Beta-helix structure and ice-binding properties of a hyperactive antifreeze protein from an insect

Spontaneous Formation of a Sustainable Antifreeze Coating by Peptide Self-Assembly

The formation of ice and frost on surfaces poses significant challenges to aviation, crop protection, organ preservation, and other fields. This paper presents the formation of sustainable antifreeze coating by the self-assembly of short peptides. The peptide design is inspired by and combines different elements from distinct natural proteins: (i) a sequence of amino acids from an antifreeze protein and (ii) the amino acids 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) and lysine from mussel adhesion proteins that anchor the peptide to a surface. The peptide, termed AFPep1, incorporates the repetitive ice-binding motif found in the antifreeze protein of the longhorn beetle (Rhagium inquisitor). Surfaces coated with the peptide exhibited antifreeze activity with a delay of the initial freezing of 5 °C degrees compared to a bare surface. Furthermore, AFPep1 exhibited relatively effective ice recrystallization inhibition (IRI) activity in solution compared to various other common substances, with an inhibition concentration of 0.5 ± 0.1 mM. Additionally, the presence of AFPep1 in the solution shaped ice crystals into hexagonal plates, indicating specific binding to ice. Moreover, thermal hysteresis results show that AFPep1 completely inhibits ice growth at supercooling levels of up to 0.04 °C at 2 mM, indicating the peptide's ability to self-assemble and create high-density anchoring points on the ice surface. These results highlight the significant potential of specific peptides as antifreeze coatings for technological infrastructure and agricultural applications.

Head-to-Tail Cyclization Enhances Ice-Growth Inhibition by Linear Threonine Oligomers

Developing short antifreeze peptides with low immunogenicity is considered to be a promising strategy for improving cryopreservation. Inspired by the design principles of cyclic peptide drugs characterized by high stability and strong affinity, we propose to use the cyclization strategy as a principle for the design of antifreeze peptides, aiming to enhance their structural stability and ice-binding ability, thereby significantly improving their antifreeze activity. In this study, we choose linear threonine oligomers (L-(Thr)n), composed of common and biocompatible threonine residues, to investigate the mechanism and efficacy of cyclization. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are used to compare the ice-growth inhibition ability of a series of linear oligomers and their corresponding cyclic counterparts (49 molecular systems) on different ice planes, resulting in 80.8 μs MD trajectories. A detailed analysis of conformational changes during inhibition and their correlation with inhibitory efficiency reveals that conformational variability is detrimental to the binding of L-(Thr)n to ice, while β-sheet-like conformation has a significant advantage in inhibiting ice growth and is identified as a key factor for the superior performance of cyclized oligomers (C-(Thr)n) over their linear counterparts. Encouragingly, we find that C-(Thr)12 exhibits the most prominent performance, surpassing previously reported cyclic peptides of similar size due to its enhanced structural stability, superior ice binding, coverage, and antiengulfment capabilities. This study provides valuable insights into the design of small-sized ice-growth inhibitors through head-to-tail cyclization of linear oligomers. However, it should be noted that our findings are based purely on computational simulations, and experimental validation in actual cryopreservation conditions remains necessary.

Antifreeze Proteins Bind Irreversibly to Ice, so Why Does Thermal Hysteresis Depend on Bulk Concentration?

Antifreeze proteins (AFPs) on ice surfaces create pinning sites which resist ice growth. The maximum degree of supercooling to which an AFP can prevent ice growth is its thermal hysteresis (TH). Survival probabilities based on a model for engulfment kinetics explain how TH depends on AFP surface coverage, AFP size, ice surface area, and cooling rates. However, they do not explain the dependence of TH on bulk AFP concentration, an effect seen in many experiments. Here we reassess TH data in terms of total time-of-exposure, texp (including protocol variables like incubation time and cooling rate), which together with the bulk AFP concentration (Cbulk) influences the surface coverage. For data sets on two different AFPs with TH measured in two different ways, the product Cbulktexp, suggested by a simple model of adsorption, is a better predictor of TH than bulk concentration or exposure time alone. Our results suggest that effects of bulk concentration on TH are indirect, with bulk concentration influencing surface coverage, and surface coverage having a direct influence on TH.

Fully Atomistic Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Ice Nucleation Near an Antifreeze Protein

Heterogeneous ice nucleation is a widespread phenomenon in nature. Despite extensive research on ice nucleation near biological antifreeze proteins, a probe for ice nucleation and growth processes at the atomic level is still lacking. Herein, we present simulation evidence of the heterogeneous ice nucleation process on the ice-binding surface (IBS) of the Tenebrio molitor antifreeze protein (TmAFP). Our all-atomistic molecular dynamics simulations reveal detailed steps toward precritical nucleus formation from one-dimensional (1D) channel water to a 2D ice nanolayer and, finally, a 3D ice nucleus. Compared with homogeneous ice nucleation under the same supercooling conditions, the IBS of TmAFP can markedly reduce the critical size of the ice embryo and lower the nucleation free energy barrier, thereby favoring ice nucleation. Additionally, through artificial mutation of selected functional groups on the IBS, we gain deeper insights into how the specific functional groups of the IBS affect ice nucleation. We highlight that the carbonyl groups in the backbone play a crucial role by providing fixed locations for channel water. This function is essential for ensuring alignment between the 2D ice nanolayer and the ice lattice structure.

Molecular, neural, and tissue circuits underlying physiological temperature responses in Caenorhabditis elegans

Temperature is a constant environmental factor on Earth, acting as a continuous stimulus that organisms must constantly perceive to survive. Organisms possess neural systems that receive various types of environmental information, including temperature, and mechanisms for adapting to their surroundings. This paper provides insights into the neural circuits and intertissue networks involved in physiological temperature responses, specifically the mechanisms of "cold tolerance" and "temperature acclimation," based on an analysis of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans as an experimental system for neural and intertissue information processing.

The cryoprotective effect of Litopenaeus vannamei head-derived peptides and its ice-binding mechanism

Although discarded as waste, shrimp heads are a potential source of antifreeze peptides, which can be used as cryoprotectants in the food industry. Their utilization in frozen foods can help mitigate the negative effects caused by the freezing technique. Litopenaeus vannamei shrimp heads were autolyzed, and the shrimp head autolysate (SHA) was separated via ultra-filtration and ion exchange chromatography. The antifreeze effect of SHA on the biochemical properties of myofibrillar proteins of peeled shrimps during five freeze-thaw cycles was evaluated. Peptide screening was done using the LC-MS/MS technique. A molecular docking (MD) study of the interaction between ice and shrimp head-derived antifreeze peptides was done. Results showed that shrimp-head autolysate has a maximum thermal hysteresis value of 1.84 °C. During the freeze-thaw cycles, the shrimp-head autolysate exhibited an antifreeze effect on frozen peeled shrimps. 1.0 and 3.0%-SHA groups showed significantly lower freeze denaturation than the negative control group. The muscle tissues of SHA-treated groups were not as severely damaged as the negative control group. The molecular docking study revealed that the shrimp head-AFPs bound to ice via hydrogen bonding, and both hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acid residues were involved in the ice-binding interactions. 6 ice-binding sites were involved in the peptide-ice interaction. Our findings suggest that shrimp head-derived AFPs can be developed into functional additives in frozen foods and add more insights into the existing literature on antifreeze peptides.

Expeditious chemical synthesis of xylomannans disproves the proposed antifreeze activities

Cold-adapted species are able to generate cryoprotective proteins and glycoproteins to prevent freezing damage. The [→4)-β-D-Manp-(1→4)-β-D-Xylp-(1→] n xylomannan from the Alaska beetle Upis ceramboides was disclosed by Walters and co-workers in 2009 as the first glycan-based antifreeze agent, which was later reported to be found in diverse taxa. Here, we report the rapid synthesis of four types of xylomannans, including the proposed antifreeze xylomannan up to a 64-mer (Type I), the regioisomeric [→3)-β-D-Manp-(1→4)-β-D-Xylp-(1→] n 16-mer (Type II), the diastereomeric [→4)-β-L-Manp-(1→4)-β-D-Xylp-(1→] n 16-mer (Type III) and the block-wise [→4)-β-D-Manp-(1→] m [→4)-β-D-Xylp-(1→] n 32-mer (Type IV), by employing a strategic iterative exponential glycan growth (IEGG) process. The nuclear magnetic resonance spectral data of the alleged natural xylomannan are in accordance only to those of the block-wise Type IV glycan and none of these synthetic xylomannans has been found to be capable of inducing thermal hysteresis. These results disprove the previous reports about the natural occurrence of antifreeze xylomannans.

Interfacial Ice Density Fluctuations Inform Surface Ice-Philicity

The propensity of a surface to nucleate ice or bind to ice is governed by its ice-philicity─its relative preference for ice over liquid water. However, the relationship between the features of a surface and its ice-philicity is not well understood, and for surfaces with chemical or topographical heterogeneity, such as proteins, their ice-philicity is not even well-defined. In the analogous problem of surface hydrophobicity, it has been shown that hydrophobic surfaces display enhanced low water-density (vapor-like) fluctuations in their vicinity. To interrogate whether enhanced ice-like fluctuations are similarly observed near ice-philic surfaces, here we use molecular simulations and enhanced sampling techniques. Using a family of model surfaces for which the wetting coefficient, k, has previously been characterized, we show that the free energy of observing rare interfacial ice-density fluctuations decreases monotonically with increasing k. By utilizing this connection, we investigate a set of fcc systems and find that the (110) surface is more ice-philic than the (111) or (100) surfaces. By additionally analyzing the structure of interfacial ice, we find that all surfaces prefer to bind to the basal plane of ice, and the topographical complementarity of the (110) surface to the basal plane explains its higher ice-philicity. Using enhanced interfacial ice-like fluctuations as a measure of surface ice-philicity, we then characterize the ice-philicity of chemically heterogeneous and topologically complex systems. In particular, we study the spruce budworm antifreeze protein (sbwAFP), which binds to ice using a known ice-binding site (IBS) and resists engulfment using nonbinding sites of the protein (NBSs). We find that the IBS displays enhanced interfacial ice-density fluctuations and is therefore more ice-philic than the two NBSs studied. We also find the two NBSs are similarly ice-phobic. By establishing a connection between interfacial ice-like fluctuations and surface ice-philicity, our findings thus provide a way to characterize the ice-philicity of heterogeneous surfaces.

Stereoselective Crystallization of Chiral Pharmaceuticals Aided by Cellulose Derivatives through Helical Pattern Matching

Stereoselective inhibition aided by "tailor-made" polymeric additives is an efficient approach to obtain enantiopure compounds through conglomerate crystallization. The chemical and configurational match between the side groups of polymers and the molecules of undesired enantiomer is considered to be a necessary condition for successful stereoseparation. Whereas in this contribution, we present an effective resolution of chiral pharmaceuticals by using cellulose acetates as the additives, which stereoselectively reside on the specific crystal faces of one enantiomer and inhibit its crystal nucleation and growth through helical pattern and supramolecular interaction complementarity. An investigation of nimodipine serves as a case study to highlight the novelty of this strategy wherein R-crystals exhibiting an impressive enantiomeric excess value of 97 % can be attained by employing a mere 0.01 wt % cellulose acetate. Guaifenesin and phenyl lactic acid are also well-resolved by utilizing this methodology. Our work not only brings about a brand-new design strategy for "tailor-made" additives, but will also promote the further exploration of the endless potential for utilizing natural biomolecules in chiral recognition and resolution.

The Valence-Dependent Activity of Colloidal Molecules as Ice Recrystallization Inhibitors

Inspired by advances in cryopreservation techniques, which are essential for modern biomedical applications, there is a special interest in the ice recrystallization inhibition (IRI) of the antifreeze protein (AFPs) mimics. There are in-depth studies on synthetic materials mimicking AFPs, from simple molecular structure levels to complex self-assemblies. Herein, we report the valence-dependent IRI activity of colloidal organic molecules (CMs). The CMs were prepared through polymerization-induced particle-assembly (PIPA) of the ABC-type triblock terpolymer of poly(acryloxyethyl trimethylammonium chloride)-b-poly(benzyl acrylate)-b-poly(diacetone acrylamide) (PATAC-b-PBzA-b-PDAAM) at high monomer conversions. Stabilized by the cationic block of PATAC, the strong intermolecular H-bonding and incompatibility of the PDAAM block with PBzA contributed to the in situ formation of Janus particles (AX1) beyond the initial spherical seed particles (AX0), as well as the high valency clusters of linear AX2 and trigonal AX3. Their distribution was controlled mainly by the polymerization degrees (DPs) of PATAC and PDAAM blocks. IRI activity results of the CMs suggest that the higher fraction of AX1 results in the better IRI activity. Increasing the fraction of AX1 from 27% to 65% led to a decrease of the mean grain size from 39.8% to 10.9% and a depressed growth rate of ice crystals by 58%. Moreover, by replacing the PDAAM block with the temperature-responsive one of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM), temperature-adjustable IRI activity was observed, which is well related to the reversible transition of AX0 to AX1, providing a new idea for the molecular design of amphiphilic polymer nanoparticle-based IRI activity materials.

Two-dimensional bilayer ice in coexistence with three-dimensional ice without confinement

Icing plays an important role in various physical-chemical process. Although the formation of two-dimensional ice requires nanoscale confinement, two-dimensional bilayer ice in coexistence with three-dimensional ice without confinement remains poorly understood. Here, a critical value of a surface energy parameter is identified to characterize the liquid-solid interface interaction, above which two-dimensional and three-dimensional coexisting ice can surprisingly form on the surface. The two-dimensional ice growth mechanisms could be revealed by capturing the growth and merged of the metastable edge structures. The phase diagram about temperature and pressure vs energy parameters is predicted to distinguish liquid water, two-dimensional ice and three-dimensional ice. Furthermore, the deicing characteristics of coexisting ice demonstrate that the ice adhesion strength is linearly related to the ratio of ice-surface interaction energy to ice temperature. In addition, for gas-solid phase transition, the phase diagram about temperature and energy parameters is predicted to distinguish gas, liquid water, two-dimensional ice and three-dimensional ice. This work gives a perspective for studying the singular structure and dynamics of ice in nanoscale and provides a guide for future experimental realization of the coexisting ice.

On the engulfment of antifreeze proteins by ice

Antifreeze proteins (AFPs) are remarkable biomolecules that suppress ice formation at trace concentrations. To inhibit ice growth, AFPs must not only bind to ice crystals, but also resist engulfment by ice. The highest supercooling, [Formula: see text], for which AFPs are able to resist engulfment is widely believed to scale as the inverse of the separation, [Formula: see text], between bound AFPs, whereas its dependence on the molecular characteristics of the AFP remains poorly understood. By using specialized molecular simulations and interfacial thermodynamics, here, we show that in contrast with conventional wisdom, [Formula: see text] scales as [Formula: see text] and not as [Formula: see text]. We further show that [Formula: see text] is proportional to AFP size and that diverse naturally occurring AFPs are optimal at resisting engulfment by ice. By facilitating the development of AFP structure-function relationships, we hope that our findings will pave the way for the rational design of AFPs.

Overexpression of bond-forming active protein for efficient production of silk with structural changes and properties enhanced in silkworm

Silkworm silk exhibits excellent mechanical properties, biocompatibility, and has potential applications in the biomedical sector. This study focused on enhancing the mechanical properties of Bombyx mori silk by overexpressing three bond-forming active proteins (BFAPs): AFP, HSP, and CRP in the silk glands of silkworms. Rheological tests confirmed increased viscoelasticity in the liquid fibroin stock solution of transgenic silkworms, and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) indicated that all three BFAPs participated in the interactions between fibroin molecular networks in transgenic silk. The mechanical property assay indicated that all three BFAPs improved the mechanical characteristics of transgenic silk, with AFP and HSP having the most significant effects. A synchrotron radiation Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy assay showed that all three BFAPs increased the β-sheet content of transgenic silk. Synchrotron radiation wide-angle X-ray diffraction assay showed that all three BFAPs changed the crystallinity, crystal size, and orientation factor of the silk. AFP and HSP significantly improved the mechanical attributes of transgenic silk through increased crystallinity, refined crystal size, and a slight decrease in orientation. This study opens new possibilities for modifying silk and other fiber materials.

Ice Recrystallization Unveils the Binding Mechanism Operating at a Diffused Interface

Recrystallization of ice is a natural phenomenon that causes adverse effects in cryopreservation, agriculture, and in frozen food industry. It has long been recognized that ice recrystallization occurs through the Ostwald ripening and accretion processes. However, neither of these processes has been explored in microscopic detail by state-of-the-art experimental techniques. We carried out atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to explore ice recrystallization through the accretion process. Attempts have been made to elucidate the binding mechanism that is operating at the diffused ice-water interface. It is demonstrated that two ice crystals spontaneously recognize each other and bind together to form a large crystal in liquid water, resulting in ice recrystallization by accretion. Interestingly, the study reveals that the binding occurs due to the freezing of the interfacial water layer present between the two ice planes, even at a temperature above the melting point of the ice crystal. The synergistically enhanced ordering effect of two ice surfaces on the interfacial water leads to such freezing occurring during the binding process. However, proper crystallographic alignment is not necessarily required for the binding of the two crystals. Simulations have also been carried out to study the binding between an ice crystal and the model ice-binding surface (IBS) of an antifreeze protein above the melting point of the ice crystal. It is found that such binding at the IBS is accompanied by freezing of the interfacial water. This establishes that the synergetic ordering-driven freezing of interfacial water is a common binding mechanism at the diffused surfaces of ice crystals. We believe that this mechanism will provide a microscopic understanding of the process of recrystallization inhibition and thus help in designing suitable materials for potent applications in recrystallization inhibition.

Ice Isn't the Only Crystal in Town: Structure Determination of Ice-Binding Proteins via X-Ray Crystallography

Ice-binding proteins (IBPs) are proteins that have the remarkable ability to bind to ice, and their study has intrigued researchers for decades. This chapter explores the importance of structural biology in understanding IBPs and highlights the significant contributions of IBPs to the field of structural biology. The structures of various IBPs from different organisms have been elucidated, revealing key elements involved in ice binding. Structural biology techniques, including nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, transmission electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM), and X-ray crystallography, play crucial roles in solving protein structures. This article focuses on X-ray crystallography as a tool for investigating IBP structures, providing insights into its theoretical and practical aspects, experimental workflows, and common pitfalls to avoid.

Ice nucleation proteins self-assemble into large fibres to trigger freezing at near 0 °C

In nature, frost can form at a few degrees below 0 °C. However, this process requires the assembly of tens of thousands of ice-like water molecules that align together to initiate freezing at these relatively high temperatures. Water ordering on this scale is mediated by the ice nucleation proteins (INPs) of common environmental bacteria like Pseudomonas syringae and Pseudomonas borealis. However, individually, these 100 kDa proteins are too small to organize enough water molecules for frost formation, and it is not known how giant, megadalton-sized multimers, which are crucial for ice nucleation at high sub-zero temperatures, form. The ability of multimers to self-assemble was suggested when the transfer of an INP gene into Escherichia coli led to efficient ice nucleation. Here, we demonstrate that a positively charged subdomain at the C-terminal end of the central β-solenoid of the INP is crucial for multimerization. Truncation, relocation, or change of the charge of this subdomain caused a catastrophic loss of ice nucleation ability. Cryo-electron tomography of the recombinant E. coli showed that the INP multimers form fibres that are ~5 nm across and up to 200 nm long. A model of these fibres as an overlapping series of antiparallel dimers can account for all their known properties and suggests a route to making cell-free ice nucleators for biotechnological applications.

Accurate Prediction of Antifreeze Protein from Sequences through Natural Language Text Processing and Interpretable Machine Learning Approaches

Antifreeze proteins (AFPs) bind to growing iceplanes owing to their structural complementarity nature, thereby inhibiting the ice-crystal growth by thermal hysteresis. Classification of AFPs from sequence is a difficult task due to their low sequence similarity, and therefore, the usual sequence similarity algorithms, like Blast and PSI-Blast, are not efficient. Here, a method combining n-gram feature vectors and machine learning models to accelerate the identification of potential AFPs from sequences is proposed. All these n-gram features are extracted from the K-mer counting method. The comparative analysis reveals that, among different machine learning models, Xgboost outperforms others in predicting AFPs from sequence when penta-mers are used as a feature vector. When tested on an independent dataset, our method performed better compared to other existing ones with sensitivity of 97.50%, recall of 98.30%, and f1 score of 99.10%. Further, we used the SHAP method, which provides important insight into the functional activity of AFPs.

Ice nucleation proteins self-assemble into large fibres to trigger freezing at near 0 °C

In nature, frost can form at a few degrees below 0 °C. However, this process requires the assembly of tens of thousands of ice-like water molecules that align together to initiate freezing at these relatively high temperatures. Water ordering on this scale is mediated by the ice nucleation proteins of common environmental bacteria like Pseudomonas syringae and P. borealis. However, individually, these 100-kDa proteins are too small to organize enough water molecules for frost formation, and it is not known how giant, megadalton-sized multimers, which are crucial for ice nucleation at high sub-zero temperatures, form. The ability of multimers to self-assemble was suggested when the transfer of an ice nucleation protein gene into Escherichia coli led to efficient ice nucleation. Here we demonstrate that a positively-charged sub-domain at the C-terminal end of the central beta-solenoid of the ice nucleation protein is crucial for multimerization. Truncation, relocation, or change of the charge of this subdomain caused a catastrophic loss of ice nucleation ability. Cryo-electron tomography of the recombinant E. coli showed that the ice nucleation protein multimers form fibres that are ~ 5 nm across and up to 200 nm long. A model of these fibres as an overlapping series of antiparallel dimers can account for all their known properties and suggests a route to making cell-free ice nucleators for biotechnological applications.

Preferential Ordering and Organization of Hydration Water Favor Nucleation of Ice by Ice-Nucleating Proteins over Antifreeze Proteins

Bacteria containing ice-nucleating proteins (INPs) evolved in nature to nucleate ice at the high sub-zero ambiance. The ability of the INPs to induce order in the hydration layer and their aggregation propensity appear to be key factors of their ice nucleation abilities. However, the mechanism of the process of ice nucleation by INPs is yet to be understood clearly. Here, we have performed all-atom molecular dynamics simulations and analyzed the structure and dynamics of the hydration layer around the proposed ice-nucleating surface of a model INP. Results are compared with the hydration of a topologically similar non-ice-binding protein (non-IBP) and another ice-growth inhibitory antifreeze protein (sbwAFP). We observed that the hydration structure around the ice-nucleating surface of INP is highly ordered and the dynamics of the hydration water are slower, compared to the non-IBP. Even the ordering of the hydration layer is more evident around the ice-binding surface of INP, compared to the antifreeze protein sbwAFP. Particularly with increasing repeat units of INP, we observe an increased population of ice-like water. Interestingly, the distances between the hydroxyl groups of the threonine ladder and its associated channel water of the ice-binding surface (IBS) of INP in the X and Y direction mimic the oxygen atom distances of the basal plane of hexagonal ice. However, the structural synergies between the hydroxyl group distances of the threonine ladder and its associated channel water of the IBS of sbwAFP and oxygen atom distances of the basal plane are less evident. This difference makes the IBS of the INP a better template for ice nucleation than AFP, although both of them bind to the ice surface efficiently.

Characterizing Surface Ice-Philicity Using Molecular Simulations and Enhanced Sampling

The formation of ice, which plays an important role in diverse contexts ranging from cryopreservation to atmospheric science, is often mediated by solid surfaces. Although surfaces that interact favorably with ice (relative to liquid water) can facilitate ice formation by lowering nucleation barriers, the molecular characteristics that confer icephilicity to a surface are complex and incompletely understood. To address this challenge, here we introduce a robust and computationally efficient method for characterizing surface ice-philicity that combines molecular simulations and enhanced sampling techniques to quantify the free energetic cost of increasing surface-ice contact at the expense of surface-water contact. Using this method to characterize the ice-philicity of a family of model surfaces that are lattice matched with ice but vary in their polarity, we find that the nonpolar surfaces are moderately ice-phobic, whereas the polar surfaces are highly ice-philic. In contrast, for surfaces that display no complementarity to the ice lattice, we find that ice-philicity is independent of surface polarity and that both nonpolar and polar surfaces are moderately ice-phobic. Our work thus provides a prescription for quantitatively characterizing surface ice-philicity and sheds light on how ice-philicity is influenced by lattice matching and polarity.

Engulfment Avalanches and Thermal Hysteresis for Antifreeze Proteins on Supercooled Ice

Antifreeze proteins (AFPs) bind to the ice-water surface and prevent ice growth at temperatures below 0 °C through a Gibbs-Thomson effect. Each adsorbed AFP creates a metastable depression on the surface that locally resists ice growth, until ice engulfs the AFP. We recently predicted the susceptibility to engulfment as a function of AFP size, distance between AFPs, and supercooling [ J. Chem. Phys. 2023, 158, 094501]. For an ensemble of AFPs adsorbed on the ice surface, the most isolated AFPs are the most susceptible, and when an isolated AFP gets engulfed, its former neighbors become more isolated and more susceptible to engulfment. Thus, an initial engulfment event can trigger an avalanche of subsequent engulfment events, leading to a sudden surge of unrestrained ice growth. This work develops a model to predict the supercooling at which the first engulfment event will occur for an ensemble of randomly distributed AFP pinning sites on an ice surface. Specifically, we formulate an inhomogeneous survival probability that accounts for the AFP coverage, the distribution of AFP neighbor distances, the resulting ensemble of engulfment rates, the ice surface area, and the cooling rate. We use the model to predict thermal hysteresis trends and compare with experimental data.

Polyproline type II helical antifreeze proteins are widespread in Collembola and likely originated over 400 million years ago in the Ordovician Period

Antifreeze proteins (AFPs) bind to ice crystals to prevent organisms from freezing. A diversity of AFP folds has been found in fish and insects, including alpha helices, globular proteins, and several different beta solenoids. But the variety of AFPs in flightless arthropods, like Collembola, has not yet been adequately assessed. Here, antifreeze activity was shown to be present in 18 of the 22 species of Collembola from cold or temperate zones. Several methods were used to characterize these AFPs, including isolation by ice affinity purification, MALDI mass spectrometry, amino acid composition analysis, tandem mass spectrometry sequencing, transcriptome sequencing, and bioinformatic investigations of sequence databases. All of these AFPs had a high glycine content and were predicted to have the same polyproline type II helical bundle fold, a fold unique to Collembola. These Hexapods arose in the Ordovician Period with the two orders known to produce AFPs diverging around 400 million years ago during the Andean-Saharan Ice Age. Therefore, it is likely that the AFP arose then and persisted in many lineages through the following two ice ages and intervening warm periods, unlike the AFPs of fish which arose independently during the Cenozoic Ice Age beginning ~ 30 million years ago.

Bio-inspired and metal-derived superwetting surfaces: Function, stability and applications

Due to their exceptional anti-icing, anti-corrosion, and anti-drag qualities, biomimetic metal-derived superwetting surfaces, which are widely employed in the aerospace, automotive, electronic, and biomedical industries, have raised significant concern. However, further applications in other domains have been hampered by the poor mechanical and chemical durability of superwetting metallic surfaces, which can result in metal fatigue and corrosion. The potential for anti-corrosion, anti-contamination, anti-icing, oil/water separation, and oil transportation on surfaces with superwettability has increased in recent years due to the advancement of research in biomimetic superwetting interface theory and practice. Recent developments in functionalized biomimetic metal-derived superwetting surfaces were summarized in this paper. Firstly, a detailed presentation of biomimetic metal-derived superwetting surfaces with unique capabilities was made. The problems with the long-term mechanical and chemical stability of biomimetic metal-derived superwetting surfaces were then examined, along with potential solutions. Finally, in an effort to generate fresh concepts for the study of biomimetic metal-derived superwetting surfaces, the applications of superwetting metallic surfaces in various domains were discussed in depth. The future direction of biomimetic metal-derived superwetting surfaces was also addressed.

Free energy barriers for anti-freeze protein engulfment in ice: Effects of supercooling, footprint size, and spatial separation

Anti-freeze proteins (AFPs) protect organisms at freezing conditions by attaching to the ice surface and arresting its growth. Each adsorbed AFP locally pins the ice surface, resulting in a metastable dimple for which the interfacial forces counteract the driving force for growth. As supercooling increases, these metastable dimples become deeper, until metastability is lost in an engulfment event where the ice irreversibly swallows the AFP. Engulfment resembles nucleation in some respects, and this paper develops a model for the "critical profile" and free energy barrier for the engulfment process. Specifically, we variationally optimize the ice-water interface and estimate the free energy barrier as a function of the supercooling, the AFP footprint size, and the distance to neighboring AFPs on the ice surface. Finally, we use symbolic regression to derive a simple closed-form expression for the free energy barrier as a function of two physically interpretable, dimensionless parameters.

Biomedical applications of solid-binding peptides and proteins

Over the past decades, solid-binding peptides (SBPs) have found multiple applications in materials science. In non-covalent surface modification strategies, solid-binding peptides are a simple and versatile tool for the immobilization of biomolecules on a vast variety of solid surfaces. Especially in physiological environments, SBPs can increase the biocompatibility of hybrid materials and offer tunable properties for the display of biomolecules with minimal impact on their functionality. All these features make SBPs attractive for the manufacturing of bioinspired materials in diagnostic and therapeutic applications. In particular, biomedical applications such as drug delivery, biosensing, and regenerative therapies have benefited from the introduction of SBPs. Here, we review recent literature on the use of solid-binding peptides and solid-binding proteins in biomedical applications. We focus on applications where modulating the interactions between solid materials and biomolecules is crucial. In this review, we describe solid-binding peptides and proteins, providing background on sequence design and binding mechanism. We then discuss their application on materials relevant for biomedicine (calcium phosphates, silicates, ice crystals, metals, plastics, and graphene). Although the limited characterization of SBPs still represents a challenge for their design and widespread application, our review shows that SBP-mediated bioconjugation can be easily introduced into complex designs and on nanomaterials with very different surface chemistries.

Insect Freeze-Tolerance Downunder: The Microbial Connection

Insects that are freeze-tolerant start freezing at high sub-zero temperatures and produce small ice crystals. They do this using ice-nucleating agents that facilitate intercellular ice growth and prevent formation of large crystals where they can damage tissues. In Aotearoa/New Zealand the majority of cold adapted invertebrates studied survive freezing at any time of year, with ice formation beginning in the rich microbiome of the gut. Some freeze-tolerant insects are known to host symbiotic bacteria and/or fungi that produce ice-nucleating agents and we speculate that gut microbes of many New Zealand insects may provide ice-nucleating active compounds that moderate freezing. We consider too the possibility that evolutionary disparate freeze-tolerant insect species share gut microbes that are a source of ice-nucleating agents and so we describe potential transmission pathways of shared gut fauna. Despite more than 30 years of research into the freeze-tolerant mechanisms of Southern Hemisphere insects, the role of exogenous ice-nucleating agents has been neglected. Key traits of three New Zealand freeze-tolerant lineages are considered in light of the supercooling point (temperature of ice crystal formation) of microbial ice-nucleating particles, the initiation site of freezing, and the implications for invertebrate parasites. We outline approaches that could be used to investigate potential sources of ice-nucleating agents in freeze-tolerant insects and the tools employed to study insect microbiomes.

The effect of ice-binding proteins on the cryopreservation of Caenorhabditis elegans

Ice-binding proteins (IBPs) are capable of binding ice crystals and inhibiting their growth. IBPs have also been reported to stabilize cell membranes under non-freezing conditions. The effects of IBPs help to reduce cold- and freezing-induced damage to cells and tissues in cryopreservation. Here, we examined whether certain IBPs, namely, fish NfeIBP6 and NfeIBP8 and fungal AnpIBP1a N55D (AnpIBP), improve the recovery rate of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans after a deep cryopreservation at -80°C. The expression of fungus-derived AnpIBP in C. elegans significantly improved its recovery rate. This result provides useful information to establish a cryopreservation technique for long-term storage using IBP molecules.

Control strategies of ice nucleation, growth, and recrystallization for cryopreservation

The cryopreservation of biomaterials is fundamental to modern biotechnology and biomedicine, but the biggest challenge is the formation of ice, resulting in fatal cryoinjury to biomaterials. To date, abundant ice control strategies have been utilized to inhibit ice formation and thus improve cryopreservation efficiency. This review focuses on the mechanisms of existing control strategies regulating ice formation and the corresponding applications to biomaterial cryopreservation, which are of guiding significance for the development of ice control strategies. Herein, basics related to biomaterial cryopreservation are introduced first. Then, the theoretical bases of ice nucleation, growth, and recrystallization are presented, from which the key factors affecting each process are analyzed, respectively. Ice nucleation is mainly affected by melting temperature, interfacial tension, shape factor, and kinetic prefactor, and ice growth is mainly affected by solution viscosity and cooling/warming rate, while ice recrystallization is inhibited by adsorption or diffusion mechanisms. Furthermore, the corresponding research methods and specific control strategies for each process are summarized. The review ends with an outlook of the current challenges and future perspectives in cryopreservation. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Ice formation is the major limitation of cryopreservation, which causes fatal cryoinjury to cryopreserved biomaterials. This review focuses on the three processes related to ice formation, called nucleation, growth, and recrystallization. The theoretical models, key influencing factors, research methods and corresponding ice control strategies of each process are summarized and discussed, respectively. The systematic introduction on mechanisms and control strategies of ice formation is instructive for the cryopreservation development.

Molecular Factors of Ice Growth Inhibition for Hyperactive and Globular Antifreeze Proteins: Insights from Molecular Dynamics Simulation

The molecular mechanism behind the ice growth inhibition by antifreeze proteins (AFPs) is yet to be understood completely. Also, what physical parameters differentiate between the AFP and non-AFP are largely unknown. Thus, to get an atomistic overview of the differential antifreeze activities of different classes of AFPs, we have studied ice growth from different ice surfaces in the presence of a moderately active globular type III AFP and a hyperactive spruce budworm (sbw) AFP. Results are compared with the observations of ice growth simulations in the presence of topologically similar non-AFPs using all-atom molecular dynamics simulations. Simulation data suggest that the ice surface coverage is a critical factor in ice growth inhibition. Due to the presence of an ice binding surface (IBS), AFPs form a high affinity complex with ice, accompanied by a transition of hydration water around the IBS from clathrate-like to ice-like. Several residues around the periphery of the IBS anchor the AFP to the curved ice surface mediated by multiple strong hydrogen bonds, stabilizing the complex immensely. In the high surface coverage regime, the slow unbinding kinetics dominates over the ice growth kinetics and thus facilitates the ice growth inhibition. Due to the non-availability of a proper IBS, non-AFPs form a low-affinity complex with the growing ice surface. As a result, the non-AFPs are continuously repelled by the surface. If the concentration of AFPs is low, then the effective surface coverage is reduced significantly. In this low surface coverage regime, AFPs can also behave like impurities and are engulfed by the growing ice crystal.

Bioinspired Threonine-Based Polymers with Potent Ice Recrystallization Inhibition Activity

Ice growth mitigation is a pervasive challenge for multiple industries. In nature, ice-binding proteins (IBPs) demonstrate potent ice growth prevention through ice recrystallization inhibition (IRI). However, IBPs are expensive, difficult to produce in large quantities, and exhibit minimal resilience to nonphysiological environmental stressors, such as pH. For these reasons, researchers have turned to bioinspired polymeric materials that mimic IBP behavior. To date, however, no synthetic polymer has rivaled the ability of native IBPs to display IRI activity at ultralow nanomolar concentrations. In this work, we study the IRI activity of peptides and polypeptides inspired by common ice-binding residues of IBPs to inform the synthesis and characterization of a potent bioinspired polymer that mimics IBP behavior. We show first that the threonine polypeptide (pThr) displays the best IRI activity in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Second, we use pThr as a molecular model to synthesize and test a bioinspired polymer, poly(2-hydroxypropyl methacrylamide) (pHPMA). We show that pHPMA exhibits potent IRI activity in neutral PBS at ultralow concentrations (0.01 mg/mL). pHPMA demonstrates potent IRI activity at low molecular weights (2.3 kDa), with improved activity at higher molecular weights (32.8 kDa). These results substantiate that pHPMA is a robust molecule that mitigates ice crystal growth at concentrations similar to native IBPs.

Electron microscopy and calorimetry of proteins in supercooled water

Some of the best nucleating agents in nature are ice-nucleating proteins, which boost ice growth better than any other material. They can induce immersion freezing of supercooled water only a few degrees below 0 °C. An open question is whether this ability also extends to the deposition mode, i.e., to water vapor. In this work, we used three proteins, apoferritin, InaZ (ice nucleation active protein Z), and myoglobin, of which the first two are classified as ice-nucleating proteins for the immersion freezing mode. We studied the ice nucleation ability of these proteins by differential scanning calorimetry (immersion freezing) and by environmental scanning electron microscopy (deposition freezing). Our data show that InaZ crystallizes water directly from the vapor phase, while apoferritin first condenses water in the supercooled state, and subsequently crystallizes it, just as myoglobin, which is unable to nucleate ice.

Water-organizing motif continuity is critical for potent ice nucleation protein activity

Bacterial ice nucleation proteins (INPs) can cause frost damage to plants by nucleating ice formation at high sub-zero temperatures. Modeling of Pseudomonas borealis INP by AlphaFold suggests that the central domain of 65 tandem sixteen-residue repeats forms a beta-solenoid with arrays of outward-pointing threonines and tyrosines, which may organize water molecules into an ice-like pattern. Here we report that mutating some of these residues in a central segment of P. borealis INP, expressed in Escherichia coli, decreases ice nucleation activity more than the section’s deletion. Insertion of a bulky domain has the same effect, indicating that the continuity of the water-organizing repeats is critical for optimal activity. The ~10 C-terminal coils differ from the other 55 coils in being more basic and lacking water-organizing motifs; deletion of this region eliminates INP activity. We show through sequence modifications how arrays of conserved motifs form the large ice-nucleating surface required for potency.

Ice nucleation proteins have the same tandemly arrayed water-organizing motifs seen in some antifreeze proteins, but on a larger scale. The authors show that mutation, interruption, and truncation of these arrays reduce ice nucleation activity indicating that the two protein types share a common mechanism.

Recent advances of bio-inspired anti-icing surfaces

The need for improved anti-icing surfaces is the demand of the time and closely related to many important aspects of our lives as surface icing threatens not only industrial production but also human safety. Freezing on a cold surface is usually a heterogeneous nucleation process induced by the substrate. Creating an anti-icing surface is mainly achieved by changing surface morphology and chemistry to regulate the interaction between the surface and the water/ice to inhibit freezing on the surface. In this paper, recent research progress in the creation of biomimetic anti-icing surfaces is reviewed. Firstly, basic strategies of bionic anti-icing are introduced, and then bionic anti-icing surface strategies are reviewed according to four aspects: the process of ice formation, including condensate self-removing, inhibiting ice nucleation, reducing ice adhesion, and melting accumulated ice on the surface. The remaining challenges and the direction of future development of biomimetic anti-icing surfaces are also discussed.

A mutation to a fish ice-binding protein synthesized in transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans modulate its cold tolerance

A cryoprotectant known as ice-binding protein (IBP) is thought to facilitate the cold survival of plants, insects, and fungi. Here, we prepared a genetically modified Caenorhabditis elegans strain to synthesize fish-derived IBPs in its body wall muscles and examined whether the antifreeze activity modification of this IBP by point mutation affects the cold tolerance of this worm. We chose a 65-residue IBP identified from notched-fin eelpout, for which the replacement of the 20th alanine residue (A20) modifies its antifreeze activity. These mutant proteins are denoted A20L, A20G, A20T, A20V, and A20I along with the wild-type (WT) protein. We evaluated the survival rate (%) of the transgenic C. elegans that synthesized each IBP mutant following 24 h of preservation at -5, +2, and +5 °C. Significantly, a dramatic improvement in the survival rate was detected for the worms synthesizing the activity-enhanced mutants (A20T and A20I), especially at +2 °C. In contrast, the rate was not improved by the expression of the defective mutants (A20L, A20G, WT and A20V). The survival rate (%) probably correlates with the antifreeze activity of the IBP. These data suggest that IBP protects the cell membrane by employing its ice-binding mechanism, which ultimately improves the cold tolerance of an IBP-containing animal.

The Spruce Budworm Genome: Reconstructing the Evolutionary History of Antifreeze Proteins

Insects have developed various adaptations to survive harsh winter conditions. Among freeze-intolerant species, some produce "antifreeze proteins" (AFPs) that bind to nascent ice crystals and inhibit further ice growth. Such is the case of the spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), a destructive North American conifer pest that can withstand temperatures below -30°C. Despite the potential importance of AFPs in the adaptive diversification of Choristoneura, genomic tools to explore their origins have until now been limited. Here we present a chromosome-scale genome assembly for C. fumiferana, which we used to conduct comparative genomic analyses aimed at reconstructing the evolutionary history of tortricid AFPs. The budworm genome features 16 genes homologous to previously reported C. fumiferana AFPs (CfAFPs), 15 of which map to a single region on chromosome 18. Fourteen of these were also detected in five congeneric species, indicating Choristoneura AFP diversification occurred before the speciation event that led to C. fumiferana. Although budworm AFPs were previously considered unique to the genus Choristoneura, a search for homologs targeting recently sequenced tortricid genomes identified seven CfAFP-like genes in the distantly related Notocelia uddmanniana. High structural similarity between Notocelia and Choristoneura AFPs suggests a common origin, despite the absence of homologs in three related tortricids. Interestingly, one Notocelia AFP formed the C-terminus of a "zonadhesin-like" protein, possibly representing the ancestral condition from which tortricid AFPs evolved. Future work should clarify the evolutionary path of AFPs between Notocelia and Choristoneura and assess the role of the "zonadhesin-like" protein as precursor of tortricid AFPs.

Comparative analysis of hydration layer reorientation dynamics of antifreeze protein and protein cytochrome P450

Antifreeze proteins (AFPs) inhibit ice re-crystallization by a mechanism remaining largely elusive. Dynamics of AFPs’ hydration water and its involvement in the antifreeze activity have not been identified conclusively. We herein, by simulation and theory, examined the water reorientation dynamics in the first hydration layer of an AFP from the spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana, compared with a protein cytochrome P450 (CYP). The increase of potential acceptor water molecules around donor water molecules leads to the acceleration of hydrogen bond exchange between water molecules. Therefore, the jump reorientation of water molecules around the AFP active region is accelerated. Due to the mutual coupling and excitation of hydrogen bond exchange, with the acceleration of hydrogen bond exchange, the rearrangement of the hydrogen bond network and the frame reorientation of water are accelerated. Therefore, the water reorientation dynamics of AFP is faster than that of CYP. The results of this study provide a new physical image of antifreeze protein and a new understanding of the antifreeze mechanism of antifreeze proteins.

Reflections on antifreeze proteins and their evolution

The discovery of radically different antifreeze proteins (AFPs) in fishes during the 1970s and 1980s suggested that these proteins had recently and independently evolved to protect teleosts from freezing in icy seawater. Early forays into the isolation and characterization of AFP genes in these fish showed they were massively amplified, often in long tandem repeats. The work of many labs in the 1980s onward led to the discovery and characterization of AFPs in other kingdoms, such as insects, plants, and many different microorganisms. The distinct ice-binding property that these ice-binding proteins (IBPs) share has facilitated their purification through adsorption to ice, and the ability to produce recombinant versions of IBPs has enabled their structural characterization and the mapping of their ice-binding sites (IBSs) using site-directed mutagenesis. One hypothesis for their ice affinity is that the IBS organizes surface waters into an ice-like pattern that freezes the protein onto ice. With access now to a rapidly expanding database of genomic sequences, it has been possible to trace the origins of some fish AFPs through the process of gene duplication and divergence, and to even show the horizontal transfer of an AFP gene from one species to another.

Design and Analysis of a Mutant form of the Ice-Binding Protein from Choristoneura fumiferana

Ice-binding proteins are expressed in the cells of some cold adapted organisms, helping them to survive at extremely low temperatures. One of the problems in studying such proteins is the difficulty of their isolation and purification. For example, eight cysteine residues in the cfAF (antifreeze protein from the eastern spruce budworm Choristoneura fumiferana) form intermolecular bridges during the overexpression of this protein. This impedes the process of the protein purification dramatically. To overcome this issue, in this work, we designed a mutant form of the ice-binding protein cfAFP, which is much easier to isolate that the wild-type protein. The mutant form named mIBP83 did not lose the ability to bind to ice surface. Besides, observation of the processes of freezing and melting of ice in the presence of mIBP83 showed that this protein affects the process of ice melting, increasing its melting temperature, and does not decrease the water freezing temperature.

Antifreeze Proteins: Novel Applications and Navigation towards Their Clinical Application in Cryobanking

Antifreeze proteins (AFPs) or thermal hysteresis (TH) proteins are biomolecular gifts of nature to sustain life in extremely cold environments. This family of peptides, glycopeptides and proteins produced by diverse organisms including bacteria, yeast, insects and fish act by non-colligatively depressing the freezing temperature of the water below its melting point in a process termed thermal hysteresis which is then responsible for ice crystal equilibrium and inhibition of ice recrystallisation; the major cause of cell dehydration, membrane rupture and subsequent cryodamage. Scientists on the other hand have been exploring various substances as cryoprotectants. Some of the cryoprotectants in use include trehalose, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), ethylene glycol (EG), sucrose, propylene glycol (PG) and glycerol but their extensive application is limited mostly by toxicity, thus fueling the quest for better cryoprotectants. Hence, extracting or synthesizing antifreeze protein and testing their cryoprotective activity has become a popular topic among researchers. Research concerning AFPs encompasses lots of effort ranging from understanding their sources and mechanism of action, extraction and purification/synthesis to structural elucidation with the aim of achieving better outcomes in cryopreservation. This review explores the potential clinical application of AFPs in the cryopreservation of different cells, tissues and organs. Here, we discuss novel approaches, identify research gaps and propose future research directions in the application of AFPs based on recent studies with the aim of achieving successful clinical and commercial use of AFPs in the future.

Novel synergistic freezing methods and technologies for enhanced food product quality: A critical review

Freezing has a long history as an effective food preservation method, but traditional freezing technologies have quality limitations, such as the potential for water loss and/or shrinkage and/or nutrient loss, etc. in the frozen products. Due to enhanced quality preservation and simpler thawing operation, synergistic technologies for freezing are emerging as the optimal methods for frozen food processing. This article comprehensively reviewed the recently developed synergistic technologies for freezing and pretreatment, for example, ultrasonication, cell alive system freezing, glass transition temperature regulation, high pressure freezing, pulsed electric field pretreatment, osmotic pretreatment, and antifreeze protein pretreatment, etc. The mechanisms and applications of these techniques are outlined briefly here. Though the application of new treatments in freezing is relatively mature, reducing the energy consumption in the application of these new technologies is a key issue for future research. It is also necessary to consider scale-up issues involved in large-scale applications as much of the research effort so far is limited to laboratory or pilot scale. For future development, intelligent freezing should be given more attention. Freezing should automatically identify and respond to different freezing conditions according to the nature of different materials to achieve more efficient freezing. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This paper provides a reference for subsequent production and research, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of different novel synergistic technologies, which points out the direction for subsequent industry development and research. At the same time, it provides new ideas for the freezing industry.

Identification and Functional Characterization of Antifreeze Protein and Its Mutants in Dendroctonus armandi (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) Larvae Under Cold Stress

Dendroctonus armandi (Tsai and Li) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) is considered to be the most destructive forest pest in the Qinling and Bashan Mountains of China. Low winter temperatures limit insect's populations, distribution, activity, and development. Insects have developed different strategies such as freeze-tolerance and freeze-avoidance to survive in low temperature conditions. In the present study, we used gene cloning, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), RNA interference (RNAi), and heterologous expression to study the function of the D. armandi antifreeze protein gene (DaAFP). We cloned the 800 bp full-length cDNA encoding 228 amino acids of DaAFP and analyzed its structure using bioinformatics analysis. The DaAFP amino acid sequence exhibited 24-86% similarity with other insect species. The expression of DaAFP was high in January and in the larvae, head, and midgut of D. armandi. In addition, the expression of DaAFP increased with decreasing temperature and increasing exposure time. RNAi analysis also demonstrated that AFP plays an important role in the cold tolerance of overwintering larvae. The thermal hysteresis and antifreeze activity assay of DaAFP and its mutants indicated that the more regular the DaAFP threonine-cystine-threonine (TXT) motif, the stronger the antifreeze activity. These results suggest that DaAFP plays an essential role as a biological cryoprotectant in overwintering D. armandi larvae and provides a theoretical basis for new pest control methods.

Importance of rigidity of ice-binding protein (FfIBP) for hyperthermal hysteresis activity and microbial survival

Ice-binding proteins (IBPs) are well-characterized proteins responsible for the cold-adaptation mechanisms. Despite extensive structural and biological investigation of IBPs and antifreeze proteins, only a few studies have considered the relationship between protein stabilization and thermal hysteresis (TH) activity as well as the implication of hyperactivity. Here, we investigated the important role of the head capping region in stabilization and the hyper-TH activity of FfIBP using molecular dynamics simulation. Data comparison revealed that residues on the ice-binding site of the hyperactive FfIBP are immobilized, which could be correlated with TH activity. Further comparison analysis indicated the disulfide bond in the head region is mainly involved in protein stabilization and is crucial for hyper-TH activity. This finding could also be generalized to known hyperactive IBPs. Furthermore, in mimicking the physiological conditions, bacteria with membrane-anchored FfIBP formed brine pockets in a TH activity-dependent manner. Cells with a higher number of TH-active IBPs showed an increased number of brine pockets, which may be beneficial for short- and long-term survival in cold environments by reducing the salt concentration. The newly identified conditions for hyper-TH activity and their implications on bacterial survival provide insights into novel mechanistic aspects of cold adaptation in polar microorganisms.

Toward Understanding Bacterial Ice Nucleation

Bacterial ice nucleators (INs) are among the most effective ice nucleators known and are relevant for freezing processes in agriculture, the atmosphere, and the biosphere. Their ability to facilitate ice formation is due to specialized ice-nucleating proteins (INPs) anchored to the outer bacterial cell membrane, enabling the crystallization of water at temperatures up to −2 °C. In this Perspective, we highlight the importance of functional aggregation of INPs for the exceptionally high ice nucleation activity of bacterial ice nucleators. We emphasize that the bacterial cell membrane, as well as environmental conditions, is crucial for a precise functional INP aggregation. Interdisciplinary approaches combining high-throughput droplet freezing assays with advanced physicochemical tools and protein biochemistry are needed to link changes in protein structure or protein–water interactions with changes on the functional level.

Structural diversity of marine anti-freezing proteins, properties and potential applications: a review

Cold-adapted organisms, such as fishes, insects, plants and bacteria produce a group of proteins known as antifreeze proteins (AFPs). The specific functions of AFPs, including thermal hysteresis (TH), ice recrystallization inhibition (IRI), dynamic ice shaping (DIS) and interaction with membranes, attracted significant interest for their incorporation into commercial products. AFPs represent their effects by lowering the water freezing point as well as preventing the growth of ice crystals and recrystallization during frozen storage. The potential of AFPs to modify ice growth results in ice crystal stabilizing over a defined temperature range and inhibiting ice recrystallization, which could minimize drip loss during thawing, improve the quality and increase the shelf-life of frozen products. Most cryopreservation studies using marine-derived AFPs have shown that the addition of AFPs can increase post-thaw viability. Nevertheless, the reduced availability of bulk proteins and the need of biotechnological techniques for industrial production, limit the possible usage in foods. Despite all these drawbacks, relatively small concentrations are enough to show activity, which suggests AFPs as potential food additives in the future. The present work aims to review the results of numerous investigations on marine-derived AFPs and discuss their structure, function, physicochemical properties, purification and potential applications.

Antifreeze proteins and their biomimetics for cell cryopreservation: Mechanism, function and application-A review

Cell-based therapy is a promising technology for intractable diseases and health care applications, in which cryopreservation has become an essential procedure to realize the production of therapeutic cells. Ice recrystallization is the major factor that affects the post-thaw viability of cells. As a typical series of biomacromolecules with ice recrystallization inhibition (IRI) activity, antifreeze proteins (AFPs) have been employed in cell cryopreservation. Meanwhile, synthesized materials with IRI activity have emerged in the name of biomimetics of AFPs to expand their availability and practicality. However, fabrication of AFPs mimetics is in a chaotic period. There remains little commonality among different AFPs mimetics, then it is difficult to set guidelines on their design. With no doubt, a comprehensive understanding on the antifreezing mechanism of AFPs in molecular level will enable us to rebuild the function of AFPs, and provide convenience to clarify the relationship between structure and function of these early stage biomimetics. In this review, we would discuss those previously reported biomimetics to summarize their structure characteristics concerning the IRI activity and attempt to develop a roadmap for guiding the design of novel AFPs mimetics.

Electrostatics Trigger Interfacial Self-Assembly of Bacterial Ice Nucleators

Ice active bacteria can catalyze water freezing at high subzero temperatures using ice nucleating proteins (INPs) located at their outer cell walls. INPs are the most effective ice nucleators known and are of significant interest for agriculture, climate research, and freeze/antifreeze technologies. The aggregation of INPs into large ice nucleation sites is a key step for effective ice nucleation. It has been proposed that ice active bacteria can drive the aggregation of INPs and thereby trigger ice nucleation. However, the mechanism of INP aggregate assembly and the molecular processes behind the activation are still unclear. Both biochemical pathways and activation through electrostatics have been proposed based on experiments with lysed ice active bacteria. For a more direct view on the assembly of INPs, we follow the structure and water interactions of a synthetic model INP of the well-studied ice bacterium Pseudomonas syringae at the air-water interface as a function of the subphase pH. By combining sum frequency generation spectroscopy with two-dimensional infrared spectra, we conclude that self-assembly and electrostatic interactions drive the formation of ordered INP structures capable of aligning interfacial water.

Anti freeze proteins (Afp): Properties, sources and applications - A review

Extreme cold marine and freshwater temperatures (below 4 °C) induce massive deterioration to the cell membranes of organisms resulting in the formation of ice crystals, consequently causing organelle damage or cell death. One of the adaptive mechanisms organisms have evolved to thrive in cold environments is the production of antifreeze proteins with the functional capabilities to withstand frigid temperatures. Antifreeze proteins are extensively identified in different cold-tolerant species and they facilitate the persistence of cold-adapted organisms by decreasing the freezing point of their body fluids. Various structurally diverse types of antifreeze proteins detected possess the ability to modify ice crystal growth by thermal hysteresis and ice recrystallization inhibition. The unique properties of antifreeze proteins have made them a promising resource in industry, biomedicine, food storage and cryobiology. This review collates the findings of the various studies carried out in the past and the recent developments observed in the properties, functional mechanisms, classification, distinct sources and the ever-increasing applications of antifreeze proteins. This review also summarizes the possibilities of the way forward to identify new avenues of research on anti-freeze proteins.

In Silico Modeling of the Influence of Environment on Amyloid Folding Using FOD-M Model

The role of the environment in amyloid formation based on the fuzzy oil drop model (FOD) is discussed here. This model assumes that the hydrophobicity distribution within a globular protein is consistent with a 3D Gaussian (3DG) distribution. Such a distribution is interpreted as the idealized effect of the presence of a polar solvent-water. A chain with a sequence of amino acids (which are bipolar molecules) determined by evolution recreates a micelle-like structure with varying accuracy. The membrane, which is a specific environment with opposite characteristics to the polar aquatic environment, directs the hydrophobic residues towards the surface. The modification of the FOD model to the FOD-M form takes into account the specificity of the cell membrane. It consists in "inverting" the 3DG distribution (complementing the Gaussian distribution), which expresses the exposure of hydrophobic residues on the surface. It turns out that the influence of the environment for any protein (soluble or membrane-anchored) is the result of a consensus factor expressing the participation of the polar environment and the "inverted" environment. The ratio between the proportion of the aqueous and the "reversed" environment turns out to be a characteristic property of a given protein, including amyloid protein in particular. The structure of amyloid proteins has been characterized in the context of prion, intrinsically disordered, and other non-complexing proteins to cover a wider spectrum of molecules with the given characteristics based on the FOD-M model.