Cognitive dispersion is a sensitive marker for early neurodegenerative changes and functional decline in nondemented older adults

Interactive effects of post-traumatic stress disorder symptom severity and hypertension on cognitive dispersion in older Vietnam-Era veterans with history of post-traumatic stress disorder

OBJECTIVE

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and hypertension are highly prevalent among Veterans. Cognitive dispersion, indicating within-person variability across neuropsychological measures at one time point, is associated with increased risk of dementia. We examined interactive effects of PTSD symptom severity and hypertension on cognitive dispersion among older Veterans.

METHODS

We included 128 Vietnam-era Veterans from the Department of Defense-Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (DoD-ADNI) with a history of PTSD. Regression models examined interactions between PTSD symptom severity and hypertension on cognitive dispersion (defined as the intraindividual standard deviation across eight cognitive measures) adjusting for demographics and comorbid vascular risk factors.

RESULTS

There was an interaction between PTSD symptom severity and hypertension on cognitive dispersion (p = .026) but not on mean cognitive performance (p = .543). Greater PTSD symptom severity was associated with higher cognitive dispersion among those with hypertension (p = .002), but not among those without hypertension (p = .531). Results remained similar after adjusting for mean cognitive performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest, among older Veterans with PTSD, those with both hypertension and more severe PTSD symptoms may be at greater risk for cognitive difficulties. Further, cognitive dispersion may be a useful marker of subtle cognitive difficulties. Future research should examine these associations longitudinally and in a diverse sample.

Growth-associated protein 43 is associated with faster functional decline among amyloid-positive individuals with objectively defined subtle cognitive decline and mild cognitive impairment

OBJECTIVE

Objectively defined subtle cognitive decline (Obj-SCD) is an emerging classification that may identify individuals at risk for future decline and progression to Alzheimer's disease prior to a diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Growth-associated protein 43 (GAP-43), a cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) marker of synaptic dysfunction, has been shown to relate to an increased risk of converting to dementia, although it is unclear whether GAP-43 alterations may be detected in pre-MCI stages. Therefore, in the present study, we examined CSF GAP-43 levels among individuals with Obj-SCD cross-sectionally and also examined whether baseline GAP-43 predicts future functional decline.

METHOD

Six hundred forty-four participants from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative were divided into six groups based on (a) cognitive status (cognitively unimpaired [CU], Obj-SCD, or MCI) and (b) Aβ status (+ or -).

RESULTS

The CU- group had lower baseline GAP-43 than all Aβ+ groups, but not the other Aβ- groups. Higher GAP-43 levels were associated with faster decline across the entire sample. When moderation by group was examined, higher GAP-43 at baseline predicted faster functional decline for the Obj-SCD+ and MCI+ groups, compared to the CU- group.

CONCLUSIONS

Results extend prior work investigating biomarker associations in Obj-SCD to GAP-43 and show that high baseline CSF GAP-43 is associated with a faster rate of functional decline in Aβ+ individuals who are classified as Obj-SCD or MCI. Importantly, our findings further demonstrate that CSF GAP-43 is associated with early and subtle cognitive changes detectable before the onset of MCI. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Cognitive variation reflects amyloid, tau, and neurodegenerative biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), the accumulation of neuropathological markers such as amyloid-β plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and cortical neurodegeneration occurs over many years before overt manifestation of cognitive impairment. There is thus a need for neuropsychological markers that are indicative of pathological changes in the early stages of the disease. Intra-individual cognitive variability (IICV), defined as the variation of an individual's performance across cognitive domains, is a promising neuropsychological marker measuring heterogeneous changes in cognition that may reflect these early pathological changes. In this study, we comprehensively evaluated the global and regional associations of IICV with positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measures of AD biomarkers in cognitively normal (CN) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) participants. We found that higher IICV was robustly associated with increased Aβ, increased tau, decreased brain glucose metabolism, and reduced cortical thickness. Higher IICV was also associated with tau (OR = 2.53, P < .001) and fluorodeoxyglucose (OR = 1.34, P < .001) positivity but not Aβ positivity (OR = 1.15, P = .107). In regional analyses, IICV showed widespread associations with AD biomarkers, with the strongest Aβ and tau effects in the frontal and temporal regions, respectively. The strongest regional cortical thickness effects were found in the entorhinal and parahippocampal cortices. Our findings suggest that IICV may be a useful neuropsychological marker for increased Aβ, and especially increased tau and neurodegeneration that are reflective of emerging AD pathology in individuals without dementia.

Dispersion-based cognitive intra-individual variability in former American football players: Association with traumatic encephalopathy syndrome, repetitive head impacts, and biomarkers

Background: Exposure to repetitive head impacts (RHI), such as those experienced in American football, is linked to cognitive dysfunction later in life. Traumatic encephalopathy syndrome (TES) is a proposed clinical syndrome thought to be linked to neuropath-ology of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a condition associated with RHI from football. Cognitive intra-individual variability (d-CIIV) measures test-score dispersion, indicating cognitive dysfunction. This study examined d-CIIV in former football players and its associations with TES diagnosis, RHI exposure, and DTI and CSF biomarkers. Methods: Data included 237 males (45-74 years) from DIAGNOSE CTE Research Project, including former professional and college football players (COL) (n = 173) and asymptomatic men without RHI or TBI (n = 55). Participants completed neuropsychological tests. TES diagnosis was based on 2021 NINDS TES criteria. Years of football play and a cumulative head impact index (CHII) measured RHI exposure. Lumipulse technology was used for CSF assays. DTI fractional anisotropy assessed white matter integrity. Coefficient of variation (CoV) measured d-CIIV. ANCOVA compared d-CIIV among groups (football versus control; TES-status). Pearson correlations and linear regressions tested associations between d-CIIV, RHI exposure, and CSF and DTI biomarkers. Results: Former professional players had higher d-CIIV than controls (F(7, 194) = 2.87, p = .007). d-CIIV was associated with TES diagnosis (F(8, 146) = 9.063, p < .001), with highest d-CIIV in TES Possible/Probable-CTE. Higher d-CIIV correlated with higher CHII scores (r = 0.19), reduced CSF Aβ1-42 (β = -0.302), increased p-tau181 (β = 0.374), and reduced DTI FA (β = -0.202). Conclusion: d-CIIV is linked to RHI exposure and TES diagnosis in former football players, with associated changes in CSF biomarkers and white matter integrity.

Examining the Stability and Predictive Utility of Across- and Within-Domain Intra-Individual Variability in Mild Cognitive Impairment

OBJECTIVE

Dispersion is a form of intra-individual variability across neuropsychological tests that has been shown to predict cognitive decline. However, few studies have investigated the stability and predictive utility of both across- and within-domain dispersion. The current study aims to fill these gaps in the literature by examining multiple indices of dispersion in a longitudinal clinical sample of individuals diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) at baseline.

METHOD

Two hundred thirty-eight MCI patients from a cognitive disorders clinic underwent testing at baseline and after approximately 1.5 years. Linear regression was used to examine whether baseline across- and within-domain dispersion predicted cognitive decline in individuals whose diagnostic classification progressed to dementia (i.e., MCI-Decline) and those who retained an MCI diagnosis at follow-up (i.e., MCI-Stable). Cognitive decline was operationalized dichotomously using group status and continuously using standardized regression-based (SRB) z-scores.

RESULTS

Dispersion variables at baseline and follow-up were positively correlated in both groups, with the exception of within-domain executive functioning and language dispersion in the MCI-Decline group. None of the dispersion variables predicted diagnostic conversion to MCI. Using SRB z-scores, greater across-domain dispersion predicted greater overall cognitive decline at follow-up, but this was not the case for within-domain variables with the exception of visuospatial skills.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that across- and within-domain dispersion are relatively stable across time, and that across-domain dispersion is predictive of subtle cognitive decline in patients with MCI. However, these results also highlight that findings may differ based on the tests included in dispersion calculations.

Does cognitive intra-individual variability predict change in everyday functioning performance in women with and without HIV in the Women's Interagency HIV Study?

This study examined the association between cognitive intra-individual variability (IIV), a non-mean-based indicator of underlying neuropathology, and self-reported everyday functioning of 1,086 women with HIV (WWH) and 494 socio-demographically similar women without HIV (WWoH). Objective cognitive performance across seven domains and the self-rated Lawton & Brody scale of Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) were assessed among participants of the Women's Interagency HIV Study. Two types of cognitive IIV were calculated by taking the standard deviation across seven cognitive domains to calculate dispersion: 1) intra-individual standard deviation (denoted as sdIIV) and 2) coefficient of variation (denoted as covIIV). To account for the longitudinal nature of the data, generalized linear mixed effect models were conducted to examine associations between the dispersion coefficient of cognitive IIV (predictor (sdIIV and covIV)) and functional outcomes (item level scores). Models were conducted in the overall sample (WWH + WWoH), WWH only, virally suppressed (VS)-WWH, and WWoH. sdIIV and covIIV were not associated with any of the IADL items among WWoH but were for WWH and VS-WWH. In WWH covIIV was predictive of poorer functional performance on twice as many IADL items (10 items-money and bills, buying groceries, getting where you need to go, using the phone, home repairs, dressing, laundry, taking/keeping track of medications, taking care of children, work) than sdIIV (5 items). In this study, cognitive IIV predicts functional impairment and different calculations of IIV produce differential predictive value, especially for WWH.

Cognitive Intra-individual Variability in Cognitively Healthy APOE ε4 Carriers, Mild Cognitive Impairment, and Alzheimer's Disease: a Meta-analysis

Intra-individual variability (IIV) quantifies an individual's scatter in performances across a test battery (dispersion) or across reaction times within a single task (consistency). No studies have meta-analyzed the cross-sectional IIV literature in those with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's dementia (AD). An additional aim of this meta-analysis was to examine IIV in APOE ε4 + healthy control (HC) samples. A systematic search strategy was applied to six databases (Academic Search Complete, PsycINFO, MEDLINE, CINAHL Complete, ERIC, and ProQuest Dissertations & Theses) to identify studies comparing the extent of dispersion- and consistency-based cognitive IIV between clinical (MCI, AD) and HC samples. Thirty-five studies met the inclusion criteria for our random-effects cross-sectional meta-analysis. Hedges' g was used to aggregate between-group effect sizes, with higher positive values indicating clinical > HC IIV. Meta-regression and subgroup-analyses were conducted to evaluate continuous and categorical moderator variables, respectively. Omnibus models yielded analogous moderate-strength, albeit heterogeneous, effects for dispersion and consistency (g = 0.65). Clinical severity was a robust moderator of dispersion (MCI = 0.47, AD = 1.16) and consistency (MCI = 0.51, AD = 1.31) effects. Supplemental analysis of APOE ε4 status in HCs revealed a nonsignificant trend of elevated overall (i.e., dispersion + consistency) IIV in APOE ε4 + vs. APOE ε4 - HC samples (g = 0.24). Cognitive IIV is sensitive to the presence of AD-related genetic risk as well as neurocognitive impairment across the neurocognitive disorder severity spectrum, with a graded-pattern of HC < MCI < AD samples.

Development and Validity of Norms for Cognitive Dispersion on the Uniform Data Set 3.0 Neuropsychological Battery

OBJECTIVE

Cognitive dispersion indexes intraindividual variability in performance across a battery of neuropsychological tests. Measures of dispersion show promise as markers of cognitive dyscontrol and everyday functioning difficulties; however, they have limited practical applicability due to a lack of normative data. This study aimed to develop and evaluate normed scores for cognitive dispersion among older adults.

METHOD

We analyzed data from 4,283 cognitively normal participants aged ≥50 years from the Uniform Data Set (UDS) 3.0. We describe methods for calculating intraindividual standard deviation (ISD) and coefficient of variation (CoV), as well as associated unadjusted scaled scores and demographically adjusted z-scores. We also examined the ability of ISD and CoV scores to differentiate between cognitively normal individuals (n = 4,283) and those with cognitive impairment due to Lewy body disease (n = 282).

RESULTS

We generated normative tables to map raw ISD and CoV scores onto a normal distribution of scaled scores. Cognitive dispersion indices were associated with age, education, and race/ethnicity but not sex. Regression equations were used to develop a freely accessible Excel calculator for deriving demographically adjusted normed scores for ISD and CoV. All measures of dispersion demonstrated excellent diagnostic utility when evaluated by the area under the curve produced from receiver operating characteristic curves.

CONCLUSIONS

Results of this study provide evidence for the clinical utility of sample-based and demographically adjusted normative standards for cognitive dispersion on the UDS 3.0. These standards can be used to guide interpretation of intraindividual variability among older adults in clinical and research settings.

Does neuropsychological intraindividual variability index cognitive dysfunction, an invalid presentation, or both? Preliminary findings from a mixed clinical older adult veteran sample

INTRODUCTION

Intraindividual variability across a battery of neuropsychological tests (IIV-dispersion) can reflect normal variation in scores or arise from cognitive impairment. An alternate interpretation is IIV-dispersion reflects reduced engagement/invalid test data, although extant research addressing this interpretation is significantly limited.

METHOD

We used a sample of 97 older adult (mean age: 69.92), predominantly White (57%) or Black/African American (34%), and predominantly cis-gender male (87%) veterans. Examinees completed a comprehensive neuropsychological battery, including measures of reduced engagement/invalid test data (a symptom validity test [SVT], multiple performance validity tests [PVTs]), as part of a clinical evaluation. IIV-dispersion was indexed using the coefficient of variance (CoV). We tested 1) the relationships of raw scores and "failures" on SVT/PVTs with IIV-dispersion, 2) the relationship between IIV-dispersion and validity/neurocognitive disorder status, and 3) whether IIV-dispersion discriminated the validity/neurocognitive disorder groups using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves.

RESULTS

IIV-dispersion was significantly and independently associated with a selection of PVTs, with small to very large effect sizes. Participants with invalid profiles and cognitively impaired participants with valid profiles exhibited medium to large (d = .55-1.09) elevations in IIV-dispersion compared to cognitively unimpaired participants with valid profiles. A non-significant but small to medium (d = .35-.60) elevation in IIV-dispersion was observed for participants with invalid profiles compared to those with a neurocognitive disorder. IIV-dispersion was largely accurate at differentiating participants without a neurocognitive disorder from invalid participants and those with a neurocognitive disorder (areas under the Curve [AUCs]=.69-.83), while accuracy was low for differentiating invalid participants from those with a neurocognitive disorder (AUCs=.58-.65).

CONCLUSIONS

These preliminary data suggest IIV-dispersion may be sensitive to both neurocognitive disorders and compromised engagement. Clinicians and researchers should exercise due diligence and consider test validity (e.g. PVTs, behavioral signs of engagement) as an alternate explanation prior to interpretation of intraindividual variability as an indicator of cognitive impairment.

Within-Person Test Score Distributions: How Typical Is "Normal"?

We evaluated within-person variability across a cognitive test battery by analyzing the shape of the distribution of each individual's scores within a battery of tests. We hypothesized that most healthy adults would produce test scores that are normally distributed around their own personal battery-wide, within-person (wp) mean. Using cross-sectional data from 327 neurologically healthy adults, we computed each person's mean, standard deviation, skew, and kurtosis for 30 neuropsychological measures. Raw scores were converted to T-scores using three degrees of calibration: (a) none, (b) age, and (c) age, sex, race, education, and estimated premorbid IQ. Regardless of calibration, no participant showed abnormal within-person skew (wpskew) and only 10 (3.1%) to 16 (4.9%) showed wpkurtosis greater than 2. If replicated in other samples and measures, these findings could illuminate how healthy individuals are endowed with different cognitive abilities and provide the foundation for a new method of inference in clinical neuropsychology.

Interplay of physical and recognition performance using hierarchical continuous-time dynamic modeling and a dual-task training regime in Alzheimer's patients

Training studies typically investigate the cumulative rather than the analytically challenging immediate effect of exercise on cognitive outcomes. We investigated the dynamic interplay between single-session exercise intensity and time-locked recognition speed-accuracy scores in older adults with Alzheimer's dementia (N = 17) undergoing a 24-week dual-task regime. We specified a state-of-the-art hierarchical Bayesian continuous-time dynamic model with fully connected state variables to analyze the bi-directional effects between physical and recognition scores over time. Higher physical performance was dynamically linked to improved recognition (-1.335, SD = 0.201, 95% Bayesian credible interval [BCI] [-1.725, -0.954]). The effect was short-term, lasting up to 5 days (-0.368, SD = 0.05, 95% BCI [-0.479, -0.266]). Clinical scores supported the validity of the model and observed temporal dynamics. Higher physical performance predicted improved recognition speed accuracy in a day-by-day manner, providing a proof-of-concept for the feasibility of linking exercise training and recognition in patients with Alzheimer's dementia.

Highlights

Hierarchical Bayesian continuous-time dynamic modeling approachA total of 72 repeated physical exercise (PP) and integrated recognition speed-accuracy (IRSA) measurementsPP is dynamically linked to session-to-session variability of IRSAHigher PP improved IRSA in subsequent sessions in subjects with Alzheimer's dementiaShort-term effect: lasting up to 4 days after training session.

Toward a cross-cultural understanding of intraindividual variability metrics

OBJECTIVE

Compare the construct validity and predictive utility of cognitive intraindividual variability (IIV) in a sample of community-dwelling Hispanic and non-Hispanic white (NHW) older adults.

METHODS

The present study included annual data from 651 older adult control participants (Hispanic = 293; NHW = 358) enrolled in the Texas Alzheimer's Research and Care Consortium for at least 5 years. Mean composite z-scores were calculated for attention, language, memory, and executive domains. IIV was calculated as was the standard deviation both within (IIV-Within) and between (IIV-Between) these domains.

RESULTS

At baseline, NHW individuals obtained significantly higher mean scores in each domain than their Hispanic counterparts. They also showed significantly greater variability within and between domains, except for IIV-Within the language domain which was significantly larger in the Hispanic group. IIV-Between domains was driven primarily by IIV-Within the executive function domain in the NHW cohort and by IIV-Within the language domain in the Hispanic cohort. In both groups, the addition of IIV-Within and IIV-Between cognitive domains at baseline significantly improved prediction of global cognitive status after 5 years above and beyond demographic characteristics, genetic and cardiovascular risk. However, IIV-Between domains was the strongest predictor in the NHW group, while IIV-Within the attention domain was the strongest predictor in the Hispanic group.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that, while IIV-Between domains is a promising adjunctive method for predicting future cognitive decline, its construct validity and predictive utility varies based on ethnic group.

Differential sensitivity of intraindividual variability dispersion and global cognition in the prediction of functional outcomes and mortality in precariously housed and homeless adults

OBJECTIVE

To examine cognitive intraindividual variability (IIV) dispersion as a predictor of everyday functioning and mortality in persons who are homeless or precariously housed.

METHOD

Participants were 407 community-dwelling adults, followed for up to 13 years. Neurocognition was assessed at baseline and IIV dispersion was derived using a battery of standardized tests. Functional outcomes (social, physical) were obtained at baseline and last follow-up. Mortality was confirmed with Coroner's reports and hospital records (N  = 103 deaths). Linear regressions were used to predict current social and physical functioning from IIV dispersion. Repeated measures Analysis of Covariance were used to predict long-term change in functioning. Cox regression models examined the relation between IIV dispersion and mortality. Covariates included global cognition (i.e. mean-level performance), age, education, and physical comorbidities.

RESULTS

Higher IIV dispersion predicted poorer current physical functioning (B = -0.46 p = .010), while higher global cognition predicted better current (B  = 0.21, p = .015) and change in social functioning over a period of up to 13 years (F  = 4.23, p = .040). Global cognition, but not IIV dispersion, predicted mortality in individuals under 55 years old (HR = 0.50, p = .013).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that indices of neurocognitive functioning (i.e. IIV dispersion and global cognition) may be differentially related to discrete dimensions of functional outcomes in an at-risk population. IIV dispersion may be a complimentary marker of emergent physical health dysfunction in precariously housed adults and may be best used in conjunction with traditional neuropsychological indices.

Cognitive dispersion is related to subtle objective daily functioning changes in older adults with and without cognitive impairment

Early detection of cognitive and functional decline is difficult given that current tools are insensitive to subtle changes. The present study evaluated whether cognitive dispersion on neuropsychological testing improved prediction of objectively assessed daily functioning using unobtrusive monitoring technologies. Hierarchical linear regression was used to evaluate whether cognitive dispersion added incremental information beyond mean neuropsychological performance in the prediction of objectively assessed IADLs (i.e., computer use, pillbox use, driving) in a sample of 104 community-dwelling older adults without dementia (Mage = 74.59, 38.5% Female, 90.4% White). Adjusting for age, sex, education, and mean global cognitive performance, cognitive dispersion improved prediction of average daily computer use duration (R2 Δ = 0.100, F Change, p = 0.005), computer use duration variability (R2 Δ = 0.089, F Change p = 0.009), and average daily duration of nighttime driving (R2 Δ = 0.072, F Change p = 0.013). These results suggest cognitive dispersion may improve prediction of objectively assessed functional changes in older adults without dementia.

Ecological validity of cognitive fluctuations in dementia with Lewy bodies

OBJECTIVES

Cognitive fluctuations are a core clinical feature of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), but their contribution to the everyday functioning difficulties evident DLB are not well understood. The current study evaluated whether intraindividual variability across a battery of neurocognitive tests (intraindividual variability-dispersion) and daily cognitive fluctuations as measured by informant report are associated with worse daily functioning in DLB.

METHODS

The study sample included 97 participants with consensus-defined DLB from the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center (NACC). Intraindividual variability-dispersion was measured using the coefficient of variation, which divides the standard deviation of an individual's performance scores across 12 normed neurocognitive indices from the NACC neuropsychological battery by that individual's performance mean. Informants reported on daily cognitive fluctuations using the Mayo Fluctuations Scale (MFS) and on daily functioning using the functional activities questionnaire (FAQ).

RESULTS

Logistic regression identified a large univariate association of intraindividual variability-dispersion and presence of daily cognitive fluctuations on the MFS (Odds Ratio = 73.27, 95% Confidence Interval = 1.38, 3,895.05). Multiple linear regression demonstrated that higher intraindividual variability-dispersion and presence of daily cognitive fluctuations as assessed by the MFS were significantly and independently related to worse daily functioning (FAQ scores).

CONCLUSIONS

Among those with DLB, informant-rated daily cognitive fluctuations and cognitive fluctuations measured in the clinic (as indexed by intraindividual variability-dispersion across a battery of tests) were independently associated with poorer everyday functioning. These data demonstrate ecological validity in measures of cognitive fluctuations in DLB.

Geroscience-Centric Perspective for Geriatric Psychiatry: Integrating Aging Biology With Geriatric Mental Health Research

The geroscience hypothesis asserts that physiological aging is caused by a small number of biological pathways. Despite the explosion of geroscience research over the past couple of decades, the research on how serious mental illnesses (SMI) affects the biological aging processes is still in its infancy. In this review, we aim to provide a critical appraisal of the emerging literature focusing on how we measure biological aging systematically, and in the brain and how SMIs affect biological aging measures in older adults. We will also review recent developments in the field of cellular senescence and potential targets for interventions for SMIs in older adults, based on the geroscience hypothesis.

Baseline Differences in Driving Frequency as a Predictor of Cognitive Decline and Alzheimer's Disease

OBJECTIVE

To extend prior research by examining daily driving frequency as a predictor of cognitive decline and later diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease.

METHODS

1,426 older adults completed batteries of questionnaires and neuropsychological tests at baseline and yearly follow-ups (M = 6.8, SD = 4.9). Linear mixed effects models were estimated to examine whether daily driving frequency at baseline was predictive of cognitive decline while accounting for IADLs, mobility, depression, and demographics. Cox regression was used to examine driving frequency as a predictor of Alzheimer's disease diagnosis.

RESULTS

Less daily driving frequency was associated with greater decline in all cognitive domains over time except for working memory. Although driving frequency was associated with these changes in cognition, it did not uniquely predict the development of Alzheimer's disease when accounting for other factors (eg, other IADLs).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings extend prior research linking driving cessation to greater levels of cognitive decline. Future work might benefit from examining the utility of driving habits (especially changes in driving) as measures of everyday functioning in older adult evaluations.

Intraindividual variability measured with dispersion across diagnostic groups in a memory clinic sample

Increased intraindividual variability (IIV) has been linked to outcomes such as cognitive decline and dementia, suggesting IIV might add valuable diagnostic information beyond traditional neuropsychological interpretation. We explored whether a subtype of IIV, dispersion, can provide additional information for dementia diagnosis. In a sample of memory clinic patients, three cognitive status groups were identified: subjective cognitive impairment (SCI; n = 85), amnestic mild cognitive impairment (a-MCI; n = 16), and dementia due to Alzheimer's disease (AD; n = 48). Dispersion was computed as intraindividual standard deviations across multiple neuropsychological measures within three cognitive domains (executive functioning; immediate and delayed memory) and was compared for each diagnostic group using profile analysis. Patients with AD and a-MCI demonstrated less dispersion than patients with SCI in delayed memory. Results support existing theoretic perspectives on cognitive variability and age-related cognitive decline but suggest floor effects underlie suppression of dispersion in amnestic cognitive presentations. Questions remain about the contribution of IIV beyond impressions of impairment versus no impairment in these constrained representations of cognitive domains. Future investigations should investigate variability in SCI groups against controls to examine whether observed dispersion similarities between SCI and a-MCI or AD in immediate memory and executive functioning are meaningful.

Regional White Matter Hyperintensities Relate to Specific Cognitive Abilities in Older Adults Without Dementia

INTRODUCTION

White matter hyperintensities (WMHs) are magnetic resonance imaging markers of small vessel cerebrovascular disease that are associated with cognitive decline and clinical Alzheimer disease. Previous studies have often focused on global or total WMH; less is known about associations of regional WMHs and cognitive abilities among older adults without dementia.

METHODS

A total of 610 older adults with normal cognition (n=302) or mild cognitive impairment (n=308) from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative underwent neuropsychological testing and magnetic resonance imaging. Linear regression models examined associations between regional WMH volumes and cognition, adjusting for age, sex, education, apolipoprotein E ε4 allele frequency, and pulse pressure.

RESULTS

Among all participants, greater regional WMH volume in all lobes was associated with poorer performance on memory and speed/executive functioning. Among participants with normal cognition, greater temporal and occipital WMH volumes were associated with poorer memory, whereas no regional WMH volumes were associated with speed/executive function.

DISCUSSION

Results show that greater regional WMH volume relates to poorer cognitive functioning-even among those with normal cognition. Together with results from previous studies, our findings raise the possibility that WMH may be a useful therapeutic target and/or important effect modifier in treatment or prevention dementia trials.

Association Between Neuropsychological Functions and Activities of Daily Living in People with Mild Cognitive Impairment

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between performance in neurocognitive variables and daily functioning (basic or b- and instrumental or i-ADL) in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI).

METHODS

A sample of 157 participants with MCI (73.65 ± 7.58 years) completed a battery of tests for assessing ADL and cognitive functions. t-test, Pearson's correlation and multiple linear regression (backward stepwise selection) were used for data analyses.

RESULTS

Significant correlations were found between b- and i-ADL, and several neuropsychological tests (p < .01). Multivariate analysis showed that difficulties in Blessed Rating Scales (BLS) explained 33.2% of the variation in b-ADL and that this variation rises to 42.9% when BLS is associated with Frontal Assessment Battery Flexibility, Trail Making Test A (TMT-A) and BLS Personality. For i-ADL, BLS and Dementia Rating Scale Total (DRS-T) explained 47.7% of the variation and the inclusion in the model of BLS, DRS-IP (Initiation/Perseveration), TMT-A and BLS Personality explained 53.5% of this variation. Executive functions explained 24.8% of the variation in i-ADL.

CONCLUSIONS

Cognitive functions are related to i- and b-ADL in people with MCI. The general indicators and those that assess executive functions and verbal- or visual-spatial memory should be considered to predict i-ADL.

Adherence type impacts completion rates of frequent mobile cognitive assessments among older adults with and without cognitive impairment

Background

Prior to a diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease, many individuals experience cognitive and behavioral fluctuations that are not detected during a single session of traditional neuropsychological assessment. Mobile applications now enable high-frequency cognitive data to be collected remotely, introducing new opportunities and challenges. Emerging evidence suggests cognitively impaired older adults are capable of completing mobile assessments frequently, but no study has observed whether completion rates vary by assessment frequency or adherence type.

Methods

Thirty-three older adults were recruited from the Boston University Alzheimer's Disease Research Center (mean age = 73.5 years; 27.3% cognitively impaired; 57.6% female; 81.8% White, 18.2% Black). Participants remotely downloaded and completed the DANA Brain Vital application on their own mobile devices throughout the study. The study schedule included seventeen assessments to be completed over the course of a year. Specific periods during which assessments were expected to be completed were defined as subsegments, while segments consisted of multiple subsegments. The first segment included three subsegments to be completed within one week, the second segment included weekly subsegments and spanned three weeks, and the third and fourth segments included monthly subsegments spanning five and six months, respectively. Three distinct adherence types - subsegment adherence, segment adherence, and cumulative adherence - were examined to determine how completion rates varied depending on assessment frequency and adherence type.

Results

Adherence type significantly impacted whether the completion rates declined. When utilizing subsegment adherence, the completion rate significantly declined (p = 0.05) during the fourth segment. However, when considering completion rates from the perspective of segment adherence, a decline in completion rate was not observed. Overall adherence rates increased as adherence parameters were broadened from subsegment adherence (60.6%) to segment adherence (78.8%), to cumulative adherence (90.9%).

Conclusions

Older adults, including those with cognitive impairment, are able to complete remote cognitive assessments at a high-frequency, but may not necessarily adhere to prescribed schedules.

Cognitive dispersion is elevated in amyloid-positive older adults and associated with regional hypoperfusion

OBJECTIVE

Cognitive dispersion across neuropsychological measures within a single testing session is a promising marker predictive of cognitive decline and development of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, little is known regarding brain changes underlying cognitive dispersion, and the association of cognitive dispersion with in vivo AD biomarkers and regional cerebral blood flow (CBF) has received limited study. We therefore examined associations among cognitive dispersion, amyloid-beta (Aβ) positivity, and regional CBF among older adults free of dementia.

METHOD

One hundred and forty-eight Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) participants underwent neuropsychological testing and neuroimaging. Pulsed arterial spin labeling (ASL) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was acquired to quantify CBF. Florbetapir positron emission tomography (PET) imaging determined Aβ positivity.

RESULTS

Adjusting for age, gender, education, and mean cognitive performance, older adults who were Aβ+ showed higher cognitive dispersion relative to those who were Aβ-. Across the entire sample, higher cognitive dispersion was associated with reduced CBF in inferior parietal and temporal regions. Secondary analyses stratified by Aβ status demonstrated that higher cognitive dispersion was associated with reduced CBF among Aβ+ individuals but not among those who were Aβ-.

CONCLUSIONS

Cognitive dispersion may be sensitive to early Aβ accumulation and cerebrovascular changes adjusting for demographics and mean neuropsychological performance. Associations between cognitive dispersion and CBF were observed among Aβ+ individuals, suggesting that cognitive dispersion may be a marker of brain changes among individuals on the AD continuum. Future studies should examine whether cognitive dispersion predicts brain changes in diverse samples and among those with greater vascular risk burden.

Accurate Prediction of Momentary Cognition From Intensive Longitudinal Data

BACKGROUND

Deficits in cognitive performance are implicated in the development and maintenance of psychopathology. Emerging evidence further suggests that within-person fluctuations in cognitive performance may represent sensitive early markers of neuropsychiatric decline. Incorporating routine cognitive assessments into standard clinical care-to identify between-person differences and monitor within-person fluctuations-has the potential to improve diagnostic screening and treatment planning. In support of these goals, it is critical to understand to what extent cognitive performance varies under routine, remote assessment conditions (i.e., momentary cognition) in relation to a wide range of possible predictors.

METHODS

Using data-driven, high-dimensional methods, we ranked strong predictors of momentary cognition and evaluated out-of-sample predictive accuracy. Our approach leveraged innovations in digital technology, including ambulatory assessment of cognition and behavior 1) at scale (n = 122 participants, n = 94 females), 2) in naturalistic environments, and 3) within an intensive longitudinal study design (mean = 25.5 assessments/participant).

RESULTS

Reaction time (R2 > 0.70) and accuracy (0.56 >R2 > 0.35) were strongly predicted by age, between-person differences in mean performance, and time of day. Effects of self-reported, intraindividual fluctuations in environmental (e.g., noise) and internal (e.g., stress) states were also observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results provide robust estimates of effect size to characterize sources of cognitive variability, to support the identification of optimal windows for psychosocial interventions, and to possibly inform clinical evaluation under remote neuropsychological assessment conditions.

Moving intra-individual variability (IIV) towards clinical utility: IIV measured using a commercial testing platform

OBJECTIVES

Intra-individual variability (IIV), measured across repeated response times (RT) during continuous psychomotor tasks, is an early marker of cognitive change in the context of neurodegeneration. To advance IIV towards broader application in clinical research, we evaluated IIV from a commercial cognitive testing platform and compared it to the calculation approaches used in experimental cognitive studies.

METHODS

Cognitive assessment was administered in participants with multiple sclerosis (MS) during the baseline of an unrelated study. Cogstate was used for computer-based measures providing three timed-trial tasks measuring simple (Detection; DET) and choice (Identification; IDN) RT and working memory (One-Back; ONB). IIV for each task was automatically output by the program (calculated as a log10-transformed standard deviation or "LSD"). We calculated IIV from the raw RTs using coefficient of variation (CoV), regression-based, and ex-Gaussian methods. The IIV from each calculation was then compared by rank across participants.

RESULTS

A total of n = 120 participants with MS aged 20-72 (Mean ± SD, 48.99 ± 12.09) completed the baseline cognitive measures. For each task, the interclass correlation coefficient was generated. Each ICC showed that LSD, CoV, ex-Gaussian, and regression methods clustered strongly (Average ICC for DET: 0.95 with 95% CI [0.93, 0.96]; Average ICC for IDN: 0.92 with 95% CI [0.88 to 0.93]; Average ICC for ONB: 0.93 with 95% CI [0.90 to 0.94]). Correlational analyses indicated the strongest correlation between LSD and CoV for all tasks (rs ≥ 0.94).

CONCLUSION

The LSD was consistent with research-based methods for IIV calculations. These findings support the use of LSD for the future measurement of IIV for clinical studies.

Intraindividual Cognitive Variability and Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Aging American Indians: Data from the Strong Heart Study

BACKGROUND

American Indians have high prevalence of risk factors for Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD) compared to the general population, yet dementia onset and frequency in this population are understudied. Intraindividual cognitive variability (IICV), a measure of variability in neuropsychological test performance within a person at a single timepoint, may be a novel, noninvasive biomarker of neurodegeneration and early dementia.

OBJECTIVE

To characterize the cross-sectional associations between IICV and hippocampal, total brain volume, and white matter disease measured by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) among older American Indians.

METHODS

IICV measures for memory, executive function, and processing speed, and multidomain cognition were calculated for 746 American Indians (aged 64-95) who underwent MRI. Regression models were used to examine the associations of IICV score with hippocampal volume, total brain volume, and graded white matter disease, adjusting for age, sex, education, body mass index, intracranial volume, diabetes, stroke, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, alcohol use, and smoking.

RESULTS

Higher memory IICV measure was associated with lower hippocampal volume (Beta = -0.076; 95% CI -0.499, -0.023; p = 0.031). After adjustment for Bonferroni or IICV mean scores in the same tests, the associations were no longer significant. No IICV measures were associated with white matter disease or total brain volume.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that the IICV measures used in this research cannot be robustly associated with cross-sectional neuroimaging features; nonetheless, the results encourage future studies investigating the associations between IICV and other brain regions, as well as its utility in the prediction of neurodegeneration and dementia in American Indians.

Differentiation of Subjective Cognitive Decline, Mild Cognitive Impairment, and Dementia Using qEEG/ERP-Based Cognitive Testing and Volumetric MRI in an Outpatient Specialty Memory Clinic

BACKGROUND

Distinguishing between subjective cognitive decline (SCD), mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and dementia in a scalable, accessible way is important to promote earlier detection and intervention.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated diagnostic categorization using an FDA-cleared quantitative electroencephalographic/event-related potential (qEEG/ERP)-based cognitive testing system (eVox® by Evoke Neuroscience) combined with an automated volumetric magnetic resonance imaging (vMRI) tool (Neuroreader® by Brainreader).

METHODS

Patients who self-presented with memory complaints were assigned to a diagnostic category by dementia specialists based on clinical history, neurologic exam, neuropsychological testing, and laboratory results. In addition, qEEG/ERP (n = 161) and quantitative vMRI (n = 111) data were obtained. A multinomial logistic regression model was used to determine significant predictors of cognitive diagnostic category (SCD, MCI, or dementia) using all available qEEG/ERP features and MRI volumes as the independent variables and controlling for demographic variables. Area under the Receiver Operating Characteristic curve (AUC) was used to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of the prediction models.

RESULTS

The qEEG/ERP measures of Reaction Time, Commission Errors, and P300b Amplitude were significant predictors (AUC = 0.79) of cognitive category. Diagnostic accuracy increased when volumetric MRI measures, specifically left temporal lobe volume, were added to the model (AUC = 0.87).

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates the potential of a primarily physiological diagnostic model for differentiating SCD, MCI, and dementia using qEEG/ERP-based cognitive testing, especially when combined with volumetric brain MRI. The accessibility of qEEG/ERP and vMRI means that these tools can be used as adjuncts to clinical assessments to help increase the diagnostic certainty of SCD, MCI, and dementia.

Cognitive Intra-individual Variability in HIV: an Integrative Review

Nearly 30-50% of people living with HIV experience HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorder (HAND). HAND indicates performance at least one standard deviation below the normative mean on any two cognitive domains. This method for diagnosing or classifying cognitive impairment has utility, however, cognitive intraindividual variability provides a different way to understand cognitive impairment. Cognitive intraindividual variability refers to the scatter in cognitive performance within repeated measures of the same cognitive test (i.e., inconsistency) or across different cognitive tests (i.e., dispersion). Cognitive intraindividual variability is associated with cognitive impairment and cognitive decline in various clinical populations. This integrative review of 13 articles examined two types of cognitive intraindividual variability in people living with HIV, inconsistency and dispersion. Cognitive intraindividual variability appears to be a promising approach to detect subtle cognitive impairments that are not captured by traditional mean-based neuropsychological testing. Greater intraindividual variability in people living with HIV has been associated with: 1) poorer cognitive performance and cognitive decline, 2) cortical atrophy, both gray and white matter volume, 3) poorer everyday functioning (i.e., driving simulation performance), specifically medication adherence, and 4) even mortality. This inspires future directions for research. First, greater cognitive intraindividual variability may reflect a greater task demand on executive control to harness and regulate cognitive control over time. By improving executive functioning through cognitive training, it may reduce cognitive intraindividual variability which could slow down cognitive decline. Second, cognitive intraindividual variability may be reconsidered in prior cognitive intervention studies in which only mean-based cognitive outcomes were used. It is possible that such cognitive interventions may actually improve cognitive intraindividual variability, which could have clinical relevance.

Capturing Cognitive Aging in Vivo: Application of a Neuropsychological Framework for Emerging Digital Tools

As the global burden of dementia continues to plague our healthcare systems, efficient, objective, and sensitive tools to detect neurodegenerative disease and capture meaningful changes in everyday cognition are increasingly needed. Emerging digital tools present a promising option to address many drawbacks of current approaches, with contexts of use that include early detection, risk stratification, prognosis, and outcome measurement. However, conceptual models to guide hypotheses and interpretation of results from digital tools are lacking and are needed to sort and organize the large amount of continuous data from a variety of sensors. In this viewpoint, we propose a neuropsychological framework for use alongside a key emerging approach-digital phenotyping. The Variability in Everyday Behavior (VIBE) model is rooted in established trends from the neuropsychology, neurology, rehabilitation psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and computer science literature and links patterns of intraindividual variability, cognitive abilities, and everyday functioning across clinical stages from healthy to dementia. Based on the VIBE model, we present testable hypotheses to guide the design and interpretation of digital phenotyping studies that capture everyday cognition in vivo. We conclude with methodological considerations and future directions regarding the application of the digital phenotyping approach to improve the efficiency, accessibility, accuracy, and ecological validity of cognitive assessment in older adults.

Longitudinal Intraindividual Cognitive Variability Is Associated With Reduction in Regional Cerebral Blood Flow Among Alzheimer's Disease Biomarker-Positive Older Adults

Intraindividual variability (IIV) across neuropsychological measures within a single testing session is a promising marker predictive of cognitive decline and development of Alzheimer's disease (AD). We have previously shown that greater IIV is cross-sectionally associated with reduced cerebral blood flow (CBF), but not with cortical thickness or brain volume, in older adults without dementia who were amyloid beta (Aβ) positive. However, there is little known about the association between change in IIV and CBF over time. Therefore, we examined 12-month longitudinal change in IIV and interactions of IIV and AD biomarker status on changes in regional CBF. Fifty-three non-demented Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) participants underwent lumbar puncture to obtain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) at baseline and neuropsychological testing and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) exams at baseline and 12-month follow-up evaluation. IIV was calculated as the intraindividual standard deviation across 6 demographically-corrected neuropsychological measures. Pulsed arterial spin labeling (ASL) MRI was acquired to quantify CBF and FreeSurfer-derived a priori CBF regions of interest (ROIs) were examined. AD biomarker positivity was determined using a published CSF p-tau/Aβ ratio cut-score. Change scores were calculated for IIV, CBF, and mean neuropsychological performance from baseline to 12 months. Hierarchical linear regression models showed that after adjusting for age and gender, there was a significant interaction between IIV change and biomarker-positivity (p-tau/Aβ+) for change in entorhinal and hippocampal CBF but not for the other ROIs. Specifically, increases in IIV were associated with reductions in entorhinal and hippocampal CBF among individuals who were biomarker-positive (n = 21). In contrast, there were no significant associations between change in IIV and CBF among those who were biomarker-negative (n = 32). Findings remained similar when analyses were performed adjusting for change in mean level of neuropsychological performance. Changes in IIV may be sensitive to changes in regional hypoperfusion in AD-vulnerable regions among AD biomarker-positive individuals, above and beyond demographics and mean neuropsychological performance. These findings provide further evidence supporting IIV as a potential marker of cerebrovascular brain changes in individuals at risk for dementia.

Using the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative to improve early detection, diagnosis, and treatment of Alzheimer's disease

INTRODUCTION

The Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) has accumulated 15 years of clinical, neuroimaging, cognitive, biofluid biomarker and genetic data, and biofluid samples available to researchers, resulting in more than 3500 publications. This review covers studies from 2018 to 2020.

METHODS

We identified 1442 publications using ADNI data by conventional search methods and selected impactful studies for inclusion.

RESULTS

Disease progression studies supported pivotal roles for regional amyloid beta (Aβ) and tau deposition, and identified underlying genetic contributions to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Vascular disease, immune response, inflammation, resilience, and sex modulated disease course. Biologically coherent subgroups were identified at all clinical stages. Practical algorithms and methodological changes improved determination of Aβ status. Plasma Aβ, phosphorylated tau181, and neurofilament light were promising noninvasive biomarkers. Prognostic and diagnostic models were externally validated in ADNI but studies are limited by lack of ethnocultural cohort diversity.

DISCUSSION

ADNI has had a profound impact in improving clinical trials for AD.

Profiling Social Cognition in Premanifest Huntington's Disease

OBJECTIVE

Discrepancies exist in reports of social cognition deficits in individuals with premanifest Huntington's disease (HD); however, the reason for this variability has not been investigated. The aims of this study were to (1) evaluate group- and individual-level social cognitive performance and (2) examine intra-individual variability (dispersion) across social cognitive domains in individuals with premanifest HD.

METHOD

Theory of mind (ToM), social perception, empathy, and social connectedness were evaluated in 35 individuals with premanifest HD and 29 healthy controls. Cut-off values beneath the median and 1.5 × the interquartile range below the 25th percentile (P25 - 1.5 × IQR) of healthy controls for each variable were established for a profiling method. Dispersion between social cognitive domains was also calculated.

RESULTS

Compared to healthy controls, individuals with premanifest HD performed worse on all social cognitive domains except empathy. Application of the profiling method revealed a large proportion of people with premanifest HD fell below healthy control median values across ToM (>80%), social perception (>57%), empathy (>54%), and social behaviour (>40%), with a percentage of these individuals displaying more pronounced impairments in empathy (20%) and ToM (22%). Social cognition dispersion did not differ between groups. No significant correlations were found between social cognitive domains and mood, sleep, and neurocognitive outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant group-level social cognition deficits were observed in the premanifest HD cohort. However, our profiling method showed that only a small percentage of these individuals experienced marked difficulties in social cognition, indicating the importance of individual-level assessments, particularly regarding future personalised treatments.

Can Individualized-Targeted Computerized Cognitive Training Benefit Adults with HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorder? The Training on Purpose Study (TOPS)

Half of people with HIV (PWH) have HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND). This study examined whether cognition can be improved using a framework targeting impaired individual cognitive domains in PWH with HAND. In this two-group pre-post experimental design study, 88 adults with HAND were randomized to either: (1) a no-contact control group (n = 40) or (2) the Individualized-Targeted Cognitive Training group (n = 48). Baseline cognitive performance was assessed on eight cognitive domains. A theoretical framework was used to determine the two cognitive domains selected for training. With priority on speed of processing (SOP) and attention impairments, participants received SOP and/or attention training if such impairments were detected; if not, participants were assigned to cognitive training in one/two of the least impaired cognitive domains contributing to their HAND diagnosis. Global cognitive score was slightly improved following training (p = 0.256; d = - 0.21), but it was not significant. Significant improvements were observed on SOP following training in that domain (SOP; d = - 0.88; p = 0.011). SOP training also improved functioning in other cognitive domains. This individualized cognitive intervention did not change HAND status, but it did result in improved SOP, in turn yielding improvement in other cognitive domains.

Insight into intraindividual variability across neuropsychological tests and its association with cognitive dysfunction in patients with lupus

Objective

Dispersion, or variability in an individual’s performance across multiple tasks at a single assessment visit, has been associated with cognitive dysfunction (CD) in many neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders. We aimed to compute a dispersion score using neuropsychological battery (NB) tests and determine its association with CD in patients with SLE.

Methods

CD was defined as a z-score of ≤−1.5 on ≥2 domains of the NB. To compute a type of dispersion score known as the intraindividual SD (ISD), the SD of age-adjusted and sex-adjusted z-scores was calculated for each visit in each patient. To estimate the association between ISD and cognitive status (CD and non-CD), we used multilevel logistic regression, adjusting for clinically important covariates.

Results

A total of 301 adult patients with SLE completed the NB at baseline, 187 of whom were reassessed at 6 months and 189 at 12 months. CD was observed in 35.2% of patients at baseline, 27.8% at 6 months and 28.0% at 12 months. Prior to covariate adjustment, the mean ISD for non-CD was 1.10±0.31 compared with 1.50±0.70 for CD. After adjusting for ethnicity, education, employment, socioeconomic status and anxiety/depression, there was a statistically significant association between ISD and CD (OR for one-unit increase in ISD: 13.56, 95% CI 4.80 to 38.31; OR for 1/10th-unit increase in ISD: 1.30, 95% CI 1.17 to 1.44). Findings were valid across multiple sensitivity analyses.

Conclusion

This is the first study to show that patients with SLE who were classified as having CD by the NB had more variability across the NB tests (ie, higher ISD score) compared with those who were not classified as having CD.

Cognitive Dispersion Predicts Grip Strength Trajectories in Men but not Women in a Sample of the Oldest Old Without Dementia

Background and Objectives

Grip strength is a reliable marker of biological vitality and it typically demonstrates an expected decline in older adults. According to the common-cause hypothesis, there is also a significant association between cognitive and physical function in older adults. Some specific cognitive functions have been shown to be associated with grip strength trajectories with most research solely focused on cutoff points or mean cognitive performance. In the present study, we examine whether a measure of cognitive dispersion might be more informative. We therefore used an index that quantifies dispersion in cognitive scores across multiple cognitive tests, shown to be associated with detrimental outcomes in older adults.

Research Design and Methods

Using repeated grip strength measures from men and women aged 80 and older, free of dementia in the OCTO-Twin study, we estimated aging-related grip strength trajectories. We examined the association of cognitive dispersion and mean cognitive function with grip strength level and aging-related rate of change, accounting for known risk factors.

Results

Cognitive dispersion was associated with grip strength trajectories in men and the association varied by mean cognitive performance, whereas we found no association in women.

Discussion and Implications

Our results provide evidence of a sex-specific vitality association between cognitive dispersion and aging-related trajectories of grip strength. Our results support the call for integration of sex and gender in health promotion and intervention research.

Cognitive dispersion and ApoEe4 genotype predict dementia diagnosis in 8-year follow-up of the oldest-old

BACKGROUND

Cognitive dispersion, or inconsistencies in performance across cognitive domains, has been posited as a cost-effective tool to predict conversion to dementia in older adults. However, there is a dearth of studies exploring cognitive dispersion in the oldest-old (>80 years) and its relationship to dementia incidence.

OBJECTIVE

The main aim of this study was to examine whether higher cognitive dispersion at baseline was associated with dementia incidence within an 8-year follow-up of very old adults, while controlling for established risk factors and suggested protective factors for dementia.

METHODS

Participants (n = 468) were from the Origins of Variance in the Old-Old: Octogenarian Twins study, based on the Swedish Twin Registry. Cox regression analyses were performed to assess the association between baseline cognitive dispersion scores and dementia incidence, while controlling for sociodemographic variables, ApoEe4 carrier status, co-morbidities, zygosity and lifestyle engagement scores. An additional model included a composite of average cognitive performance.

RESULTS

Cognitive dispersion and ApoEe4 were significantly associated with dementia diagnosis. These variables remained statistically significant when global cognitive performance was entered into the model. Likelihood ratio tests revealed that cognitive dispersion and cognitive composite scores entered together in the same model was superior to either predictor alone in the full model.

CONCLUSIONS

The study underscores the usefulness of cognitive dispersion metrics for dementia prediction in the oldest-old and highlights the influence of ApoEe4 on cognition in very late age. Our findings concur with others suggesting that health and lifestyle factors pose little impact upon cognition in very advanced age.

Cognitive variability, brain aging, and cognitive decline in late-life major depression

OBJECTIVES

Older adults with late-life major depression (LLMD) are at increased risk of dementia. Dispersion, or within-person performance variability across cognitive tests, is a potential marker of cognitive decline. This study examined group differences in dispersion between LLMD and nondepressed healthy controls (HC) and investigated whether dispersion was a predictor of cognitive performance 1 year later in LLMD. We also explored demographic, clinical, and structural imaging correlates of dispersion in LLMD and HC. We hypothesized that dispersion would be greater in LLMD compared with HC and would be associated with worse cognitive performance 1 year later in LLMD.

DESIGN

Participants were enrolled in the Neurobiology of Late-Life Depression, a naturalistic longitudinal investigation of the predictors of poor illness course in LLMD.

PARTICIPANTS

The baseline sample consisted of 121 older adults with LLMD and 39 HC; of these subjects, 94 LLMD and 35 HC underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). One-year cognitive data were available for 107 LLMD patients.

MEASUREMENTS

All participants underwent detailed clinical and structural MRI at baseline. LLMD participants also completed a comprehensive cognitive evaluation 1 year later.

RESULTS

Higher test dispersion was evident in LLMD when compared with nondepressed controls. Greater baseline dispersion predicted 1-year cognitive decline in LLMD patients even when controlling for baseline cognitive functioning and demographic and clinical confounders. Dispersion was correlated with white matter lesions in LLMD but not HC. Dispersion was also correlated with anxiety in both LLMD and HC.

CONCLUSIONS

Dispersion is a marker of neurocognitive integrity that requires further exploration in LLMD.

Elevated Intraindividual Variability in Executive Functions and Associations with White Matter Microstructure in Veterans with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

OBJECTIVE

We examined whether intraindividual variability (IIV) across tests of executive functions (EF-IIV) is elevated in Veterans with a history of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) relative to military controls (MCs) without a history of mTBI. We also explored relationships among EF-IIV, white matter microstructure, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms.

METHOD

A total of 77 Veterans (mTBI = 43, MCs = 34) completed neuropsychological testing, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), and PTSD symptom ratings. EF-IIV was calculated as the standard deviation across six tests of EF, along with an EF-Mean composite. DSI Studio connectometry analysis identified white matter tracts significantly associated with EF-IIV according to generalized fractional anisotropy (GFA).

RESULTS

After adjusting for EF-Mean and PTSD symptoms, the mTBI group showed significantly higher EF-IIV than MCs. Groups did not differ on EF-Mean after adjusting for PTSD symptoms. Across groups, PTSD symptoms significantly negatively correlated with EF-Mean, but not with EF-IIV. EF-IIV significantly negatively correlated with GFA in multiple white matter pathways connecting frontal and more posterior regions.

CONCLUSIONS

Veterans with mTBI demonstrated significantly greater IIV across EF tests compared to MCs, even after adjusting for mean group differences on those measures as well as PTSD severity. Findings suggest that, in contrast to analyses that explore effects of mean performance across tests, discrepancy analyses may capture unique variance in neuropsychological performance and more sensitively capture cognitive disruption in Veterans with mTBI histories. Importantly, findings show that EF-IIV is negatively associated with the microstructure of white matter pathways interconnecting cortical regions that mediate executive function and attentional processes.

The relationship between neuropsychological dispersion, processing speed and memory after electrical injury

Introduction: Previous studies of neuropsychological performance in electrical injury (EI) patients have produced evidence of deficits in various cognitive domains, but studies have yet to investigate relationships among performance in cognitive domains post-EI. This study examined whether dispersion among neuropsychological test scores was associated with injury parameters and neuropsychological performance in EI patients. Additionally, we examined whether dispersion, processing speed and/or executive abilities explain variance in episodic verbal and visual memory performance among EI patients.Method: Data from 52 post-acute EI patients undergoing outpatient evaluation with objectively-verified valid neuropsychological test performance were examined. Tests included measures of verbal and visual memory, processing speed, and executive functioning. Dispersion was calculated from executive functioning and processing speed scores.Results: Dispersion was not related to mean performance or injury characteristics, but was significantly negatively correlated with performance on a test of processing speed, suggesting that increased dispersion is associated with reduced cognitive efficiency post-EI. Delayed visual memory was related to both dispersion scores and processing speed. Stepwise regression equations predicting delayed memory determined that processing speed most significantly predicted delayed visual memory, even after controlling for immediate visual memory. No significant relationships emerged between verbal memory and non-memory neuropsychological scores.Conclusions: This is the first study to examine neuropsychological dispersion and relationships among domains of cognitive functioning in EI. Current results suggested that neuropsychological dispersion is not a marker of general functioning or severity of injury in EI patients, but may represent more specific processing speed abilities. Processing speed predicts delayed visual memory performance in EI patients, which should be considered in interpreting test scores during evaluations.

Loss of Consciousness is Associated with Elevated Cognitive Intra-Individual Variability Following Sports-Related Concussion

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether loss of consciousness (LOC), retrograde amnesia (RA), and anterograde amnesia (AA) independently influence a particular aspect of post-concussion cognitive functioning-across-test intra-individual variability (IIV), or cognitive dispersion.

METHOD

Concussed athletes (N = 111) were evaluated, on average, 6.04 days post-injury (SD = 5.90; Mdn = 4 days; Range = 1-26 days) via clinical interview and neuropsychological assessment. Primary outcomes of interest included two measures of IIV-an intra-individual standard deviation (ISD) score and a maximum discrepancy (MD) score-computed from 18 norm-referenced variables.

RESULTS

Analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) adjusting for time since injury and sex revealed a significant effect of LOC on the ISD (p = .018, ηp2 = .051) and MD (p = .034, ηp2 = .041) scores, such that athletes with LOC displayed significantly greater IIV than athletes without LOC. In contrast, measures of IIV did not significantly differ between athletes who did and did not experience RA or AA (all p > .05).

CONCLUSIONS

LOC, but not RA or AA, was associated with greater variability, or inconsistencies, in cognitive performance acutely following concussion. Though future studies are needed to verify the clinical significance of these findings, our results suggest that LOC may contribute to post-concussion cognitive dysfunction and may be a risk factor for less efficient cognitive functioning.

Beyond PD-MCI: objectively defined subtle cognitive decline predicts future cognitive and functional changes

OBJECTIVE

Cognitive impairment is prevalent among individuals with Parkinson's disease (PD). Effort has been made to identify individuals at risk for cognitive decline and dementia. Objectively-defined subtle cognitive decline (Obj-SCD) is a novel classification that may identify individuals at risk for cognitive decline prior to a diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment (MCI). We examined the utility of Obj-SCD criteria to predict future cognitive decline and difficulties with activities of daily living (ADLs) among individuals with PD.

METHOD

The sample included 483 individuals newly diagnosed with PD. Participants were followed for a five-year span with yearly visits where they completed neuropsychological tests. Participants were categorized as cognitively normal (CN), the newly proposed Obj-SCD, PD-MCI or Parkinson's disease dementia (PDD). Analyses determined if utilization of Obj-SCD criteria predicted subsequent cognitive impairment and difficulties with ADLs.

RESULTS

At baseline, 372 (77%) participants were classified as CN, 40 (8.3%) classified as Obj-SCD, and 71 (14.7%) classified as PD-MCI. Analyses revealed that relative to the CN group, participants classified as Obj-SCD at baseline, were more likely to develop PD-MCI or PDD within 5 years (odds ratio 2.413; 95% confidence interval 1.215-4.792). Furthermore, the Obj-SCD represented an intermediate level of impairment, relative to the CN and PD-MCI groups, on an independent measure of cognition (Montreal Cognitive Assessment) and ADL.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings provide evidence that Obj-SCD criteria can identify individuals at risk for cognitive decline and impairments in ADL. Obj-SCD criteria may identify individuals at risk for cognitive impairment who are not detected by PD-MCI criteria.

Cognitive Dispersion Is Not Associated with Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers of Alzheimer's Disease: Results from the European Prevention of Alzheimer's Dementia (EPAD) v500.0 Cohort

BACKGROUND

Cognitive dispersion, variation in performance across cognitive domains, is posited as a non-invasive and cost-effective marker of early neurodegeneration. Little work has explored associations between cognitive dispersion and Alzheimer's disease (AD) biomarkers in healthy older adults. Even less is known about the influence or interaction of biomarkers reflecting brain pathophysiology or other risk factors on cognitive dispersion scores.

OBJECTIVE

The main aim of this study was to examine whether higher cognitive dispersion was associated with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of amyloid-β (Aβ42), total tau (t-tau), phosphorylated tau (p-tau), and amyloid positivity in a cohort of older adults at various severities of AD. A secondary aim was to explore which AD risk factors were associated with cognitive dispersion scores.

METHODS

Linear and logistic regression analyses explored the associations between dispersion and CSF levels of Aβ42, t-tau, and p-tau and amyloid positivity (Aβ42 < 1000 pg/ml). Relationships between sociodemographics, APOEɛ4 status, family history of dementia, and levels of depression and dispersion were also assessed.

RESULTS

Dispersion did not emerge as associated with any of the analytes nor amyloid positivity. Older (β= -0.007, SE = 0.002, p = 0.001) and less educated (β= -0.009, SE = 0.003, p = 0.009) individuals showed greater dispersion.

CONCLUSION

Dispersion was not associated with AD pathology, but was associated with age and years of education, highlighting individual differences in cognitive aging. The use of this metric as a screening tool for existing AD pathology is not supported by our analyses. Follow-up work will determine if dispersion scores can predict changes in biomarker levels and/or positivity status longitudinally.

Vagal Flexibility Mediates the Association Between Resting Vagal Activity and Cognitive Performance Stability Across Varying Socioemotional Demands

Vagal flexibility describes the ability to modulate cardiac vagal responses to fit a dynamic range of challenges. Extant theory on vagal function implies that vagal flexibility is a mediating mechanism through which resting vagal activity, a putative individual difference related to self-regulation, affects adaptive behavior and cognition. Nevertheless, little research has directly tested this hypothesis, thereby leaving fundamental mechanisms of vagal function and adaptability unclear. To this end, 47 healthy subjects completed a 5 min baseline followed by Stroop tasks combined with concurrent auditory distractors. There were four different Stroop task conditions that varied the social and emotional content of the auditory distractors. Electrocardiogram was continuously recorded to assess vagal responses to each condition as heart rate variability [root mean square of successive differences (RMSSDs)] reactivity. Vagal flexibility significantly mediated the association between resting vagal activity and stability of inhibition performance (Stroop interference) scores. In particular, higher resting RMSSD was related to higher standard deviation of RMSSD reactivity scores, reflecting greater differences in RMSSD reactivity between distractor conditions (i.e., greater vagal flexibility). Greater vagal flexibility was in turn related to more stability in Stroop interference across the same conditions. The mean of RMSSD reactivity scores across conditions was not significantly related to resting RMSSD or stability in Stroop performance, and mean RMSSD reactivity did not mediate relations between resting RMSSD and stability in Stroop performance. Overall, findings suggest that vagal flexibility may promote the effects of resting vagal activity on stabilizing cognitive inhibition in the face of environmental perturbations.

Regional Hypoperfusion Predicts Decline in Everyday Functioning at Three-Year Follow-Up in Older Adults without Dementia

BACKGROUND

Increasing evidence indicates that cerebrovascular dysfunction may precede cognitive decline in aging and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Reduced cerebral blood flow (CBF) is associated with cognitive impairment in older adults. However, less is known regarding the association between CBF and functional decline, and whether CBF predicts functional decline beyond cerebrovascular and metabolic risk factors.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between regional CBF and functional decline in nondemented older adults.

METHOD

One hundred sixty-six (N = 166) participants without dementia from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative underwent neuropsychological testing and neuroimaging. Pulsed arterial spin labeling magnetic resonance imaging was acquired to quantify resting CBF. Everyday functioning was measured using the Functional Assessment Questionnaire at baseline and annual follow-up visit across three years.

RESULTS

Adjusting for age, education, sex, cognitive status, depression, white matter hyperintensity volume, cerebral metabolism, and reference (precentral) CBF, linear mixed effects models showed that lower resting CBF at baseline in the medial temporal, inferior temporal, and inferior parietal lobe was significantly associated with accelerated decline in everyday functioning. Results were similar after adjusting for conventional AD biomarkers, including cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) amyloid-β (Aβ) and hyperphosphorylated tau (p-tau) and apolipoprotein E (APOE) ɛ4 positivity. Individuals who later converted to dementia had lower resting CBF in the inferior temporal and parietal regions compared to those who did not.

CONCLUSION

Lower resting CBF in AD vulnerable regions including medial temporal, inferior temporal, and inferior parietal lobes predicted faster rates of decline in everyday functioning. CBF has utility as a biomarker in predicting functional declines in everyday life and conversion to dementia.

Objective subtle cognitive difficulties predict future amyloid accumulation and neurodegeneration

OBJECTIVE

To determine the temporal sequence of objectively defined subtle cognitive difficulties (Obj-SCD) in relation to amyloidosis and neurodegeneration, the current study examined the trajectories of amyloid PET and medial temporal neurodegeneration in participants with Obj-SCD relative to cognitively normal (CN) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) groups.

METHOD

A total of 747 Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative participants (305 CN, 153 Obj-SCD, 289 MCI) underwent neuropsychological testing and serial amyloid PET and structural MRI examinations. Linear mixed effects models examined 4-year rate of change in cortical 18F-florbetapir PET, entorhinal cortex thickness, and hippocampal volume in those classified as Obj-SCD and MCI relative to CN.

RESULT

Amyloid accumulation was faster in the Obj-SCD group than in the CN group; the MCI and CN groups did not significantly differ from each other. The Obj-SCD and MCI groups both demonstrated faster entorhinal cortical thinning relative to the CN group; only the MCI group exhibited faster hippocampal atrophy than CN participants.

CONCLUSION

Relative to CN participants, Obj-SCD was associated with faster amyloid accumulation and selective vulnerability of entorhinal cortical thinning, whereas MCI was associated with faster entorhinal and hippocampal atrophy. Findings suggest that Obj-SCD, operationally defined using sensitive neuropsychological measures, can be identified prior to or during the preclinical stage of amyloid deposition. Further, consistent with the Braak neurofibrillary staging scheme, Obj-SCD status may track with early entorhinal pathologic changes, whereas MCI may track with more widespread medial temporal change. Thus, Obj-SCD may be a sensitive and noninvasive predictor of encroaching amyloidosis and neurodegeneration, prior to frank cognitive impairment associated with MCI.

Pattern of regional white matter hyperintensity volume in mild cognitive impairment subtypes and associations with decline in daily functioning

White matter hyperintensities (WMHs), a marker of small-vessel cerebrovascular disease, increase risk for mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Less is known about whether regional WMHs distinguish MCI subtypes and predict decline in everyday functioning. About 618 Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative participants (301 cognitively normal [CN]; 232 amnestic MCI [aMCI]; 85 nonamnestic MCI [naMCI]) underwent neuropsychological testing, MRI, and assessment of everyday functioning. aMCI participants showed greater temporal (p = 0.002) and occipital WMHs (p = 0.030) relative to CN whereas naMCI participants had greater frontal (p = 0.045), temporal (p = 0.003), parietal (p = 0.018), and occipital (p < 0.001) WMH compared with CN. Relative to those with aMCI, individuals with naMCI showed greater occipital WMH (p = 0.013). Greater WMH in temporal (p = 0.001) and occipital regions (p = 0.006) was associated with faster decline in everyday functioning across the sample. Temporal lobe WMHs were disproportionately associated with accelerated functional decline among naMCI (p = 0.045). Regional WMH volumes vary across cognitive groups and predict functional decline. Cerebrovascular markers may help identify individuals at risk for decline and distinguish subtypes of cognitive impairment.