Direct, indirect, and buffering effects of support for mothers on children's socioemotional adjustment

Maternal social support during and after pregnancy and child cognitive ability: examining timing effects in two cohorts

BACKGROUND

Maternal anxiety, depression, and stress during and after pregnancy are negatively associated with child cognitive development. However, the contribution of positive maternal experiences, such as social support, to child cognitive development has received less attention. Furthermore, how maternal experience of social support during specific developmental periods impacts child cognitive development is largely unknown.

METHODS

Using data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC; n = 5784) and the Prediction and Prevention of Preeclampsia and Intrauterine Growth Restriction study (PREDO; n = 420), we investigated the associations between maternal perceived social support during and after pregnancy and child's general cognitive ability at 8 years of age, assessed with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). Bayesian relevant life course modeling was used to investigate timing effects of maternal social support on child cognitive ability.

RESULTS

In both cohorts, higher maternal perceived social support during pregnancy was associated with higher performance on the WISC, independent of sociodemographic factors and concurrent maternal symptoms of depression and anxiety. In ALSPAC, pregnancy emerged as a sensitive period for the effects of perceived social support on child cognitive ability, with a stronger effect of social support during pregnancy than after pregnancy on child cognitive ability.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings, supported from two prospective longitudinal cohorts, suggest a distinct role of maternal perceived social support during pregnancy for cognitive development in children. Our study suggests that interventions aimed at increasing maternal social support during pregnancy may be an important strategy for promoting maternal and child well-being.

The role of parental stress on emotional and behavioral problems in offspring: a systematic review with meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Empirical evidence underscores an association between parental stress and emotional and behavioral problems in offspring. However, a comprehensive systematic review or meta-analysis on this topic is lacking. Thus, this study aims to address the scientific inquiry: Is there a relationship between parental stress and emotional/behavioral problems in children?

SOURCES

This systematic review with a meta-analysis surveyed PubMed, PsycINFO, and the Biblioteca Virtual em Saúde between August and September 2021. The present search combined terms (school-age children) AND (parental stress OR parenting stress OR family stress) AND (emotional and behavioral problems OR internalizing and externalizing problems). Eligibility criteria encompassed cross-sectional, cohort, and case-control studies published within the last five years, exploring the association between parental stress (stressful life events and parenthood-related stress disorders) and emotional/behavioral problems in school-age children. PROSPERO ID CRD42022274034.

SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS

Of the 24 studies meeting all inclusion criteria (n = 31,183) for the systematic review, nine were eligible for inclusion in the meta-analysis. The meta-analysis revealed an association between parental stress and emotional problems (COR: 0.46 [95 % CI: 0.27 - 0.61], p < 0.001, Heterogeneity = 89 %) as well as behavioral problems (COR: 0.37 [95 % CI: 0.27 - 0.46], p < 0.001, Heterogeneity = 76 %).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that parental stress predicts emotional/behavioral problems in school-age children. Since these problems are related to long-term negative effects in adulthood, these results are crucial for preventing mental health problems in offspring and for screening and managing parental stress.

Bidirectional relationships between parenting stress and child behavior problems in multi-stressed, single-mother families: A cross-lagged panel model

Investigations on the bidirectional relationships between parenting stress and child behavior problems are important to inform intervention strategies; however, prior research has provided inconsistent findings. Using a national sample of multi-stressed single-mother families from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing study, the present study examined the bidirectional relationships between maternal parenting stress and children's behavioral problems spanning from early childhood through adolescence at the child's ages 3, 5, 9, and 15. Reciprocal transactions were found between parenting stress and behavior problems in early childhood between the ages 3 and 5. From age 5 to age 15, our findings also suggest that children's behavior problems at an earlier time point predict mothers' parenting stress at a later time point. Unexpectedly, the lagged effects of parenting stress on child behavior problems in school ages were not significant in our sampled data. Early childhood interventions should address mitigating both parenting stress and their toddlers' behavior problems. During middle childhood and adolescence, interventions to directly address children's behavior problems are critical both to the well-being of mothers and to assist in the reduction in levels of behavior problems.

The relationship between parental involvement and psychological adjustment among Chinese children with autism spectrum disorder in the transition from kindergarten to primary school: A chain-mediating model

Introduction

This study examined the impact of parental involvement on the psychological adjustment of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and the role of parenting self-efficacy and parenting stress in the transition from kindergarten to primary school.

Methods

Using the questionnaires, we collected data from 237 Chinese parents of children with ASD.

Results

Mediation analyses showed that parental involvement partially promoted the psychological adjustment of children with ASD, which was reflected in the fact that parental involvement promoted children's prosocial behavior but did not reduce their emotional/behavioral problems. Mediation analyses also revealed the role of the mediator in parenting stress between parental involvement and the psychological adjustment of children. Additionally, the results suggested that parenting self-efficacy and parenting stress played a chain-mediating role in the association between parental involvement and psychological adjustment in children with ASD.

Discussion

These findings enhance our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the relationship between parental involvement and psychological adjustment in children with ASD in the transition from kindergarten to primary school.

Use of Child Care Attenuates the Link Between Decreased Maternal Sleep and Increased Depressive Symptoms

OBJECTIVE

Sleep disruption is common among postpartum women and is linked with depression. Child care may alleviate parenting stress and protect new mothers against symptoms of depression.

METHODS

Mothers from the NURTURE study, a birth cohort of 666 women of full-term infants, completed questionnaires during home visits when their infants were 3, 6, 9, and 12 months old. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and the Perceived Stress Scale were used to measure depressive symptoms and stress, respectively. Mothers reported total nightly sleep duration for themselves and their infants, child care arrangements, marital status, and income. We used mixed-effects models adjusting for income, marital status, and child age to examine the indirect effect of infants' sleep on maternal mental health through mothers' sleep and assessed whether patterns differed depending on child care.

RESULTS

Decreased maternal sleep mediated the association between infant sleep and maternal mental health. When infants slept 1 hour less than usual, mothers slept 7 fewer minutes (B = 0.19, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.01 to 0.27) and reported more depressive symptoms (B = -0.27, 95% CI, -0.43 to -0.11) and stress (B = -0.33, 95% CI -0.58 to -0.09). Child care moderated the indirect effect; decreased maternal sleep was not associated with increased depressive symptoms (and was not a mediator) when mothers had child care (indirect effect = -0.001, 95% CI, -0.03 to 0.03).

CONCLUSION

Use of infant child care reduced the link between maternal sleep and depressive symptoms. Regular access to child care may be a method to mitigate feelings of depression for new mothers.

Direct, Indirect, and Buffering Effect of Social Support on Parental Involvement Among Chinese Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Parental involvement plays a pivotal role in promoting developmental and educational outcomes for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study aimed to examine the relationships between social support, parenting stress, and parental involvement by investigating a sample of 245 Chinese parents of children with ASD. Mediation analyses indicated that the relationships between support from family and friends and parental involvement were partially mediated by parenting stress, and support from significant others was directly, positively related to parental involvement. Additionally, support from family and friends moderated the influence of parenting stress on parental involvement in their children's education. The direct, indirect, and buffering effects of social support on parental involvement were discussed finally.

Nonresident Fathers' and Grandparents' Early Years Support and Middle Childhood Socio-Emotional Adjustment

OBJECTIVE

This study investigates how different patterns of nonresident father support for children and mothers in the early years predict middle childhood adjustment, and whether grandparent support has compensating effects.

BACKGROUND

Nonresident fathers' involvement in children's lives benefits socio-emotional adjustment, but it is unclear whether support directed at children is compromised by interparental tensions, or whether other factors may compensate for weaker patterns of father support.

METHOD

Latent class analyses identified patterns of nonresident father support for single mothers and their 34-month-old child (None 35%, Low 16%, Moderate 21%, High 28%) and grandparent support (Low 15%, Moderate Maternal 33%, High Maternal 43%, High Maternal and Paternal 9%), using a sample of 648 families from the Growing Up in Scotland cohort. Effects of father support on children's internalizing and externalizing problems from age 46 to 122 months were explored (n = 352), together with moderating effects of grandparent support.

RESULTS

Low, Moderate and No father support had similar estimated effects on higher externalizing and internalizing problem levels, and steeper increases in internalizing problems. Compared to Low grandparent support, High Maternal and Paternal grandparent support reduced effects of weaker father support on both types of problem; and was more protective than High Maternal grandparent support against internalizing problems.

CONCLUSION

Weaker patterns of nonresident father support in early childhood, characterized by low involvement and interparental tensions or by no contact, were associated with poorer middle childhood adjustment. Support from both sets of grandparents offered children most protection against the effects of weaker father support.

Academic Functioning of Youth in Foster Care: The Influence of Unique Sources of Social Support

Youth in foster care often experience more difficulty in school compared to their non-foster care peers. Difficulties exist across domains of academic functioning, including both performance (e.g., low grades) and behavioral health (e.g., high externalizing concerns) in school. One factor that has shown to be associated with positive academic functioning in the general population but remains to be comprehensively examined among youth in foster care is social support. This includes examining specific sources of support for youth in foster care and taking into consideration the context of the frequent placement disruptions many children in foster care experience. This study sought to determine which sources of social support are associated with academic functioning for youth in foster care by examining child-report of social support from parents, teachers, friends, and classmates in relation to school grades and teacher-reported behavioral health outcomes. Information on each source of social support was obtained from the self-report of 257 youth in foster care, and information on placement characteristics were obtained from child welfare casefiles. Teachers provided information on youth's behavioral health in school, and academic grades were obtained from school records. Results suggested that youth reported teacher social support, as compared to parent, friend, or classmate social support, was most influential for both performance and behavioral health in school. Findings highlight the need for additional research on the important role of teachers for promoting academic success amongst youth in foster care, as well as the importance of placement changes in relation to academic functioning.

DAT1 and Its Psychological Correlates in Children with Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder: A Cross-Sectional Pilot Study

International research has underlined the role played by children’s and maternal psychopathological symptoms on the onset of avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) in early childhood. No study has considered the possible interplay between children’s dopamine transporter (DAT1) genotype and methylation, dysregulation problems and maternal psychopathological risk. This study aimed to investigate the complex relationship between these variables, considering the possible mediation role played by children’s DAT1 methylation on the relationship between mothers’ psychopathological risk and children’s dysregulation problems, moderated by children’s DAT1 genotype. Our sample consisted of 94 early children and their mothers, divided into four subgroups, based on children’s ARFID subtypes (irritable/impulsive (I/I), sensory food aversions (SFA), post-traumatic feeding disorders subtypes (PTFD), and a non-clinical group (NC)). We addressed children’s dysregulation problems and maternal psychopathological risk, and collected children’s DNA through buccal swabs. Results showed that children’s 9/x genotype was associated with PTFD and NC groups, whereas the 10/10 genotype was associated with the SFA group, with large effect size. There were significant large differences in the study groups on children’s DAT1 total methylation, children’s dysregulation problems, and maternal psychopathological risk. Children’s DAT1 methylation did not mediate the relationship between mother’s psychopathological risk and children’s dysregulation problems, but there was a significant large direct effect. Children’s 9/x genotype moderated the relationship between maternal psychopathological risk and children’s DAT1 methylation but, respectively, with a large and small effect. Our pilot study suggested that the relationship between children’s DAT1 genotype and methylation, dysregulation problems, and maternal psychopathological risk has a crucial contribution to ARFID.

Mediation of Mothers' Anxiety and Parenting in Children's Behavior Problems during COVID-19

The outbreak of COVID-19 is affecting the lives of millions of families around the world. The current study was carried out in Israel, following the pandemic's initial outbreak and during the resulting enforced quarantine, confining parents and children to their homes. A sample of 141 Israeli mothers with at least one child between the ages of 3 and 12 (M = 6.92, SD = 2.55) participated as volunteers. About half the sample (50.7%) consisted of girls. Most mothers were cohabiting with a spouse (93%). Mothers completed online questionnaires about their perceptions about the health and economic threats of COVID-19, availability of social support, their anxiety symptoms, hostile/coercive and supportive/engaged parenting behavior, and their children's behavior problems. Results showed expected significant associations between the mothers' reports about having little social support, their anxiety symptoms, hostile/coercive and supportive/engaged parenting behavior, and children's externalizing problems. Likewise, expected significant associations were found between mothers' perceptions about the health and economic threats of COVID-19, their anxiety symptoms, hostile/coercive parenting behavior, and children's internalizing and externalizing problems. Importantly, maternal anxiety and hostile/coercive parenting behavior mediated the associations between lack of support, negative perceptions about the health and economic threats of COVID-19, and children's behavior problems. These findings stress the importance of mothers' mental health and parenting behaviors for children's socioemotional adaptation in the context of COVID-19. Implications of the findings for family interventions intended to help parents and children at this time are suggested.