Long-term outcome of microscopic esophagitis in chronic GERD patients treated with esomeprazole or laparoscopic antireflux surgery in the LOTUS trial

Number of bottles of esophageal biopsies in the evaluation of eosinophilic esophagitis and clinical outcomes

BACKGROUND

The number of bottles of esophageal biopsies needed for the evaluation of eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is unclear, despite cost differences.

AIMS

Assess the clinical outcomes between patients with one and two bottles of esophageal biopsies for the assessment of EoE.

METHODS

Retrospective study of adults who underwent esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) for esophageal symptoms between January 2015 and June 2021 and findings of ≥15 eosinophils per high power field (eos/hpf). Patients with one bottle (1 bottle-EoE) had biopsies from the entire or proximal esophagus. Patients with two bottles had biopsies separated from the distal and proximal esophagus and were separated into those with ≥ 15 eos/hpf in both bottles (2 bottle Dif-EoE), or the distal bottle alone (2 bottle Lim-EoE). The primary outcomes were endoscopic findings at follow-up EGD as assessed by the Eosinophilic Esophagitis Endoscopic Reference Score (EREFS) and the presence of ≥15 eos/hpf.

RESULTS

Of 85 patients with esophageal eosinophilia who met inclusion criteria, 49 had 2 bottle Dif-EoE, 18 had 2 bottle Lim-EoE, and 18 had 1 bottle-EoE. At median follow-up of 3.3-5.6 months, more patients with 1 bottle EoE had dysphagia (p = 0.029), however there were no differences in the EREFS (p = 0.14) or presence of ≥15 eos/hpf (p = 0.39). More patients with 2 bottle Dif-EoE were treated with topical steroids (16.3% vs. 0% vs. 0%, p = 0.039) and diet (20.4% vs. 0% vs. 5.6%, p = 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Endoscopic and histologic outcomes were similar in patients who had one and two bottles for esophageal biopsies in the evaluation of EoE.

A Comparative Assessment of the Diagnosis of Swallowing Impairment and Gastroesophageal Reflux in Canines and Humans

Swallowing impairment is a highly prevalent and clinically significant problem affecting people and dogs. There are myriad causes of swallowing impairment of which gastroesophageal reflux is the most common in both species. Similarities in anatomy and physiology between humans and canines results in analogous swallowing disorders including cricopharyngeus muscle achalasia, esophageal achalasia, hiatal herniation, and gastroesophageal reflux with secondary esophagitis and esophageal dysmotility. Accordingly, the diagnostic approach to human and canine patients with swallowing impairment is similar. Diagnostic procedures such as swallowing fluoroscopy, high-resolution manometry, pH/impedance monitoring, and endolumenal functional luminal imaging probe can be performed in both species; however, nasofacial conformation, increased esophageal length, and the difficulty of completing several of these procedures in awake dogs are inherent challenges that need to be considered. Human patients can convey their symptoms and respond to verbal cues, whereas veterinarians must rely on clinical histories narrated by pet owners followed by comprehensive physical examination and observation of the animal eating different food consistencies and drinking water. Dogs may also be unwilling to drink or eat in the hospital setting and may be resistant to physical restraint during diagnostic procedures. Despite the species differences and diagnostic challenges, dogs are a natural animal model for many oropharyngeal and esophageal disorders affecting people, which presents a tremendous opportunity for shared learnings. This manuscript reviews the comparative aspects of esophageal anatomy and physiology between humans and canines, summarizes the diagnostic assessment of swallowing impairment in both species, and discusses future considerations for collaborative medicine and translational research.

Severity of GERD and disease progression

BACKGROUND

Many factors may play a role in the severity and progression of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) since pathophysiology is multifactorial. Data regarding the progression of GERD are controversial: some reports of increased esophageal acid exposure (EAE) and mucosal damage were considered as evidence for a stable disease course, while others interprete these findings as disease progression. The aim of this study is to analyze a large patient-population with persisting symptoms indicative of GERD under protonpumpinhibitor-therapy and identify components characterizing disease severity and progression.

METHODS

Patients with symptoms indicative of GERD were included in the study in a tertiary referral center (Frankfurt, Germany). All selected patients were under long-term protonpumpinhibitor-therapy with persistant symptoms. All patients underwent investigations to collect data on their physical status, EAE, severity of esophagitis, anatomical changes, and esophageal functional defects as well as their relation to the duration of the disease. Incidence over time was plotted as survival curves and tested with Log-rank tests for the four main disease markers. Multivariate modeling with COX-regression model was used to estimate the general impact of the four main disease markers on the time course of the disease. In order to elucidate possible causal relationships over time, a path analysis (structural equation model) was calculated.

RESULTS

From the database with 1480 data sets, 972 patients were evaluated (542 males, 430 females). The mean age was 50.5 years (range18-89). The mean body mass index was 27.2(19-48). The mean time between the onset of symptoms and the diagnostic investigations was 8.2 years (1-50). A longer disease history for GERD was significantly associated with a higher risk for LES-incompetence. The mean duration from symptom onset to the time of clinical investigation was 9 years for patients with LES-incompetence (n = 563), compared to a mean of 6 years for those with mechanically intact LES (n = 95). A longer period from symptom onset to diagnostics was significantly associated with higher acid exposure. The pathway analysis was significant for the following model: 'history' (P < 0.001➔LES-incompetence & Hiatal Hernia➔(p < 0,001)➔pH-score (P < 0.001).Conclusion: LES-incompetence, the functional deterioration of the LES, and the anatomical alteration at the esophagogastric junction (Hiatal Hernia) as well as an increased EAE were associated with a long history of suffering from GERD. Path modeling suggests a causal sequence overtime of the main disease-parameters, tentatively allowing for a prediction of the course of the disease.

How a modified Nissen procedure works: a mechanistic study using intraoperative esophageal high-resolution manometry

OBJECTIVE

We aimed at demonstrating how a modified Nissen procedure works by analyzing intraoperatively the variations of the low esophageal sphincter pressure values using high resolution manometry.

METHODS

This study included 15 patients with documented gastroesophageal reflux disease who underwent a laparoscopic modified Nissen procedure. Data regarding the changes in the pressure values were recorded at each step of the procedures using high resolution manometry and after the progressive insufflation of air in the stomach. Categorical data were compared between the preoperative and postoperative periods using Fisher's test, and continuous data were compared using Mann-Whitney U non-parametric test. Preoperative versus postoperative variations in continuous data were assessed using Wilcoxon's non-parametric test for paired data.

RESULTS

Intraoperative manometric data showed a rise of basal LES pressure until the creation of the wrap. An evident increase of pressure values was recorded after gastric air insufflation, as consequence of the increase of intragastric pressure. No intraoperative and postoperative complications were observed. All patients experienced a significant reduction in terms of intensity and frequency of gastroesophageal reflux symptoms and no patients complained of dysphagia.

CONCLUSIONS

Intraoperative high resolution manometry was feasible in all patients and demonstrated that the modified Nissen procedure works by increasing the LES pressure in response to gastric distension, without impeding the progression of the bolus into the stomach.

Gastro-esophageal reflux disease and Barrett's esophagus: an overview with an histologic diagnostic approach

The first part of this overview on non-neoplastic esophagus is focused on gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) and Barrett’s esophagus. In the last 20 years much has changed in histological approach to biopsies of patients with gastro-esophageal reflux disease. In particular, elementary histologic lesions have been well defined and modality of evaluation and grade are detailed, their sensitivity and specificity has been evaluated and their use has been validated by several authors. Also if there is not a clinical indication to perform biopsies in patient with GERD, the diagnosis of microscopic esophagitis, when biopsies are provided, can be performed by following simple rules for evaluation which allow pathologists to make the diagnosis with confidence. On the other hand, biopsies are required for the diagnosis of Barrett’s esophagus. This diagnosis is the synthesis of endoscopic picture (which has to be provided with the proper description on extent and with adequate biopsies number) and histologic pattern. The current guidelines and expert opinions for the correct management of these diagnosis are detailed.

Mortality, Reoperation, and Hospital Stay Within 90 Days of Primary and Secondary Antireflux Surgery in a Population-Based Multinational Study

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Absolute rates and risk factors of short-term outcomes after antireflux surgery remain largely unknown. We aimed to clarify absolute risks and risk factors for poor 90-day outcomes of primary laparoscopic and secondary antireflux surgery.

METHODS

This population-based cohort study included patients who had primary laparoscopic or secondary antireflux surgery in the 5 Nordic countries in 2000-2018. In addition to absolute rates, we analyzed age, sex, comorbidity, hospital volume, and calendar period in relation to all-cause 90-day mortality (main outcome), 90-day reoperation, and prolonged hospital stay (≥2 days over median stay). Multivariable logistic regression provided odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI), adjusted for confounders.

RESULTS

Among 26,193 patients who underwent primary laparoscopic antireflux surgery, postoperative 90-day mortality and 90-day reoperation rates were 0.13% (n = 35) and 3.0% (n = 750), respectively. The corresponding rates after secondary antireflux surgery (n = 1 618) were 0.19% (n = 3) and 6.2% (n = 94). Higher age (56-80 years vs 18-42 years: OR, 2.66; 95% CI 1.03-6.85) and comorbidity (Charlson Comorbidity Index ≥2 vs 0: OR, 6.25; 95% CI 2.42-16.14) increased risk of 90-day mortality after primary surgery, and higher hospital volume suggested a decreased risk (highest vs lowest tertile: OR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.22-1.57). Comorbidity increased the risk of 90-day reoperation. Higher age and comorbidity increased risk of prolonged hospital stay after both primary and secondary surgery. Higher annual hospital volume decreased the risk of prolonged hospital stay after primary surgery (highest vs lowest tertile: OR, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.67-0.80).

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that laparoscopic antireflux surgery has an overall favorable safety profile in the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease, particularly in younger patients without severe comorbidity who undergo surgery at high-volume centers.

Surgical treatment of GERD: systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) has a high worldwide prevalence in adults and children. There is uncertainty regarding medical versus surgical therapy and different surgical techniques. This review assessed outcomes of antireflux surgery versus medical management of GERD in adults and children, robotic versus laparoscopic fundoplication, complete versus partial fundoplication, and minimal versus maximal dissection in pediatric patients.

METHODS

PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane databases were searched (2004-2019) to identify randomized control and non-randomized comparative studies. Two independent reviewers screened for eligibility. Random effects meta-analysis was performed on comparative data. Study quality was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias and Newcastle Ottawa Scale.

RESULTS

From 1473 records, 105 studies were included. Most had high or uncertain risk of bias. Analysis demonstrated that anti-reflux surgery was associated with superior short-term quality of life compared to PPI (Std mean difference =  - 0.51, 95%CI  - 0.63, - 0.40, I² = 0%) however short-term symptom control was not significantly superior (RR = 0.75, 95%CI 0.47, 1.21, I² = 82%). A proportion of patients undergoing operative treatment continue PPI treatment (28%). Robotic and laparoscopic fundoplication outcomes were similar. Compared to total fundoplication, partial fundoplication was associated with higher rates of prolonged PPI usage (RR = 2.06, 95%CI 1.08, 3.94, I² = 45%). There was no statistically significant difference for long-term symptom control (RR = 0.94, 95%CI 0.85, 1.04, I² = 53%) or long-term dysphagia (RR = 0.73, 95%CI 0.52, 1.02, I² = 0%). Ien, minimal dissection during fundoplication was associated with lower reoperation rates than maximal dissection (RR = 0.21, 95%CI 0.06, 0.67).

CONCLUSIONS

The available evidence regarding the optimal treatment of GERD often suffers from high risk of bias. Additional high-quality randomized control trials may further inform surgical decision making in the treatment of GERD.

Impact of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease on Mucosal Immunity and Atopic Disorders

Atopic disorders and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) are some of the most common medical conditions treated by primary care physicians and specialists alike. The observation that atopic disorders, like asthma, allergic rhinitis and sinusitis, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, and eosinophilic esophagitis are common comorbidities in patients with GERD raises the question of the nature of the relationship that may exist between GERD and atopic disorders. In this article, we review the pathophysiology of GERD, its effect on the immune system, the effect of acid-blocking medications on allergic responses, as well as several common atopic conditions that have been associated with GERD including asthma, chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS), allergic rhinitis (AR), atopic dermatitis (AD), contact dermatitis (CD), food allergies, proton pump inhibitor (PPI)-responsive esophageal eosinophilia (PPI-REE), and eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). In each condition, the evidence of a causal link is not definitive. Although the relationship between asthma and GERD remains controversial, evidence suggests that a subset of asthma patients with documented GERD may experience improved asthma control following appropriate treatment of GERD. The relationship of GERD to allergic rhinitis and chronic sinusitis is weak; however, studies support the concept that treatment of frequent episodes of GERD can have a positive effect on rhinitis and sinusitis overall. The relationship between allergic sensitization and GERD is likely bidirectional. GERD may induce changes in the mucosal immune system that may favor the development of food allergy and allergic sensitization to aeroallergens; however, the underlying mechanisms have not been established.

Eosinophilic esophagitis incidence in New Zealand: high but not increasing

Background and aim

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is an immune-mediated inflammatory condition of the esophagus. Recent literature has shown an increasing incidence of the disease. However, no epidemiological data exist regarding New Zealand rates of EoE. The disease is associated with atopy, and New Zealand's high rate of atopic disease means the disease may be important in our population. We carried out a retrospective study to describe the incidence of EoE in the Wellington region of New Zealand, as well as key histological and clinical factors associated with the disease.

Method

A search was made of laboratory and endoscopic databases in the Wellington region to identify all diagnosed cases in the five years between January 1, 2011, and December 31, 2015. Case notes were examined to determine the key demographic and clinical parameters in the cases. Incidence rates were calculated for each year, and the effects of age group and sex on the incidence rates were analyzed.

Result

We found 152 cases of EoE in the Wellington region with an annual incidence of 6.95 per 100,000 person/years. We found no evidence of a significant difference in incidence rates by year in our study population. There was a significantly lower incidence rate in those aged <16 compared to those aged ≥16 (RR=0.26). Males had a higher incidence rate than females with an estimated rate ratio of 2.45 (p<0.05).

Conclusion

Our results are in contrast to previous reports of increasing incidence rates and may reflect a leveling off of incidence. Further research is needed to determine whether the low incidence in our pediatric age group is due to ascertainment bias or due to a real difference in the epidemiology of EoE in NZ compared to other countries.

The Evolving Role of Mucosal Histology in the Evaluation of Pediatric Functional Dyspepsia: A Review

Although not required to establish the diagnosis, endoscopy with mucosal biopsy is commonly performed in the evaluation of children with dyspepsia. Traditionally, esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) has been performed in children with abdominal pain to identify pathology or conversely, to “rule-out” organic disease in order to establish a diagnosis of FD. In this review, we discuss the current diagnostic yield of endoscopically-obtained biopsies in identifying disease in children and adolescents with dyspepsia including an expanded discussion of common histologic diagnoses where clinical significance has not been definitively established. In turn, we discuss the transition of endoscopy from a search for disease to a search for biologic contributors to symptom generation, while considering the growing evidence linking non-diagnostic mucosal inflammation to FD, specifically mast cells and eosinophils.

Updated International Consensus Diagnostic Criteria for Eosinophilic Esophagitis: Proceedings of the AGREE Conference

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Over the last decade, clinical experiences and research studies raised concerns regarding use of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) as part of the diagnostic strategy for eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). We aimed to clarify the use of PPIs in the evaluation and treatment of children and adults with suspected EoE to develop updated international consensus criteria for EoE diagnosis.

METHODS

A consensus conference was convened to address the issue of PPI use for esophageal eosinophilia using a process consistent with standards described in the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation II. Pediatric and adult physicians and researchers from gastroenterology, allergy, and pathology subspecialties representing 14 countries used online communications, teleconferences, and a face-to-face meeting to review the literature and clinical experiences.

RESULTS

Substantial evidence documented that PPIs reduce esophageal eosinophilia in children, adolescents, and adults, with several mechanisms potentially explaining the treatment effect. Based on these findings, an updated diagnostic algorithm for EoE was developed, with removal of the PPI trial requirement.

CONCLUSIONS

EoE should be diagnosed when there are symptoms of esophageal dysfunction and at least 15 eosinophils per high-power field (or approximately 60 eosinophils per mm²) on esophageal biopsy and after a comprehensive assessment of non-EoE disorders that could cause or potentially contribute to esophageal eosinophilia. The evidence suggests that PPIs are better classified as a treatment for esophageal eosinophilia that may be due to EoE than as a diagnostic criterion, and we have developed updated consensus criteria for EoE that reflect this change.

Relevance of histology in the diagnosis of reflux esophagitis

Reflux esophagitis is an important clinical diagnosis; however, the histologic findings can be nonspecific and overlap with other entities. Various benign changes can produce diagnostic difficulties for pathologists. In this review, the typical histologic findings of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) of the esophagus are discussed, along with the issues relating to clinical correlation and technical aspects of endoscopic biopsies and specimen processing. The literature has been reviewed to discuss histologic definitions of GERD as well as current and developing controversies in the area of GERD. Histologic features are not entirely sensitive or specific for GERD. Awareness of these problems is essential; clinical and endoscopic information can be very useful in distinguishing GERD from other inflammatory lesions.

Pathophysiology of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease

The pathogenesis of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is complex and involves changes in reflux exposure, epithelial resistance, and visceral sensitivity. The gastric refluxate is a noxious material that injures the esophagus and elicits symptoms. Esophageal exposure to gastric refluxate is the primary determinant of disease severity. This exposure arises via compromise of the anti-reflux barrier and reduced ability of the esophagus to clear and buffer the refluxate, leading to reflux disease. However, complications and symptoms also occur in the context of normal reflux burden, when there is either poor epithelial resistance or increased visceral sensitivity. Reflux therefore develops via alterations in the balance of aggressive and defensive forces.

Expert consensus document: Advances in the physiological assessment and diagnosis of GERD

GERD is a common condition worldwide. Key mechanisms of disease include abnormal oesophagogastric junction structure and function, and impaired oesophageal clearance. A therapeutic trial of acid-suppressive PPI therapy is often the initial management, with endoscopy performed in the setting of alarm symptoms and to exclude other conditions. If symptoms persist and endoscopy does not reveal evidence of GERD, oesophageal function tests are performed, including oesophageal manometry and ambulatory reflux monitoring. However, reflux episodes can be physiological, and some findings on endoscopy and manometry can be encountered in asymptomatic individuals without GERD symptoms. The diagnosis of GERD on the basis of functional oesophageal testing has been previously reported, but no updated expert recommendations on indications and the interpretation of oesophageal function testing in GERD has been made since the Porto consensus over a decade ago. In this Consensus Statement, we aim to describe modern oesophageal physiological tests and their analysis with an emphasis on establishing indications and consensus on interpretation parameters of oesophageal function testing for the evaluation of GERD in clinical practice. This document reflects the collective conclusions of the international GERD working group, incorporating existing data with expert consensus opinion.

Drugs for improving esophageal mucosa defense: where are we now and where are we going?

In the past, the attention of physiologists and doctors has been mainly focused on the key role of acid in the pathogenesis of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), but increasing evidence that 20-40% of reflux patients respond not at all or only partially to proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) has underlined the concept that factors other than acid are implicated in its development and the elicitation of symptoms. Among these, impaired mucosal integrity, particularly in most patients with non-erosive reflux disease, has recently been reincluded and the reinforcement of defensive mechanisms and/or its protection has been reappointed as a renewed therapeutic target for the management of GERD patients. In this review we will summarize the existing knowledge of the old and novel compounds able to produce this therapeutic effect, including sucralfate, alginate-based drugs, and a new medical device consisting of hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate dispersed in a bioadhesive carrier, together with the potential indications for their use. It is to be stressed, however, that, although these compounds may represent a real alternative to PPI therapy in GERD, the combination of mucosal protection with acid suppression may help manage many cases with a partial or unsatisfactory response to PPIs alone.

Clinical Applications of the Eosinophilic Esophagitis Diagnostic Panel

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a recently recognized upper gastrointestinal allergic disorder characterized by esophageal dysfunction (e.g., dysphagia) and esophageal eosinophilia of ≥15 eosinophils/high-power field in patients who have persistent esophagitis even on proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy. The histologic method is the gold standard of EoE diagnosis. However, EoE clinical symptoms do not always correlate with histology, and the histologic method has sensitivity and specificity issues due to the patchiness of EoE and the subjective nature of the method. The “EoE transcriptome” was initially discovered in 2006, which led to the invention of the EoE diagnostic panel (EDP). In addition to providing a definitive EoE diagnosis with high accuracy, the EDP has been useful in elucidating several key elements about the disease including the efficacy of specific drugs such as swallowed glucocorticoids and anti-IL-13 humanized antibody therapy, the relationship between EoE and PPI-responsive esophageal eosinophilia, and predicting the disease course and responsiveness to therapy. The EDP’s long-term potential arises from its plasticity to incorporate new genes and uncover novel disease pathogenesis. We expect that the EDP will be increasingly helpful for personalized medicine approaches and improved diagnostics and disease monitoring.

Impact of gastroesophageal reflux control through tailored proton pump inhibition therapy or fundoplication in patients with Barrett’s esophagus

AIM

To determine the impact of upwards titration of proton pump inhibition (PPI) on acid reflux, symptom scores and histology, compared to clinically successful fundoplication.

METHODS

Two cohorts of long-segment Barrett’s esophagus (BE) patients were studied. In group 1 (n = 24), increasing doses of PPI were administered in 8-wk intervals until acid reflux normalization. At each assessment, ambulatory 24 h pH recording, endoscopy with biopsies and symptom scoring (by a gastroesophageal reflux disease health related quality of life questionnaire, GERD/HRLQ) were performed. Group 2 (n = 30) consisted of patients with a previous fundoplication.

RESULTS

In group 1, acid reflux normalized in 23 of 24 patients, resulting in improved GERD/HRQL scores (P = 0.001), which were most pronounced after the starting dose of PPI (P < 0.001). PPI treatment reached the same level of GERD/HRQL scores as after a clinically successful fundoplication (P = 0.5). Normalization of acid reflux in both groups was associated with reduction in papillary length, basal cell layer thickness, intercellular space dilatation, and acute and chronic inflammation of squamous epithelium.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that acid reflux and symptom scores co-vary throughout PPI increments in long-segment BE patients, especially after the first dose of PPI, reaching the same level as after a successful fundoplication. Minor changes were found among GERD markers at the morphological level.

The dynamics of the oesophageal squamous epithelium 'normalisation' process in patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux disease treated with long-term acid suppression or anti-reflux surgery

BACKGROUND

Proton pump inhibitors and laparoscopic anti-reflux surgery (LARS) offer long-term symptom control to patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

AIM

To evaluate the process of 'normalisation' of the squamous epithelium morphology of the distal oesophagus on these therapies.

METHODS

In the LOTUS trial, 554 patients with chronic GERD were randomised to receive either esomeprazole (20-40 mg daily) or LARS. After 5 years, 372 patients remained in the study (esomeprazole, 192; LARS, 180). Biopsies were taken at the Z-line and 2 cm above, at baseline, 1, 3 and 5 years. A severity score was calculated based on: papillae elongation, basal cell hyperplasia, intercellular space dilatations and eosinophilic infiltration. The epithelial proliferative activity was assessed by Ki-67 immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

A gradual improvement in all variables over 5 years was noted in both groups, at both the Z-line and 2 cm above. The severity score decreased from baseline at each subsequent time point in both groups (P < 0.001, all comparisons), attaining a normal level by 5 years. Corresponding decreases in Ki-67 expression were observed (P < 0.001, all comparisons). No significant differences were found between esomeprazole treatment and LARS. Neither baseline severity score nor Ki-67 expression predicted the risk of treatment failure.

CONCLUSIONS

Five years of treatment is generally required before squamous epithelial cell morphology and proliferation are 'normalised' in patients with chronic GERD, despite endoscopic and symptomatic disease control. Control of the acid component of the refluxate seems to play the predominant role in restoring tissue morphology.

Diagnosis of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease is enhanced by adding oesophageal histology and excluding epigastric pain

BACKGROUND

The diagnosis of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GERD) in clinical practice is limited by the sensitivity and specificity of symptoms and diagnostic testing.

AIM

To determine if adding histology as a criterion and excluding patients with epigastric pain enhances the diagnosis for GERD.

METHODS

Patients with frequent upper gastrointestinal symptoms who had not taken a proton pump inhibitor in the previous 2 months and who had evaluable distal oesophageal biopsies were included (Diamond study: NCT00291746). Epithelial hyperplasia was identified when total epithelial thickness was at least 430 μm. Investigation-based GERD criteria were: presence of erosive oesophagitis, pathological oesophageal acid exposure and/or positive symptom-acid association probability. Symptoms were assessed using the Reflux Disease Questionnaire and a pre-specified checklist.

RESULTS

Overall, 127 (55%) of the 231 included patients met investigation-based GERD criteria and 195 (84%) met symptom-based criteria. Epithelial hyperplasia was present in 89 individuals, of whom 61 (69%) met investigation-based criteria and 83 (93%) met symptom-based criteria. Adding epithelial hyperplasia as a criterion increased the number of patients diagnosed with GERD on investigation by 28 [12%; number needed to diagnose (NND): 8], to 155 (67%). The proportion of patients with a symptom-based GERD diagnosis who met investigation-based criteria including epithelial hyperplasia was significantly greater when concomitant epigastric pain was absent than when it was present (P < 0.05; NND: 8).

CONCLUSIONS

Histology increases diagnosis of GERD and should be performed when clinical suspicion is high and endoscopy is negative. Excluding patients with epigastric pain enhances sensitivity for the diagnosis of GERD.

Epithelial Thickness is a Marker of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Histologic criteria have been refined for the diagnosis of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). We aimed to evaluate these criteria for the assessment of GERD and to measure interassessor agreement.

METHODS

We performed a post hoc analysis of data from the Diamond study (NCT 00291746), conducted in Europe and Canada on adults with frequent upper gastrointestinal symptoms who had not taken a proton pump inhibitor in the previous 2 months. GERD was diagnosed based on the presence of 1 or more of the following: reflux esophagitis, pathologic esophageal acid exposure, and/or positive symptom-acid association probability. Nonerosive reflux disease was defined as the presence of pathologic esophageal acid exposure and/or a positive symptom-acid association probability, but no reflux esophagitis. Biopsies collected from 336 patients from 0.5 cm and 2.0 cm above the Z line were evaluable; they were analyzed independently at pathology centers in Germany and Italy (biopsies from 258 and 195 patients, respectively). The primary outcomes were the accuracy of histologic criteria for the diagnosis of GERD, defined by endoscopy and pH monitoring, and interassessor agreement on histologic criteria.

RESULTS

At the assessment site for basal cell layer thickness, total epithelial thickness was the best-performing criterion for diagnosis of investigation-defined GERD; it also identified nonerosive reflux disease, reflux esophagitis, and pathologic esophageal acid exposure at 0.5 cm and 2.0 cm above the Z line. Basal cell layer thickness and presence of dilated intercellular spaces did not identify patients with GERD. Among the criteria tested, the best agreement between assessments carried out at the 2 pathology centers was for total epithelial thickness at 0.5 cm and 2.0 cm above the Z line.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on an analysis of 336 patients with frequent upper gastrointestinal symptoms, total epithelial thickness is a robust histologic marker for GERD.

Increased TRPV1 and PAR2 mRNA expression levels are associated only with the esophageal reflux symptoms, but not with the extraesophageal reflux symptoms

Transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) receptor and proteinase-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) have been implicated in the mechanism of acid-induced inflammation in gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). We aimed to evaluate TRPV1 and PAR2 mRNA expression levels in the GERD patients and their relationship with endoscopic findings and reflux symptoms.Sixteen healthy controls, 45 patients with erosive reflux disease (ERD), and 14 nonerosive reflux disease (NERD) patients received endoscopy and completed questionnaires. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reactions (qPCR) of TRPV1, glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), nerve growth factor (NGF), PAR2, and interleukin (IL)-8 were performed in the distal esophagus specimen.The levels of TRPV1, GDNF, NGF, PAR2, and IL-8 mRNA expression were highest in the ERD group followed by NERD and control groups and the differences between control and ERD groups were statistically significant. Within the ERD group, patients with grade B in Los Angeles (LA) classification showed significantly higher levels of TRPV1, GDNF, and NGF mRNA expression than those with grade A. Presence of reflux symptoms was associated with significant higher levels of TRPV1, PAR2, and IL-8. Notably not extraesophageal but esophageal reflux symptoms were significantly associated with them.Upregulation of TRPV1 and PAR2 pathways might play a role in the development of distal esophageal inflammation and reflux symptoms. And extraesophageal reflux symptoms might not be associated with these processes.

Esophageal Epithelial-Derived IL-33 Is Upregulated in Patients with Heartburn

Background

Interleukin-33 (IL-33) is a tissue-derived cytokine that is constitutively expressed in epithelial cells of tissues exposed to the environment and plays a role in sensing damage caused by inflammatory diseases. IL-33 acts as both a traditional cytokine and as a chromatin-associated nuclear factor in both innate and adaptive immunity. We recently showed that IL-33 in esophageal mucosa is upregulated in reflux esophagitis. However, IL-33 expression in patients with heartburn without mucosal injury and its relationship with intercellular space (ICS) have never been examined. We therefore examined the expression of cytokines and ICS in patients with heartburn.

Methods

The expression of IL-33 in the middle and distal esophageal mucosa of patients with heartburn without mucosal break and control samples was examined using real-time RT-PCR and immunofluorescence. The mRNA expression of IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1, and RANTES, and ICS was also analyzed.

Results

IL-33 expression and the mean ICS were significantly increased in the mucosa of patients with heartburn compared to that of the control. IL-33 and ICS were not different between the patients who were taking a PPI and those who were not. The upregulated IL-33 expression in the heartburn group was located in the nuclei of the basal cell layer. Although IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1 and RANTES levels were not different between control and patients with heartburn samples, IL-33 mRNA levels were still significantly correlated with IL-6, IL-8, or MCP-1 mRNA levels.

Conclusion

Nuclear IL-33 is upregulated in patients with heartburn. Upregulated IL-33 in heartburn patients is related to the symptoms.

Identifying Minimal Changes in Nonerosive Reflux Disease: Is the Pay Worth the Labor?

Gastroesophageal reflux disease has a variable presentation on upper endoscopy. Gastroesophageal reflux disease can be divided into 3 endoscopic categories: Barrett's esophagus, erosive esophagitis, and normal mucosa/nonerosive reflux disease (NERD). Each of these phenotypes behave in a distinct manner, in regards to symptom response to treatment, and risk of development of complications such as esophageal adenocarcinoma. Recently, it has been proposed to further differentiate NERD into 2 categories: those with and those without "minimal changes." These minimal changes include endoscopic abnormalities, such as villous mucosal surface, mucosal islands, microerosions, and increased vascularity at the squamocolumnar junction. Although some studies have shown that patients with minimal changes may have higher rates of esophageal acid exposure compared with those without minimal changes, it is currently unclear if these patients behave differently than those currently categorized as having NERD. The clinical utility of identifying these lesions should be weighed against the cost of the requisite equipment and the additional time required for diagnosis, compared with conventional white light endoscopy.

Laparoscopic fundoplication surgery versus medical management for gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) in adults

BACKGROUND

Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) is a common condition with 3% to 33% of people from different parts of the world suffering from GORD. There is considerable uncertainty about whether people with GORD should receive an operation or medical treatment for controlling the condition.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the benefits and harms of laparoscopic fundoplication versus medical treatment for people with gastro-oesophageal reflux disease.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Upper Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Diseases Group (UGPD) Trials Register (June 2015), Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library Issue 6, 2015), Ovid MEDLINE (1966 to June 2015), and EMBASE (1980 to June 2015) to identify randomised controlled trials. We also searched the references of included trials to identify further trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We considered only randomised controlled trials (RCT) comparing laparoscopic fundoplication with medical treatment in people with GORD irrespective of language, blinding, or publication status for inclusion in the review.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently identified trials and independently extracted data. We calculated the risk ratio (RR) or standardised mean difference (SMD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) using both fixed-effect and random-effects models with RevMan 5 based on available case analysis.

MAIN RESULTS

Four studies met the inclusion criteria for the review, and provided information on one or more outcomes for the review. A total of 1160 participants in the four RCTs were either randomly assigned to laparoscopic fundoplication (589 participants) or medical treatment with proton pump inhibitors (571 participants). All the trials included participants who had had reflux symptoms for at least six months and had received long-term acid suppressive therapy. All the trials included only participants who could undergo surgery if randomised to the surgery arm. All of the trials were at high risk of bias. The overall quality of evidence was low or very low. None of the trials reported long-term health-related quality of life (HRQoL) or GORD-specific quality of life (QoL).The difference between laparoscopic fundoplication and medical treatment was imprecise for overall short-term HRQOL (SMD 0.14, 95% CI -0.02 to 0.30; participants = 605; studies = 3), medium-term HRQOL (SMD 0.03, 95% CI -0.19 to 0.24; participants = 323; studies = 2), medium-term GORD-specific QoL (SMD 0.28, 95% CI -0.27 to 0.84; participants = 994; studies = 3), proportion of people with adverse events (surgery: 7/43 (adjusted proportion = 14.0%); medical: 0/40 (0.0%); RR 13.98, 95% CI 0.82 to 237.07; participants = 83; studies = 1), long-term dysphagia (surgery: 27/118 (adjusted proportion = 22.9%); medical: 28/110 (25.5%); RR 0.90, 95% CI 0.57 to 1.42; participants = 228; studies = 1), and long-term reflux symptoms (surgery: 29/118 (adjusted proportion = 24.6%); medical: 41/115 (35.7%); RR 0.69, 95% CI 0.46 to 1.03; participants = 233; studies = 1).The short-term GORD-specific QoL was better in the laparoscopic fundoplication group than in the medical treatment group (SMD 0.58, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.70; participants = 1160; studies = 4).The proportion of people with serious adverse events (surgery: 60/331 (adjusted proportion = 18.1%); medical: 38/306 (12.4%); RR 1.46, 95% CI 1.01 to 2.11; participants = 637; studies = 2), short-term dysphagia (surgery: 44/331 (adjusted proportion = 12.9%); medical: 11/306 (3.6%); RR 3.58, 95% CI 1.91 to 6.71; participants = 637; studies = 2), and medium-term dysphagia (surgery: 29/288 (adjusted proportion = 10.2%); medical: 5/266 (1.9%); RR 5.36, 95% CI 2.1 to 13.64; participants = 554; studies = 1) was higher in the laparoscopic fundoplication group than in the medical treatment group.The proportion of people with heartburn at short term (surgery: 29/288 (adjusted proportion = 10.0%); medical: 59/266 (22.2%); RR 0.45, 95% CI 0.30 to 0.69; participants = 554; studies = 1), medium term (surgery: 12/288 (adjusted proportion = 4.2%); medical: 59/266 (22.2%); RR 0.19, 95% CI 0.10 to 0.34; participants = 554; studies = 1), long term (surgery: 46/111 (adjusted proportion = 41.2%); medical: 78/106 (73.6%); RR 0.56, 95% CI 0.44 to 0.72); participants = 217; studies = 1) and those with reflux symptoms at short-term (surgery: 6/288 (adjusted proportion = 2.0%); medical: 53/266 (19.9%); RR 0.10, 95% CI 0.05 to 0.24; participants = 554; studies = 1) and medium term (surgery: 6/288 (adjusted proportion = 2.1%); medical: 37/266 (13.9%); RR 0.15, 95% CI 0.06 to 0.35; participants = 554; studies = 1) was less in the laparoscopic fundoplication group than in the medical treatment group.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There is considerable uncertainty in the balance of benefits versus harms of laparoscopic fundoplication compared to long-term medical treatment with proton pump inhibitors. Further RCTs of laparoscopic fundoplication versus medical management in patients with GORD should be conducted with outcome-assessor blinding and should include all participants in the analysis. Such trials should include long-term patient-orientated outcomes such as treatment-related adverse events (including severity), quality of life, and also report on the social and economic impact of the adverse events and symptoms.

Long-term safety of proton pump inhibitor therapy assessed under controlled, randomised clinical trial conditions: data from the SOPRAN and LOTUS studies

BACKGROUND

Control of chronic gastro-oesophageal reflux disease may be achieved either by anti-reflux surgery (ARS) or by long-term medical therapy with proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). The primary efficacy results of the SOPRAN study, comparing long-term omeprazole use with open ARS, and the LOTUS study, comparing long-term esomeprazole use with laparoscopic ARS, have been reported. A secondary objective of these studies was to address the long-term safety of these respective therapeutic strategies and thereby provide a valid scientific platform for assessing long-term PPI safety.

AIM

To assess the safety of long-term PPI therapy with omeprazole and esomeprazole through analyses of data from the randomised SOPRAN and LOTUS studies.

METHODS

Safety data were collected from patients during the 12-year period of the SOPRAN study (n = 298) and the 5-year period of the LOTUS study (n = 514). Reported serious adverse events (SAEs) and changes in laboratory variables were analysed.

RESULTS

Across both studies, SAEs were reported at a similar frequency in the PPI and ARS treatment groups. Taking the time frames into consideration, the number of fatal SAEs in the two studies was low in both treatment groups. Laboratory results, including routine haematology and tests for liver enzymes, electrolytes, vitamin D, vitamin B12 , folate and homocysteine, showed no clinically relevant changes over time. As expected, gastrin and chromogranin A were elevated in the PPI groups, with the greatest increases observed in the first year.

CONCLUSION

No major safety concerns arose during 5-12 years of continuous PPI therapy. (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00251927 and NCT00256737).

Changes in the esophageal mucosa of patients with non erosive reflux disease: How far have we gone?

The normal esophageal mucosa creates a protective epithelial barrier that constrains the acidic reflux in the esophageal lumen. Microscopic findings and functional studies indicate that this barrier might be impaired in patients with non erosive reflux disease (NERD) but not in patients with functional heartburn (FH). Whereas endoscopy and pH monitoring are the most important diagnostic tools in the diagnosis of NERD, recent studies suggest that esophageal biopsies might have a complementary role. Particularly in the differential diagnosis between NERD and FH, the application of histological severity scores showed very promising results. Further evaluation of the scores could lead to routine application of histology in specific NERD populations.

Histopathologic features of eosinophilic esophagitis and eosinophilic gastrointestinal diseases

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) shows characteristic microscopic pathologic features in endoscopically obtained esophageal biopsies, including an eosinophil-rich inflammatory infiltrate in esophageal epithelium, but other inflammatory cells are also increased. Additional alterations are found in epithelium and lamina propria. Esophageal biopsy pathology is a sensitive but not specific marker for EoE related to antigen exposure. Several of the pathologic features of EoE correlate with dysregulated genes in the EoE transcriptome. Eosinophilic gastrointestinal diseases affecting the remainder of the gastrointestinal tract are less well characterized; this article discusses pathologic features in mucosal biopsies that could form the basis for diagnosis and future study.

Necrotizing sialometaplasia-like change of the esophageal submucosal glands is associated with Barrett's esophagus

The esophageal submucosal glands (SMG) protect the squamous epithelium from insults such as gastroesophageal reflux disease by secreting mucins and bicarbonate. We have observed metaplastic changes within the SMG acini that we have termed oncocytic glandular metaplasia (OGM), and necrotizing sialometaplasia-like change (NSMLC). The aim of this study is to evaluate the associated clinicopathological parameters of, and to phenotypically characterize the SMG metaplasias. Esophagectomy specimens were retrospectively assessed on hematoxylin and eosin sections and assigned to either a Barrett's esophagus (BE) or non-BE control group. Clinicopathologic data was collected, and univariate analysis and multivariate logistic regression models were performed to assess the adjusted associations with NSMLC and OGM. Selected cases of SMG metaplasia were characterized. SMG were present in 82 esophagi that met inclusion criteria. On univariate analysis, NSMLC was associated with BE (p = 0.002). There was no relationship between NSMLC and patient age, sex, tumor size, or treatment history. OGM was associated with BE (p = 0.031). No relationship was found between OGM and patient age, sex, or tumor size. On multivariate analysis, BE was independently associated with NSMLC (odds ratio [OR] 4.95, p = 0.003). Treatment history was also independently associated with OGM (p = 0.029), but not NSMLC. Both NSMLC and OGM were non-mucinous ductal type epithelia retaining a p63-smooth muscle actin co-positive myoepithelial cell layer. NSMLC and OGM were present in endoscopic mucosal resection specimens. Our study suggests that SMG metaplasia is primarily a reflux-induced pathology. NSMLC may pose diagnostic dilemmas in resection specimens or when only partially represented in mucosal biopsies or endoscopic resection specimens.

Validation study of the Esohisto consensus guidelines for the recognition of microscopic esophagitis (histoGERD Trial)

In patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), histology is generally believed to be a tool of limited diagnostic value. Our study aimed to assess the prevalence of microscopic esophageal lesions as defined by the Esohisto consensus guidelines, which have proven high interobserver agreement in previous studies. In the prospective Central European multicenter histoGERD trial, we recruited 1071 individuals (576 females and 495 males; median age, 53 years; range, 15-93 years) undergoing gastroscopy for nonselected reasons. Biopsy material was systematically sampled from above and below the gastroesophageal junction. Overall, histologic diagnosis of mild and severe esophagitis was made in 423 (39.5%) and 296 (27.6%) individuals, respectively, whereas the squamous mucosa of 352 individuals (32.9%) was normal upon histology or showed only insignificant findings. Proliferative changes of the squamous epithelium, in particular basal cell layer hyperplasia, papillary elongation, and intercellular space dilation, were more common than inflammatory cell infiltration. The presence of microscopic esophagitis was associated with male sex (P = .009), patients' symptoms (P = .003), history of proton pump inhibitor intake (P < .001), and the endoscopic diagnosis of esophagitis (P < .001). Notably, among the 450 patients with no endoscopic signs of esophagitis (Los Angeles Category N), 41.8% and 17.1% were identified with mild and severe (microscopic) esophagitis, respectively, indicating higher sensitivity of histologic diagnosis. In conclusion, our data illustrate the value of histology in the workup of patients with reflux disease. We suggest that biopsies should routinely be obtained when patients undergo upper gastrointestinal endoscopy for evaluation of GERD and may particularly be beneficial in patients with nonerosive reflux disease.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease: Update on inflammation and symptom perception

Although gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a common disorder in Western countries, with a significant impact on quality of life and healthcare costs, the mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of symptoms remain to be fully elucidated. GERD symptoms and complications may result from a multifactorial mechanism, in which acid and acid-pepsin are the important noxious factors involved. Prolonged contact of the esophageal mucosa with the refluxed content, probably caused by a defective anti-reflux barrier and luminal clearance mechanisms, would appear to be responsible for macroscopically detectable injury to the esophageal squamous epithelium. Receptors on acid-sensitive nerve endings may play a role in nociception and esophageal sensitivity, as suggested in animal models of chronic acid exposure. Meanwhile, specific cytokine and chemokine profiles would appear to underlie the various esophageal phenotypes of GERD, explaining, in part, the genesis of esophagitis in a subset of patients. Despite these findings, which show a significant production of inflammatory mediators and neurotransmitters in the pathogenesis of GERD, the relationship between the hypersensitivity and esophageal inflammation is not clear. Moreover, the large majority of GERD patients (up to 70%) do not develop esophageal erosions, a variant of the condition called non-erosive reflux disease. This summary aims to explore the inflammatory pathway involved in GERD pathogenesis, to better understand the possible distinction between erosive and non-erosive reflux disease patients and to provide new therapeutic approaches.

Histomorphological differentiation of non-erosive reflux disease and functional heartburn in patients with PPI-refractory heartburn

BACKGROUND

Proton pump inhibitor (PPI)-refractory heartburn may be due to persistent gastro-oesophageal reflux, oesophageal hypersensitivity or functional heartburn (FH). The differentiation between non-erosive reflux disease (NERD) and FH may be very difficult. However, this differentiation is important for appropriate therapeutic management. Dilated intercellular spaces (DIS), papillary elongation (PE) and basal cell hyperplasia (BCH) can be all assessed by light microscopy. Whether these mucosal abnormalities allow the differentiation of NERD from FH in PPI-refractory patients is uncertain.

AIM

To assess histopathological findings by light microscopy in patients with refractory heartburn to differentiate NERD from FH.

METHODS

Sixty-two patients with PPI-refractory symptoms underwent EGD and MII-pH after pausing PPI medication for 2 weeks before investigation. Twenty-five subjects without upper gastrointestinal symptoms were included as controls. Symptom assessment was based on the reflux disease questionnaire (RDQ). Biopsies were taken 3-5 cm above the gastro-oesophageal junction. DIS, PE, BCH and infiltration of immune cells were evaluated and a sum score was calculated.

RESULTS

Based on endoscopy and MII-pH, GERD was diagnosed in 43 patients (NERD: 20; ERD: 23) and FH in 19 patients. There was no difference in symptoms between the groups. Each individual histopathological item was different between the groups (P < 0.0001). Between NERD and FH, the most significant difference was found for DIS and the histopathological sum score (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that oesophageal biopsies are useful to differentiate NERD from FH. Increased DIS and a histological sum score are the most significant histopathological abnormalities in NERD as compared with FH.

NERD: an umbrella term including heterogeneous subpopulations

Nonerosive reflux disease (NERD) represents the more common phenotypic presentation of GERD and comprises patients who have typical symptoms without any mucosal breaks at endoscopy. However, these patients are markedly heterogeneous from a pathophysiological point of view and should be correctly classified by means of 24 h impedance-pH testing, which enables detection of both acidic and weakly acidic reflux and correlation with symptoms. This technique is able to identify two subsets of NERD (that is, patients with an excess of acid or with a hypersensitive oesophagus to both acid and weakly acidic reflux) and patients with functional heartburn (who do not have any kind of reflux underlying their symptoms and must be excluded from the realm of GERD). The mechanisms of symptom generation are not clear in patients with NERD, but the presence of microscopic oesophagitis, including the dilation of intercellular spaces, seems to have a relevant role. Patients with NERD in whom acid is the main pathogenetic factor respond successfully to PPI therapy, while those with hypersensitive oesophagus to weakly acidic reflux need to be treated with reflux inhibitors or surgery, although the experience in this field is very scant. Patients with functional heartburn should undergo therapy with pain modulators, but large placebo-controlled trials are necessary.

Microscopic esophagitis distinguishes patients with non-erosive reflux disease from those with functional heartburn

BACKGROUND

Microscopic esophagitis (ME) is common in patients with non-erosive reflux disease (NERD), and dilation of intercellular spaces (DIS) has been regarded as the potential main mechanism of symptom generation. We aimed to compare these histological abnormalities in healthy volunteers (HVs) and patients with erosive esophagitis (EE), NERD, and functional heartburn (FH).

METHODS

Consecutive patients with heartburn prospectively underwent upper endoscopy and impedance-pH off-therapy. Twenty EE patients and fifty-seven endoscopy-negative patients (NERD), subclassified as 22 with pH-POS (positive for abnormal acid exposure), 20 with hypersensitive esophagus (HE; normal acid/symptom association probability [SAP]+ or symptom index [SI]+), and 15 with FH (normal acid/SAP-/SI-/ proton pump inhibitor [PPI] test-), were enrolled. Twenty HVs were also included. In each patient/control, multiple specimens (n = 5) were taken from the distal esophagus and histological alterations were evaluated. ME was diagnosed when the global histological score was >0.35.

RESULTS

The prevalence of ME was higher (p < 0.0001) in EE (95 %), pH-POS (77 %), and HE (65 %) NERD patients than in FH patients (13 %) and HVs (15 %). Also, basal cell hyperplasia (p < 0.0023), DIS (p < 0.0001), and papillae elongation (p < 0.0002) showed similar rates of prevalence in the above populations (p < 0.0001). ME, including each histological lesion, had similar low frequencies in FH and HVs (p = 0.9990). Considering the histological abnormalities together, they permitted us to clearly differentiate EE and NERD from FH and HVs (p < 0.0001 and p < 0.0001, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The lack of ME in the esophageal distal biopsies of FH patients indicates a limited role of these histological abnormalities in symptom generation in them. ME can be considered as an accurate and reliable diagnostic marker for distinguishing FH patients from GERD patients and has the potential to be used to guide the correct therapy.

Platelet-activating factor and distinct chemokines are elevated in mucosal biopsies of erosive compared with non-erosive reflux disease patients and controls

BACKGROUND

A distinction between symptomatic non-erosive reflux disease (NERD) and erosive esophagitis (EE) patients is supported by the presence of inflammatory response in the mucosa of EE patients, leading to a damage of mucosal integrity. To explore the underlying mechanism of this difference, we assessed inflammatory mediators in mucosal biopsies from EE and NERD patients and compared them with controls.

METHODS

Nineteen NERD patients, 15 EE patients, and 16 healthy subjects underwent endoscopy after a 3-week washout from PPI or H(2) antagonists. Biopsies obtained from the distal esophagus were examined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and multiplex enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for selected chemokines and lyso-PAF acetyltransferase (LysoPAF-AT), the enzyme responsible for production of platelet-activating factor (PAF).

KEY RESULTS

Expression of LysoPAF-AT and multiple chemokines was significantly increased in mucosal biopsies derived from EE patients, when compared with NERD patients and healthy controls. Upregulated chemokines included interleukin 8, eotaxin-1, -2, and -3, macrophage inflammatory protein-1α (MIP-1α), and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). LysoPAF-AT and the chemokine profile in NERD patients were comparable with healthy controls.

CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES

Levels of selected cytokines and Lyso-PAF AT were significantly higher in the esophageal mucosa of EE patients compared with NERD and control patients. This difference may explain the distinct inflammatory response occurring in EE patients' mucosa. In contrast, as no significant differences existed between the levels of all mediators in NERD and control subjects, an inflammatory response does not appear to play a major role in the pathogenesis of the abnormalities found in NERD patients.

Platelet-activating factor and distinct chemokines are elevated in mucosal biopsies of erosive compared with non-erosive reflux disease patients and controls

BACKGROUND

A distinction between symptomatic non-erosive reflux disease (NERD) and erosive esophagitis (EE) patients is supported by the presence of inflammatory response in the mucosa of EE patients, leading to a damage of mucosal integrity. To explore the underlying mechanism of this difference, we assessed inflammatory mediators in mucosal biopsies from EE and NERD patients and compared them with controls.

METHODS

Nineteen NERD patients, 15 EE patients, and 16 healthy subjects underwent endoscopy after a 3-week washout from PPI or H(2) antagonists. Biopsies obtained from the distal esophagus were examined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and multiplex enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for selected chemokines and lyso-PAF acetyltransferase (LysoPAF-AT), the enzyme responsible for production of platelet-activating factor (PAF).

KEY RESULTS

Expression of LysoPAF-AT and multiple chemokines was significantly increased in mucosal biopsies derived from EE patients, when compared with NERD patients and healthy controls. Upregulated chemokines included interleukin 8, eotaxin-1, -2, and -3, macrophage inflammatory protein-1α (MIP-1α), and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). LysoPAF-AT and the chemokine profile in NERD patients were comparable with healthy controls.

CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES

Levels of selected cytokines and Lyso-PAF AT were significantly higher in the esophageal mucosa of EE patients compared with NERD and control patients. This difference may explain the distinct inflammatory response occurring in EE patients' mucosa. In contrast, as no significant differences existed between the levels of all mediators in NERD and control subjects, an inflammatory response does not appear to play a major role in the pathogenesis of the abnormalities found in NERD patients.

Temporal trends in the relative prevalence of dysphagia etiologies from 1999-2009

AIM: To examine the relative prevalence and temporal variation of dysphagia etiologies in patients undergoing upper endoscopy (EGD) over the past decade.

METHODS: EGDs with the indication of dysphagia at an urban, university medical center in 1999, 2004 and 2009 were retrospectively identified from the electronic medical record. The entire patient chart, including EGD, pathology, manometry, radiographic and clinician reports, was reviewed for demographic and clinical data and to determine the etiology of dysphagia. The number of EGDs in which an esophageal biopsy was performed was also noted. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) as a cause of dysphagia independent of peptic stricture was defined by symptoms with erosive esophagitis or symptom response to proton pump inhibition (PPI). Cases of eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) were defined by an appropriate clinical history and histological criteria of ≥ 15 eosinophils per high powered field. PPI-responsive esophageal eosinophilia was not routinely reported prior to 2008. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way analysis of variance to analyze for trends between 1999, 2004 and 2009 and a post-hoc Tukey analysis was performed following a significant main effect.

RESULTS: A total of 1371 cases (mean age 54 years, 43% male) met pre-specified inclusion criteria with 191, 504 and 675 cases in 1999, 2004 and 2009, respectively. Patients were older in 2004 compared to 2009 (mean ± SD, 54.0 ± 15.7 years vs 52.3 ± 16.8 years, P = 0.02) and there were more males in 1999 compared to 2004 (57.5% vs 40.8%, P = 0.005). Overall, GERD (27.6%) and EoE (7.7%) were the most common identifiable causes of dysphagia. An unspecified diagnosis accounted for 21% of overall cases. There were no significant differences in the relative prevalence of achalasia or other motility disorders, peptic stricture, Schatzki’s ring, esophageal cancer or unspecified diagnoses over the 10-year time period. There was, however, a decrease in the relative prevalence of GERD (39.3% vs 24.1%, P < 0.001) and increases in the relative prevalence of EoE (1.6% vs 11.2%, P < 0.001) and oropharyngeal disorders (1.6% vs 4.2%, P = 0.02) from 1999 to 2009. Post-hoc analyses determined that the increase in relative prevalence of EoE was significant between 1999 and 2009 as well as 2004 and 2009 (5.4% vs 11.6%, P < 0.001), but not between 1999 and 2004 (1.6% P 5.4%, P = 0.21). On the other hand, the decrease in relative prevalence of GERD was significant between 1999 and 2009 and 1999 and 2004 (39.3% vs 27.7%, P = 0.006), but not between 2004 and 2009 (27.7% vs 24.1%, P = 0.36). There were also significantly more EGDs in which a biopsy was obtained in 1999 compared to 2009 (36.7% vs 68.7%, P < 0.001) as well as between 2004 and 2009 (37.5% vs 68.7%, P < 0.001). While total EGD volume did increase over the 10-year time period, the percentage of EGDs for the indication of dysphagia remained stable making increasing upper endoscopy an unlikely reason for the observed increased prevalence of EoE.

CONCLUSION: EoE has emerged as a dominant cause of dysphagia in adults. Whether this was due to a rise in disease incidence or increased recognition is unclear.

[Newly recognized side-effects of proton pump inhibitors. Arguments in favour of fundoplication for GERD?]

Among other indications proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are used as medical treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and are the most frequently prescribed and most frequently used drugs in gastroenterology. Until recently PPIs were regarded as very safe and associated with very few side-effects. However, during recent years study results have revealed many severe adverse events associated especially with long-term PPI use. We review the currently available evidence, regarding the side-effects of PPIs and discuss the potential impact on treatment strategies for GERD (conservative treatment vs. antireflux surgery). Currently available data suggest that PPIs are associated with osteoporosis-related fractures, Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea (CDAD), community and hospital-acquired pneumonia, pharmacologic interaction with clopidogrel and acetylsalicylic acid with subsequent increased rate of cardiovascular events, refractory hypomagnesemia and rebound reflux symptoms etc. The risk-benefit ratio of PPIs is increasingly recognized as being less favourable. This leads to a more critical viewpoint and raises the question whether the side-effects of PPIs may outweigh the benefits, especially with long-term use. The side-effects of PPIs seem to make a strong argument in favour of laparoscopic fundoplication in the treatment of GERD.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease--from reflux episodes to mucosal inflammation

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) affects 20-30% of the population in Western countries, and is one of the most common clinical problems in daily practice. GERD-associated functional and structural abnormalities are caused by recurrent exposure of the esophagus to acidic and nonacidic refluxate of gastric contents (containing duodenal and intestinal proteases as well as acid and gastric pepsin) from the stomach. Major progress has been made in the understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of GERD-associated mucosal inflammation, suggesting a complex and multifactorial pathogenesis and immune-mediated effects. This Review summarizes the complexity of mucosal pathogenesis, including microscopic changes, mucosal inflammation and GERD-specific molecular mediators, in the context of the clinical features and pathophysiological characteristics of GERD. The abnormal exposure of the esophagus to luminal contents leads to chronic mucosal inflammation that is characterized by the release of IL-8 specifically, as well as other proinflammatory mediators, from the esophageal mucosa. Evidence from animal studies indicates a stepwise inflammatory response by the epithelium, which attracts immune effector cells to infiltrate the mucosa. From bench to bedside, these novel molecular findings might provide new treatment options beyond current acid-suppressive therapy and the principle of inhibition of transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxation.

GERD in 2010: diagnosis, novel mechanisms of disease and promising agents

The results of various studies from 2010 have underlined the importance of the careful diagnostic assessment of GERD. Recent studies have also provided further evidence of the complex pathogenesis of GERD, and promising agents targeting the underlying factors in the pathogenesis of this condition are in the pipeline, especially for treatment-refractory GERD.

Endoscopy in gastro-oesophageal reflux disease

Although gastro-oesophageal reflux disease is basically a clinical diagnosis, oesophago-gastroduodenoscopy is essential to assess the type and severity of tissue damage. The main role for endoscopy is to detect metaplastic or premalignant changes complicating gastro-oesophageal reflux, and allow for surveillance. Routine biopsies are potentially useful to increase the diagnostic precision in case of minimal mucosal abnormalities. Management algorithms should include endoscopy to be performed early in the course of disease in most patients, even in the absence of alarm symptoms. Routine use of the Los Angeles classification of oesophagitis and the Prague classification for metaplasia is necessary for a precise description and biopsy sampling. Magnification chromoendoscopy is particularly useful in the hands of experienced endoscopists, whereas novel technologies including confocal laser endomicroscopy may become an important method in specialised centres to optimise the surveillance of premalignant mucosa.

Short and long-term PPI treatment for GERD. Do we need more-potent anti-secretory drugs?

Because the reflux of the acidic gastric content into the esophagus plays a major role in the pathogenesis of symptoms of GERD and lesions of erosive esophagitis, acid suppression with a proton pump inhibitor (PPI) is currently the mainstay of anti-reflux therapy. There is a strong correlation between the degree of acid suppression provided by a given drug and its efficacy. The superiority of PPIs over other drugs (antacids, prokinetics and H(2)-receptor antagonists) has now been established beyond doubt, both for short- and long-term treatment. However, there are still some unmet therapeutic needs in GERD; hence, patients with non-erosive reflux disease (NERD) are less responsive to PPIs than those with erosive esophagitis. Moreover, the efficacy of PPIs in patients with atypical symptoms is frequently limited to the relief of associated heartburn or regurgitation. With respect to safety, although most studies on short- and long-term PPI use have provided reassuring data, recent reports have drawn attention to potential side effects or drug-drug interference. Better healing rates in the most severe forms of esophagitis, or a faster onset of symptom relief, may require optimization of acid suppressive therapy with regard to the daily course of acid secretion, especially during the night. Different pharmacological approaches can be considered, with the ultimate goals of achieving faster, stronger and more-sustained acid inhibition. How a better pharmacological profile may translate into clinical benefit should now be tested in appropriate, controlled studies.