parenting Behavior On Children

Parental representations tend to be formed in the prenatal period and affect the child- parent relationship in the long term. Therefore, in the clinical environment, it is important to define parents’ representations to increase the success of therapeutic interventions and prevent childhood psychopathologies with various intervention programs. With this concern, the aim of this review was to summarize the literature about parental representations and their relationship between parenting behavior, and childhood developmental problems. Related to this purpose, this review includes the definition and categories of parental representations, the factors which contribute to parental representations, and the relations between parenting and childhood developmental problems.

Virtual Risk Management-Exploring Effects of Childhood Risk Experiences through Innovative Methods (ViRMa) for Primary School Children in Norway: Study Protocol for the ViRMa Project

BACKGROUND

Research indicates that risky play benefits children's risk assessment and risk management skills and offers several positive health effects such as resilience, social skills, physical activity, well-being, and involvement. There are also indications that the lack of risky play and autonomy increases the likelihood of anxiety. Despite its well-documented importance, and the willingness of children to engage in risky play, this type of play is increasingly restricted. Assessing long-term effects of risky play has been problematic because of ethical issues with conducting studies designed to allow or encourage children to take physical risks with the potential of injury.

OBJECTIVE

The Virtual Risk Management project aims to examine children's development of risk management skills through risky play. To accomplish this, the project aims to use and validate newly developed and ethically appropriate data collection tools such as virtual reality, eye tracking, and motion capturing, and to provide insight into how children assess and handle risk situations and how children's past risky play experiences are associated with their risk management.

METHODS

We will recruit 500 children aged 7-10 years and their parents from primary schools in Norway. Children's risk management will be measured through data concerning their risk assessment, risk willingness, and risk handling when completing a number of tasks in 3 categories of virtual reality scenarios: street crossing, river crossing, and playing on playground equipment. The children will move around physically in a large space while conducting the tasks and wear 17 motion-capturing sensors that will measure their movements to analyze motor skills. We will also collect data on children's perceived motor competence and their sensation-seeking personality. To obtain data on children's risk experiences, parents will complete questionnaires on their parental style and risk tolerance, as well as information about the child's practical risk experience.

RESULTS

Four schools have been recruited to participate in data collection. The recruitment of children and parents for this study started in December 2022, and as of April 2023, a total of 433 parents have consented for their children to participate.

CONCLUSIONS

The Virtual Risk Management project will increase our understanding of how children's characteristics, upbringing, and previous experiences influence their learning and ability to handle challenges. Through development and use of cutting-edge technology and previously developed measures to describe aspects of the children's past experiences, this project addresses crucial topics related to children's health and development. Such knowledge may guide pedagogical questions and the development of educational, injury prevention, and other health-related interventions, and reveal essential areas for focus in future studies. It may also impact how risk is addressed in crucial societal institutions such as the family, early childhood education, and schools.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/45857.

A Developmental Pathway from Early Inhibitory Control to Social Connectedness

Social connections are critical for mental and physical health; however, the developmental pathways to children's social connectedness outcomes are not well understood. This study examined the pathways from children's inhibitory control at 4 years to two social connectedness outcomes - loneliness and friendship quality at age 10 - through behavioral problems at age 7. As part of a longitudinal study (N = 291, 54% girls), children's inhibitory control was assessed via a Go/No-Go task when children were 4 years old. Mothers reported on children's behavioral problems at ages 4 and 7 years. Children reported on their friendship quality and loneliness at ages 7 and 10 years. Greater inhibitory control at 4 years predicted lower behavioral problems at 7 years, which in turn predicted better friendship quality and lower loneliness at 10 years. Indirect effects from inhibitory control at 4 years to loneliness and friendship quality at 10 years via behavioral problems at 7 years were significant. Findings suggest that inhibitory control in early childhood may play a key role for the development of social connectedness in middle childhood via its impact on children's behavioral problems.

Maternal reminiscing as critical to emotion socialization

Background

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, the central importance of socioemotional skills in positive child development has become even more apparent. Prevalent models of emotion socialization emphasize the importance of parent-child talk as a critical socialization context.

Purpose

Autobiographical reminiscing about the child's lived experience may be a particularly effective form of parent-child conversation that facilitates emotion understanding.

Method

The authors provide a theoretical and empirical review of how maternal reminiscing style impacts specifically on emotion socialization in both typically and atypically developing children.

Results

Individual differences in maternal reminiscing indicate that highly elaborative reminiscing is related to both better narrative skills and higher levels of emotion understanding and regulation both concurrently and longitudinally. Intervention studies indicate that mothers can be coached to be more elaborative during reminiscing and coaching leads to higher levels of emotion understating and regulation.

Conclusions

Reminiscing about lived experience allows mothers and children to explore and examine emotions in personally meaningful situations that have real world implications for children's evolving emotion understanding.

Roles of recalled parenting experiences and effortful control in adult daily emotion regulation

Research suggests that both childhood experiences with one's parents and individual differences in effortful control contribute to adult emotion regulation (ER). However, it is unclear how they associate with specific ER processes. In this adult study, we examined the roles of recalled parenting experiences and effortful control in daily ER selection and implementation. Using ecological momentary assessment (EMA), we focused on ER strategies of reappraisal, suppression, and rumination. We hypothesized recalled parental warmth, rejection, and overcontrol to predict adult ER selection and effectiveness of ER implementation and effortful control to mediate these effects. One hundred twenty-two adults answered self-reported questionnaires on their childhood experiences with their parents and effortful control. In EMA, they reported ER and emotions seven times daily for seven days. Recalled parental warmth predicted less suppression and rumination, whereas recalled overcontrol, especially in fathers, predicted greater suppression and reappraisal. However, recalled parenting experiences did not predict the effectiveness of ER implementation, and no support was found for the mediating role of effortful control between recalled parenting experiences and ER. Our findings suggest that recalled parenting experiences may guide adult ER selection rather than shape ER implementation, and these links may be largely independent of their effortful control.

Transactional associations between infant negative emotionality and maternal sensitivity: Maternal emotion dysregulation as a moderator

The relations between maternal sensitivity and infant negative emotionality have been tested extensively in the previous literature. However, the extent to which these associations reflect unidirectional or bidirectional effects over time remains somewhat uncertain. Further, the possibility that maternal characteristics moderate the extent to which infant negative emotionality predicts maternal sensitivity over time has yet to be tested in cross-lag models. The goal of the present study is to address these gaps. First time mothers (N = 259; 50% White; 50% Black) and their infants participated when infants were 6, 14, and 26 months of age. Infant negative emotionality was assessed via maternal report and direct observation during standardized laboratory tasks, which were subsequently combined to yield a multimethod measure at each wave. Maternal sensitivity was observationally coded at each wave and mothers self-reported emotion dysregulation at 6 and 14 months. A random intercepts cross-lagged model with maternal emotion dysregulation specified as a moderator revealed that infant negative emotionality at 6 months was negatively associated with maternal sensitivity at 14 months, but only among mothers higher in emotion dysregulation. Higher maternal sensitivity was in turn associated with lower infant negative emotionality when infants were 26 months of age. The indirect pathway was significant, lending support for the transactional model. Implications for future research and prevention/intervention are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Parental Overprotection and Sleep Problems in Young Children

Poor sleep in children predicts mental and physical disorders later in life. Identifying and changing modifiable factors associated with sleep problems in young children may improve their health trajectory. Our aim was to establish whether overprotective parenting was associated with problems sleeping in children. Parents of children aged 2-6 years completed questionnaires about their own anxiety, parenting style, and about their children's sleep. We obtained 307 reports on 197 children from 240 parents. Using mixed-effects linear regression, we found that maternal (beta = 0.26, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.41, p = 0.001) and paternal (beta = 0.35, 95% CI 0.17 to 0.53, p < 0.001) overprotection were associated with impaired sleep in children. This relationship remained unchanged when controlling for parental anxiety. Decreasing parents' overprotection may improve children's sleep, and reduce the risk of physical and mental disorders later in their life.

Typology of Social Skills and Their Impairments in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

The growing number of children with autism spectrum disorders determines the need for correctional and developmental work with this category of children, including the improvement of social skills. The purpose of the study is to review the main approaches to determining the types of social skills and their impairments in children with autism, and its task is to identify criteria for distinguishing the types of social skills and categories of difficulties associated with their development by children with autism. To achieve this goal, a desk study was conducted using general scientific methods of data analysis, generalisation, and comparison. The influence of social skills disorders on the functioning of children with autism spectrum disorders in society, their social and mental well-being is analysed. Various approaches to identifying types of social skills are presented, depending on the classification criteria, such as the internal complexity of the skill, the order and scope of its application. The study describes the causes of difficulties in mastering social skills by children with autism. The nature and content of difficulties that may arise during acquisition and the impact of underdevelopment or insufficient level of proficiency in one group of skills on others are revealed. The need to implement a comprehensive and thoughtful approach to the development of social skills is highlighted. The practical significance of the study lies in the fact that its results can be used in planning, implementing, and evaluating the effectiveness of interventions in the development of social skills in children with autism.

Autonomic profiles and self-regulation outcomes in early childhood

This study examined autonomic profiles in preschoolers (N = 278, age = 4.7 years) and their relations to self-regulation outcomes concurrently and one year later, in kindergarten. Children's sympathetic (preejection period [PEP]) and parasympathetic activity (respiratory sinus arrythmia [RSA]) were measured at rest and during cognitive and emotional tasks. Three self-regulatory competencies were assessed: executive functions, emotion regulation and behavioral regulation. Executive functioning was measured at ages 4 and 5 using laboratory tasks designed to assess updating/working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility. Emotion regulation was observed during emotionally distressing tasks in the laboratory, both at ages 4 and 5. Behavioral regulation and emotional reactivity were assessed via teacher ratings in kindergarten, at age 5. Latent profile analysis yielded four autonomic profiles: moderate parasympathetic inhibition (45%), reciprocal sympathetic activation (26%), coinhibition (25%), and high sympathetic activation (7%). The reciprocal sympathetic activation group showed better executive functioning in preschool and kindergarten, particularly compared to the high sympathetic activation group. The moderate parasympathetic inhibition group showed lower emotional reactivity and better behavioral regulation in kindergarten, compared to the other three groups. Findings suggest that autonomic profiles meaningfully associate with self-regulation outcomes in early childhood, such that certain profiles relate to better self-regulation than others.

A Systematic Review of "Helicopter Parenting" and Its Relationship With Anxiety and Depression

Background

Emerging evidence suggests that overprotective and controlling parenting, often referred to as "helicopter parenting" may have negative implications on the child's mental health such as anxiety and depression. However, no systematic review on the topic exists.

Objective

Conducting a systematic review to identify all studies where the relationship between helicopter parenting and symptoms of anxiety and/or depression have been investigated.

Method

A systematic literature search conducted the 3rd of November 2021 yielded 38 eligible studies. Since helicopter parenting is a fairly new construct, this review considered parental control and overprotective parenting to be dimensions of helicopter parenting and thus, eligible for the study. Study quality was assessed in accordance with Campbells Validity Typology.

Results

The majority of the studies included in this review found a direct relationship between helicopter parenting and symptoms of anxiety and depression. However, validity problems undermine these findings with regarding to assessing the causal relationship between helicopter parenting and these symptoms. There were no longitudinal studies of sufficient quality to determine if helicopter parenting precedes the outcome of anxiety and depression.

Conclusion

Even though the majority of the studies included in this systematic review found a relationship between helicopter parenting and anxiety and depression, the evidence for this relationship is insufficient and must be investigated further. Findings suggest that it is important to include both maternal and paternal parenting style in future studies as they could affect the outcome of anxiety and depression differently.

Systematic Review Registration

PROSPERO 2020 CRD42020167465, https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=167465.

Emerging self-regulatory skills in childhood predict cardiometabolic risk in adolescence

Cardiometabolic risk (CMR) has increased among adolescents. A growing literature shows that childhood self-regulatory skills are associated with obesity and CMR. However, the developmental nature of self-regulation has not been considered in existing studies. Therefore, it is unclear how specific types of self-regulation (i.e., attentional, emotional, behavioral, cognitive) at different points in development, may differentially predict CMR. Using a multi-method longitudinal design, we assessed a sample of 117 children repeatedly between ages 2 and 16. At ages 2, 4, and 7 years, self-regulation (emotional, attentional, behavioral, and cognitive) skills that were hypothesized to have emerged were assessed. Adolescent CMR indicators were assessed at age 16. Latent profile analyses identified three profiles of adolescent CMR: Low Risk (41%), Dyslipidemia Risk (49.6%), and High Risk (9.4%). Distinct self-regulation skills at each childhood age predicted CMR during adolescence. Specifically, emotional regulation skills at ages 2 and 4, food-related behavioral regulation and attentional regulation at age 4, and attentional and cognitive regulation skills at age 7 predicted adolescent CMR. Self-regulation skills are modifiable, and thus, childhood interventions aimed at improving self-regulation could reduce CMR for decades to come. However, these results suggest that the multifaceted, developmental nature of self-regulation must be considered to most effectively inform preventive interventions aimed at lowering CMR. Additionally, our study highlights the need for additional research on adolescents who show elevations of CMR without meeting criteria for obesity.

•

Three person-centered profiles of cardiometabolic risk were identified.

•

Four domains of childhood self-regulation predicted adolescent cardiometabolic risk.

•

Research is needed on adolescents with high cardiometabolic risk without obesity.

•

Childhood self-regulation interventions could ultimately reduce cardiometabolic risk.

Mechanisms of Change in Population-Based Parenting Interventions for Children and Adolescents

OBJECTIVE

Developing an effective population-level system of evidence-based parenting support capable of shifting (at a population level) rates of child maltreatment and social, emotional, and behavioral problems in children requires an integrated theory of change. This paper presents a systems-contextual model of change and identifies modifiable mechanisms that can potentially explain population-level changes in parenting and child outcomes.

METHOD

Using the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program as an exemplar of a tiered, multi-level system of evidence-based parenting interventions, we discuss the putative mechanisms of change necessary to produce change in child behavior, parenting, practitioner behavior, and organizational changes to support the sustained implementation of an intervention.

RESULTS

A model of change is proposed that blends theoretical perspectives derived from social learning theory, self-regulation theory, applied behavior analysis, cognitive behavior principles, developmental theory, and principles derived from the fields of public health, implementation science, and economics to explain change in the behavior at the community wide level. Different types of interventions targeting different populations and mechanisms are used to illustrate how sustainable change in child and parent outcomes can be achieved.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence supporting specific mechanisms and moderators of intervention effects are discussed as well as directions for future research on mechanisms.

The Intensification of Parenting in Germany: The Role of Socioeconomic Background and Family Form

Drawing on the international discourse on the intensification of parenting and new data from Germany, this paper aims to contribute to a better understanding of the unique challenges that parents face in the 21st century. We used data from the survey “Parenthood Today”, which was conducted in 2019 to examine parents’ views on parenting in Germany. The data comprised standardized interviews with 1652 mothers and fathers. We focused on three dimensions of parental pressures: namely, time pressure, financial pressure, and pressure that emanates from the educational system. Time pressure referred to the pressure currently felt, whereas financial pressure and pressure from the educational system referred to changes across time. In each of these domains, more than 60% of the parents experienced high (time) or increasing (education and financial) pressure. Binary logistic regressions showed that while parental education was a strong predictor of experiencing an increase in financial pressure, parental education did not matter for other realms of parenting. However, employment and family form were strongly related to parental time pressure. Full-time employed lone mothers, but also non-resident fathers, reported experiencing heavy pressure when trying to balance their roles as a worker and as a carer. Our results draw attention to the importance of better integrating the needs of post-separation families, including of non-resident fathers, in the debate on the “intensification of parenting”.

Development of Teacher Rating Scale of Risky Play for 3- to 6-Year-Old Pre-Schoolers in Anji Play Kindergartens of East China

To help teachers better evaluate the level of risky play for pre-schoolers, the present study aimed to develop a Teacher Rating Scale of Risky Play (TRSRP) for 3–6 years Chinese Pre-schoolers. The scale was administered to a pre-schooler sample consisting of 1376 children (M_age = 57.53 months, SD = 10.38; 54.30% boys; 44.80% only child) recruited from Anji play kindergartens in Hangzhou, China. The psychometric properties of the instrument were examined. The reliability of scale was reported by calculating internal consistency. The construct validity of the scale was investigated by exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. The final 7-item measure was structured into two subscales: play with great heights and play with high speed. The results suggested that the TRSRP has acceptable internal consistency and construct validity and can be used as an effective tool to measure the level of risky play for 3–6 years pre-schoolers in China’s Anji play kindergartens.

Cutting the cord? Parenting emerging adults with chronic pain

The role of parent factors, such as distress and protective behaviors, on pain and functional outcomes of emerging adults living with chronic pain has been largely unexplored. The effects of helicopter parenting and developmental changes occurring during this transition period between adolescence and adulthood (commonly defined as the ages between 18 and 30 years) may exacerbate the pain experience and have the potential to influence chronic pain management. Clinical practice, with an additional focus on supporting the parent(s), may aid in meeting the needs of this population. In this paper, we review the available literature on (a) the socio-cultural shift in parenting over the past decade with a focus on helicopter parenting; (b) the impact of this parenting style on the pain experience and outcomes of emerging adults living with chronic pain; (c) provide recommendations for chronic pain management with a focus on the parent-emerging adult dyad; and (d) conclude with future research recommendations. This narrative review is the first to consider the impacts and outcomes of helicopter parenting on emerging adults with chronic pain.

Associations between Children's Risky Play and ECEC Outdoor Play Spaces and Materials

Children spend a large amount of time each day in early childhood education and care (ECEC) institutions, and the ECEC play environments are important for children’s play opportunities. This includes children’s opportunities to engage in risky play. This study examined the relationship between the outdoor play environment and the occurrence of children’s risky play in ECEC institutions. Children (n = 80) were observed in two-minute sequences during periods of the day when they were free to choose what to do. The data consists of 935 randomly recorded two-minute videos, which were coded second by second for several categories of risky play as well as where and with what materials the play occurred. Results revealed that risky play (all categories in total) was positively associated with fixed equipment for functional play, nature and other fixed structures, while analysis of play materials showed that risky play was positively associated with wheeled toys. The results can support practitioners in developing their outdoor areas to provide varied and exciting play opportunities.

Parenting Characteristics among Adults With Social Anxiety and their Influence on Social Anxiety Development in Children: A Brief Integrative Review

The purposes of this brief integrative review are to identify and critically evaluate recent work in the area of parenting processes that are disproportionately observed among parents with social anxiety disorder (SAD) that may ultimately increase risk among offspring, and to further link these processes to specific targets for intervention. Accordingly, we first evaluate the relevance of specific parenting styles as they pertain to increased risk of developing SAD among offspring. Second, we link these parenting processes to observations of certain unfavorable consequences among socially anxious youth, such as low perceived autonomy and poorer social skills. Finally, in light of these consequences we extend our conclusions into potentially modifiable targets among parents with SAD, focusing on the enhancement of autonomy and facilitating offspring's normative period of transition into independence during adolescence. Overall, we conclude that parenting behaviors commonly observed among adults with SAD, such as overcontrol and low parental warmth, likely have a direct impact on the development of social anxiety symptoms among their children. However, these parenting behaviors are plausibly modifiable and therefore repurposing existing interventions for use among parents with SAD in conjunction with interventions with their offspring is likely to provide direct clinical benefit.

The Relationship Between Parental Care and Pain in Children With Headache: A Narrative Review

PURPOSE

In migraine or primary headache in children, parents play a fundamental role in pain management. For this narrative review, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Psych Info were searched using the terms "parent headache", "mother/father headache", "parental impact headache", "alexithymia parents headache", "catastrophizing parent headache", "family headache", "children parent headache", and "quality of life family headache". Articles were chosen for inclusion based on their relevance in to the topic.

OVERVIEW

Several parental and psychological characteristics can influence in children and adolescent headache, such as parental attitudes as oppressive or overprotective; punitive parenting styles; familial psychological symptoms, especially anxiety and depression; catastrophizing about their child's pain or excessive worry about their child's headache; inability to express emotions; and feelings that may lead to somatization problems.

DISCUSSION

Parents' attitudes and behaviors toward their child's headache have a strong relation with the severity of headache attacks. Mothers seem to have more influence than fathers on children's pain and emotional regulation. We suggest that the presence of caregiver-child transmission of maladaptive coping strategies, arising from difficulties expressing emotion, may lead to incorrect management of headache pain, further facilitating headache chronification.

Controlling Parenting Behaviors in Parents of Children Born Preterm: A Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVE

This meta-analysis tested whether parents of preterm-born children differ from parents of full-term-born children regarding controlling parenting.

METHODS

Databases of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Open Access Theses and Dissertations, and Elton B. Stephens Company were searched for cross-sectional and prospective longitudinal studies examining controlling parenting in preterm-born children.

RESULTS

The meta-analysis included 27 independent data sets, derived from 34 studies, with a total of 8053 participants-3265 preterm and 4788 full-term children. Parents of children born preterm were more controlling than parents of children born full-term (Hedges' g = 0.29; 95% confidence interval: 0.19-0.39; z = 5.48; p < 0.001). Heterogeneity analysis indicated significant variation in effects between studies (Q = 148.46, p < 0.001), but the effects were not moderated by gestational age, birth weight, child age, child gender, parental education, type of parenting assessment method (observational vs parental self-report), parenting dimension measured (behaviors vs attitudes), type of controlling parenting (intrusiveness vs others), study design (cross-sectional vs longitudinal), year of publication, or geographical setting of the studies (America vs Europe).

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that parents of children born preterm are at higher risk for engaging in controlling parenting strategies, stressing the importance of psychosocial follow-up support for these parents.

"Food" and "non-food" self-regulation in childhood: a review and reciprocal analysis

BACKGROUND

In developmental science, there is an extensive literature on non-food related self-regulation in childhood, where several domains relating to emotions, actions and cognitions have been identified. There is now growing attention to food related self-regulation in childhood, especially difficulties with ASR, and the consequences for weight gain and adiposity. The aim of this narrative review was to conduct a reciprocal analysis of self-regulation in the food and non-food domains in childhood (referred to as appetite self-regulation (ASR) and general self-regulation (GSR) respectively). The focus was on commonalities and differences in key concepts and underpinning processes.

METHODS

Databases and major journals were searched using terms such as self-regulation, appetite self-regulation, or self-regulation of energy intake, together with associated constructs (e.g., Executive Function, Effortful Control, delay-of-gratification). This was followed by backward and forward snowballing.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The scholarship on GSR in childhood has had a focus on the role of the cognitively-oriented Executive Function (EF), the temperamentally-based Effortful Control (EC) and the recursive interplay between bottom-up (reactive, emotion driven, approach or avoidance) and top-down (cognitive, conscious decision-making) processes. "Hot" and "cool/cold" EF and self-regulation situations have been distinguished. There were some parallels between GSR and ASR in these areas, but uncertainty about the contribution of EF and EC to ASR in young children. Possible differences between the contribution to ASR-related outcomes of delay-of-gratification in food and non-food tasks were apparent. Unique elements of ASR were identified; associated with psychological, biological and neurological responses to food and bottom-up processes. A diverse number of situations or elements connected to ASR exist: for example, energy balance homeostasis, caloric compensation, hunger regulation, satiation, satiety, energy density of food, eating in the absence of hunger, emotional eating, etc. CONCLUSIONS: Self-regulation in food and non-food domains are amenable to a reciprocal analysis. We argue that self-regulation of appetite should be added as a domain under the umbrella of self-regulation in childhood along with the other non-food related domains. This could lead to a broader understanding of self-regulation in childhood, and generate novel lines of enquiry.

Integrative emotion regulation: Process and development from a self-determination theory perspective

Grounded in self-determination theory's (SDT; Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017) organismic perspective, we present a process view of integrative emotion regulation. SDT describes three general types of emotion regulation: integrative emotion regulation, which focuses on emotions as carrying information that is brought to awareness; controlled emotion regulation, which is focused on diminishing emotions through avoidance, suppression, or enforced expression or reappraisal; and amotivated emotion regulation, in which emotions are uncontrolled or dysregulated. We review survey and experimental research contrasting these emotion regulation styles, providing evidence for the benefits of integrative emotion regulation for volitional functioning, personal well-being, and high-quality relationships, and for the costs of controlled emotion regulation and dysregulation. The development of emotion regulation styles is discussed, especially the role of autonomy-supportive parenting in fostering more integrative emotion regulation, and the role of controlling parenting in contributing to controlled or dysregulated emotion processing. Overall, integrative emotion regulation represents a beneficial style of processing emotions, which develops most effectively in a nonjudgmental and autonomy-supportive environment, an issue relevant to both development and psychotherapy.

Reflections on self-determination theory as an organizing framework for personality psychology: Interfaces, integrations, issues, and unfinished business

OBJECTIVE

This special issue focuses on self-determination theory (SDT) as an integrative framework for the wider field of personality research. In this commentary our aims include: reflecting on the utility and strengths of SDT as such a general framework and responding to the various contributions in this issue regarding their use of SDT as a guiding, complementary, or contrasting framework.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We describe how SDT has developed organically and conservatively from "within" based on the emerging patterns of evidence, as well through the ongoing challenges from other models and frameworks. We then discuss each of the various contributions to this special issue, addressing themes that include SDT's breadth of methods, and its relevance to topics such as narcissism, wisdom, individual differences, Big-Five traits, and the neuropsychology of motivation, among others. Across these discussions, we highlight fruitful avenues for research and cross-fertilization across the fields of personality, development, motivation, and neuroscience. At the same time, we counter some claims made about SDT, and forward certain cautions regarding the integration of SDT and other personality frameworks and models.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude by revisiting the value of broad theory, and SDT in particular, for coordinating complex research findings concerning motivation, personality development and wellness across multiple levels of analysis and, perhaps more importantly, for pointing researchers to the right questions within today's prolific empiricism.