Oncogenic CXCL10 signalling drives metastasis development and poor clinical outcome

A functional aged human iPSC-cortical neuron model recapitulates Alzheimer's disease, senescence, and the response to therapeutics

INTRODUCTION

The degeneration of cortical layers is associated with cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Current therapies for AD are not disease-modifying, and, despite substantial efforts, research and development for AD has faced formidable challenges. In addition, cellular senescence has emerged as a significant contributor to therapy resistance.

METHODS

Human iPSC-derived cortical neurons were cultured on microelectrode arrays to measure long-term potentiation (LTP) noninvasively. Neurons were treated with pathogenic amyloid-β (Aβ) to analyze senescence and response to therapeutic molecules.

RESULTS

Microphysiological recordings revealed Aβ dampened cortical LTP activity and accelerated neuronal senescence. Aging neurons secreted inflammatory factors previously detected in brain, plasma, and cerebral spinal fluid of AD patients, in which drugs modulated senescence-related factors.

DISCUSSION

This platform measures and records neuronal LTP activity in response to Aβ and therapeutic molecules in real-time. Efficacy data from similar platforms have been accepted by the FDA for neurodegenerative diseases, expediting regulatory submissions.

HIGHLIGHTS

This work developed a progerontic model of amyloid-β (Aβ)-driven cortical degeneration. This work measured neuronal LTP and correlated function with aging biomarkers. Aβ is a driver of neuronal senescence and cortical degeneration. Molecules rescued neuronal function but did not halt Aβ-driven senescence. Therapeutic molecules modulated secretion of inflammatory factors by aging neurons.

Chemokines and Cytokines in Immunotherapy of Melanoma and Other Tumors: From Biomarkers to Therapeutic Targets

Chemokines and cytokines represent an emerging field of immunotherapy research. They are responsible for the crosstalk and chemoattraction of immune cells and tumor cells. For instance, CXCL9/10/11 chemoattract effector CD8+ T cells to the tumor microenvironment, making an argument for their promising role as biomarkers for a favorable outcome. The cytokine Interleukin-15 (IL-15) can promote the chemokine expression of CXCR3 ligands but also XCL1, contributing to an important DC-T cell interaction. Recruited cytotoxic T cells can be clonally expanded by IL-2. Delivering or inducing these chemokines and cytokines can result in tumor shrinkage and might synergize with immune checkpoint inhibition. In addition, blocking specific chemokine and cytokine receptors such as CCR2, CCR4 or Il-6R can reduce the recruitment of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) or regulatory T cells (Tregs). Efforts to target these chemokines and cytokines have the potential to personalize cancer immunotherapy further and address patients that are not yet responsive because of immune cell exclusion. Targeting cytokines such as IL-6 and IL-15 is currently being evaluated in clinical trials in combination with immune checkpoint-blocking antibodies for the treatment of metastatic melanoma. The improved overall survival of melanoma patients might outweigh potential risks such as autoimmunity. However, off-target toxicity needs to be elucidated.

Association between inflammatory factors and melanoma: a bidirectional Mendelian randomization study

PURPOSE

This study performed a bidirectional Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis to elucidate the causal relationships of C-reactive protein and 41 inflammatory regulators with melanoma, including data from UK Biobank, Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study, and Cohorts for Inflammation Work Group.

METHODS

We selected the inverse variance weighting (IVW) to merge the estimated causal effects of multiple SNPs into a weighted average. To evaluate the heterogeneities of IVW, the Cochran Q statistic, and I2 index were used. What's more, several sensitivity analyses were employed, including IVW, MR-Egger, weighted median, and Mendelian Randomization Pleiotropy RESidual Sum and Outlier (MR-PRESSO).

RESULTS

With SNPs reaching P < 5 × 10-8, the analyses findings revealed that IL-16 had a significant positively association with genetically risk of melanoma (ORIVW: 1.05; 95% CI: 1.03-1.07; P < 0.001), and high levels of MCP1 (ORIVW: 1.13; 95% CI: 1.03-1.23; P = 0.01) were suggestively associated with melanoma susceptibility. What's more, TNF-β (ORIVW: 1.07; 95% CI: 1.01-1.13; P = 0.02) and IL-8 (ORIVW: 1.08, 95% CI: 1.01-1.16; P = 0.03) were demonstrated a positive association with the risk of melanoma under a less stringent cut-off (P < 5 × 10-6). Conversely, we found a facilitative effect of melanoma susceptibility on IP-10 and inhibitory effects on IL-6, IL-1b, and GRO-α.

CONCLUSION

The genetic evidence that we have uncovered indicates a potential association between the levels of specific inflammatory markers (IL-16, IL-8, MCP-1, and TNF-β) and the risk of melanoma. Further research is imperative to translate these findings into clinical applications.

Immune analysis of urine and plasma samples from patients with clear cell renal cell carcinoma

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is the third most common type of urological malignancy worldwide, and it is associated with a silent progression and late manifestation. Patients with a metastatic form of ccRCC have a poor prognosis; however, when the disease is diagnosed early, it is largely curable. Currently, there are no biomarkers available in clinical practice for ccRCC. Thus, the aim of the present study was to measure 27 biologically relevant cytokines in preoperative and postoperative urine samples, and in preoperative plasma samples from 34 patients with ccRCC, and to evaluate their diagnostic significance. The concentrations of cytokines were assessed by multiplex immune assay. The results showed significantly higher levels of IL-1 receptor antagonist, IL-6, IL-15, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand (CCL)2, CCL3, CCL4, C-X-C motif ligand (CXCL)10, granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB), and lower levels of granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) in urine samples from patients prior to surgery compared with those in the controls. Notably, the urine levels of G-CSF, IL-5 and vascular endothelial growth factor differed following tumor removal compared with the preoperative urine levels. In addition, urinary G-CSF, GM-CSF, IL-6, CXCL10, CCL5 and PDGF-BB appeared to be potential markers of tumor grade. Plasma from patients with ccRCC contained significantly higher levels of IL-6 and lower levels of CCL2 than control plasma. In conclusion, the present findings indicated that urinary and circulating cytokines may represent a promising novel tool for the early diagnosis of ccRCC and/or prediction of tumor grade.

Induction of SK-MEL-28 Invasion by Brain Cortical Cell-Conditioned Medium Through CXCL10 Signaling

Melanoma, an infrequent yet significant variant of skin cancer, emerges as a primary cause of brain metastasis among various malignancies. Despite recognizing the involvement of inflammatory molecules, particularly chemokines, in shaping the metastatic microenvironment, the intricate cellular signaling mechanisms underlying cerebral metastasis remain elusive. In our pursuit to unravel the role of cytokines in melanoma metastasis, we devised a protocol utilizing mixed cerebral cortical cells and SK-MEL-28 melanoma cell lines. Contrary to expectations, we observed no discernible morphological change in melanoma cells exposed to a cerebral conditioned medium (CM). However, a substantial increase in both migration and proliferation was quantitatively noted. Profiling the chemokine secretion by melanoma in response to the cerebral CM unveiled the pivotal role of interferon gamma-induced protein 10 (CXCL10), inhibiting the secretion of interleukin 8 (CXCL8). Furthermore, through a transwell assay, we demonstrated that knockdown CXCL10 led to a significant decrease in the migration of the SK-MEL-28 cell line. In conclusion, our findings suggest that a cerebral CM induces melanoma cell migration, while modulating the secretion of CXCL10 and CXCL8 in the context of brain metastases. These insights advance our understanding of the underlying mechanisms in melanoma cerebral metastasis, paving the way for further exploration and targeted therapeutic interventions.

Investigating the Role of SNAI1 and ZEB1 Expression in Prostate Cancer Progression and Immune Modulation of the Tumor Microenvironment

Prostate cancer (PCa) is an immunologically cold tumor and the molecular processes that underlie this behavior are poorly understood. In this study, we investigated a primary cohort of intermediate-risk PCa (n = 51) using two NanoString profiling panels designed to study cancer progression and immune response. We identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and pathways associated with biochemical recurrence (BCR) and clinical risk. Confirmatory analysis was performed using the TCGA-PRAD cohort. Noteworthy DEGs included collagens such as COL1A1, COL1A2, and COL3A1. Changes in the distribution of collagens may influence the immune activity in the tumor microenvironment (TME). In addition, immune-related DEGs such as THY1, IRF5, and HLA-DRA were also identified. Enrichment analysis highlighted pathways such as those associated with angiogenesis, TGF-beta, UV response, and EMT. Among the 39 significant DEGs, 11 (28%) were identified as EMT target genes for ZEB1 using the Harmonizome database. Elevated ZEB1 expression correlated with reduced BCR risk. Immune landscape analysis revealed that ZEB1 was associated with increased immunosuppressive cell types in the TME, such as naïve B cells and M2 macrophages. Increased expression of both ZEB1 and SNAI1 was associated with elevated immune checkpoint expression. In the future, modulation of EMT could be beneficial for overcoming immunotherapy resistance in a cold tumor, such as PCa.

Combined use of NK cells and radiotherapy in the treatment of solid tumors

Natural killer (NK) cells are innate lymphocytes possessing potent tumor surveillance and elimination activity. Increasing attention is being focused on the role of NK cells in integral antitumor strategies (especially immunotherapy). Of note, therapeutic efficacy is considerable dependent on two parameters: the infiltration and cytotoxicity of NK cells in tumor microenvironment (TME), both of which are impaired by several obstacles (e.g., chemokines, hypoxia). Strategies to overcome such barriers are needed. Radiotherapy is a conventional modality employed to cure solid tumors. Recent studies suggest that radiotherapy not only damages tumor cells directly, but also enhances tumor recognition by immune cells through altering molecular expression of tumor or immune cells via the in situ or abscopal effect. Thus, radiotherapy may rebuild a NK cells-favored TME, and thus provide a cost-effective approach to improve the infiltration of NK cells into solid tumors, as well as elevate immune-activity. Moreover, the radioresistance of tumor always hampers the response to radiotherapy. Noteworthy, the puissant cytotoxic activity of NK cells not only kills tumor cells directly, but also increases the response of tumors to radiation via activating several radiosensitization pathways. Herein, we review the mechanisms by which NK cells and radiotherapy mutually promote their killing function against solid malignancies. We also discuss potential strategies harnessing such features in combined anticancer care.

NK cell-triggered CCL5/IFNγ-CXCL9/10 axis underlies the clinical efficacy of neoadjuvant anti-HER2 antibodies in breast cancer

BACKGROUND

The variability in responses to neoadjuvant treatment with anti-HER2 antibodies prompts to personalized clinical management and the development of innovative treatment strategies. Tumor-infiltrating Natural Killer (TI-NK) cells can predict the efficacy of HER2-targeted antibodies independently from clinicopathological factors in primary HER2-positive breast cancer patients. Understanding the mechanism/s underlying this association would contribute to optimizing patient stratification and provide the rationale for combinatorial approaches with immunotherapy.

METHODS

We sought to uncover processes enriched in NK cell-infiltrated tumors as compared to NK cell-desert tumors by microarray analysis. Findings were validated in clinical trial-derived transcriptomic data. In vitro and in vivo preclinical models were used for mechanistic studies. Findings were analysed in clinical samples (tumor and serum) from breast cancer patients.

RESULTS

NK cell-infiltrated tumors were enriched in CCL5/IFNG-CXCL9/10 transcripts. In multivariate logistic regression analysis, IFNG levels underlie the association between TI-NK cells and pathological complete response to neoadjuvant treatment with trastuzumab. Mechanistically, the production of IFN-ɣ by CD16+ NK cells triggered the secretion of CXCL9/10 from cancer cells. This effect was associated to tumor growth control and the conversion of CD16 into CD16-CD103+ NK cells in humanized in vivo models. In human breast tumors, the CD16 and CD103 markers identified lineage-related NK cell subpopulations capable of producing CCL5 and IFN-ɣ, which correlated with tissue-resident CD8+ T cells. Finally, an early increase in serum CCL5/CXCL9 levels identified patients with NK cell-rich tumors showing good responses to anti-HER2 antibody-based neoadjuvant treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identifies specialized NK cell subsets as the source of IFN-ɣ influencing the clinical efficacy of anti-HER2 antibodies. It also reveals the potential of serum CCL5/CXCL9 as biomarkers for identifying patients with NK cell-rich tumors and favorable responses to anti-HER2 antibody-based neoadjuvant treatment.

Identification of tumor-agnostic biomarkers for predicting prostate cancer progression and biochemical recurrence

The diverse clinical outcomes of prostate cancer have led to the development of gene signature assays predicting disease progression. Improved prostate cancer progression biomarkers are needed as current RNA biomarker tests have varying success for intermediate prostate cancer. Interest grows in universal gene signatures for invasive carcinoma progression. Early breast and prostate cancers share characteristics, including hormone dependence and BRCA1/2 mutations. Given the similarities in the pathobiology of breast and prostate cancer, we utilized the NanoString BC360 panel, comprising the validated PAM50 classifier and pathway-specific signatures associated with general tumor progression as well as breast cancer-specific classifiers. This retrospective cohort of primary prostate cancers (n=53) was stratified according to biochemical recurrence (BCR) status and the CAPRA-S to identify genes related to high-risk disease. Two public cohort (TCGA-PRAD and GSE54460) were used to validate the results. Expression profiling of our cohort uncovered associations between PIP and INHBA with BCR and high CAPRA-S score, as well as associations between VCAN, SFRP2, and THBS4 and BCR. Despite low levels of the ESR1 gene compared to AR, we found strong expression of the ER signaling signature, suggesting that BCR may be driven by ER-mediated pathways. Kaplan-Meier and univariate Cox proportional hazards regression analysis indicated the expression of ESR1, PGR, VCAN, and SFRP2 could predict the occurrence of relapse events. This is in keeping with the pathways represented by these genes which contribute to angiogenesis and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition. It is likely that VCAN works by activating the stroma and remodeling the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, SFRP2 overexpression has been associated with increased tumor size and reduced survival rates in breast cancer and among prostate cancer patients who experienced BCR. ESR1 influences disease progression by activating stroma, stimulating stem/progenitor prostate cancer, and inducing TGF-β. Estrogen signaling may therefore serve as a surrogate to AR signaling during progression and in hormone-refractory disease, particularly in prostate cancer patients with stromal-rich tumors. Collectively, the use of agnostic biomarkers developed for breast cancer stratification has facilitated a precise clinical classification of patients undergoing radical prostatectomy and highlighted the therapeutic potential of targeting estrogen signaling in prostate cancer.

Cancer invasion and metastasis: Insights from murine pubertal mammary gland morphogenesis

Cancer invasion and metastasis accounts for the majority of cancer related mortality. A better understanding of the players that drive the aberrant invasion and migration of tumors cells will provide critical targets to inhibit metastasis. Postnatal pubertal mammary gland morphogenesis is characterized by highly proliferative, invasive, and migratory normal epithelial cells. Identifying the molecular regulators of pubertal gland development is a promising strategy since tumorigenesis and metastasis is postulated to be a consequence of aberrant reactivation of developmental stages. In this review, we summarize the pubertal morphogenesis regulators that are involved in cancer metastasis and revisit pubertal mammary gland transcriptome profiling to uncover both known and unknown metastasis genes. Our updated list of pubertal morphogenesis regulators shows that most are implicated in invasion and metastasis. This review highlights molecular linkages between development and metastasis and provides a guide for exploring novel metastatic drivers.

The Value of Prolactin, a Panel of Cytokines, and the Soluble Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor 2 in the Prediction of Rapid Progression and Shorter Survival during Palliative Chemotherapy of Colorectal Cancer Patients

The prediction of colorectal cancer (CRC) response to palliative chemotherapy (CTH) is still difficult. Patients at a higher risk of progression may benefit from more aggressive treatment. This study assessed the predictive value of prolactin (PRL) and a panel of cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors for the risk of rapid progression in CRC patients starting palliative CTH. This study included 51 CRC patients initiating palliative CTH with up to 5-year follow-up, divided into rapid and non-rapid progressors. Serum samples were collected before CTH for assessment of a large panel of cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and PRL via a multiplex method. Rapid progressors (N = 19) were characterized by increased baseline values of IL-8 and IP10 but decreased PRL levels. In addition, PRL below 18.2 ng/mL was a strong predictor of weight loss during CTH. Grade 3 (HR = 2.97; 95%CI: 1.48-5.98) and PRL level (HR = 0.96; 95%CI: 0.91-1.01) were independent risk factors of progression. We showed that CRC rapid progressors are characterized by decreased baseline PRL levels. In addition, increased baseline levels of IP-10, sHER-2, IL-6, and IL-8 may be associated with longer survival; however, larger studies are needed to confirm their predictive role in CRC patients.

A novel prognostic signature of chemokines for survival and immune infiltration in kidney renal clear cell carcinoma

Objective: Studies have revealed the alteration of chemokines in the tumour microenvironment in renal clear cell carcinoma (KIRC), which is closely related with immune infiltration and the prognosis of patients with KIRC. This research aims to comprehensively clarify the signature of chemokines in KIRC and the correlation between chemokines and immune infiltration in the TME of KIRC. Methods: The chemokine expression in KIRC were investigated by using multiple multiomics and bioinformatics tools. Hub-chemokines that were significantly related with the cancer stage and survival were identified. The role of hub-chemokines in the tumor microenvironment of KIRC was further assessed by using enrichment analysis, cancer-related pathway and immune infiltration analysis. Results: A total of 20 chemokines were significantly elevated in KIRC. Based on the correlation with KIRC stages and survival, 13 hub-chemokines were identified. Among the hub-chemokines, the high expression of CXCL2, CXCL5 and CXCL13 were related with worse survival of KIRC patients. The hub-chemokines were associated with the activation of multiple cancer-related signaling pathways. The functions of hub-chemokines were mainly enriched in chemokine-mediated signaling pathway, immunocytes chemotaxis and chemokine activity. CCL4, CCL5, CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11 were related with various types immune infiltration such as CD8⁺T cell, neutrophil, B cell and dendritic cell. Using the hub-chemokine CXCL10, multiple immune checkpoints including LAG3, CTLA-4 and PD-1 were identified. Conclusion: Our research sheds light on the chemokines and their important role in promoting the tumor microenvironment of KIRC. The findings could provide more data about the prognosis prediction and treatment targets for KIRC.

CXCR3 Expression Is Associated with Advanced Tumor Stage and Grade Influencing Survival after Surgery of Localised Renal Cell Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Surgery is the standard treatment in localized renal cell carcinoma (RCC). Pembrolizumab is now approved for adjuvant therapy in high-risk patients. However, inhomogeneity of studies gives ambiguity which patient benefit most from adjuvant therapy. A high infiltration of CD8⁺ T cells is known to be linked with poor prognosis in RCC. CXCR3 is a key player of CD8⁺ T cell differentiation and infiltration. We aimed to evaluate CXCR3 as a potential marker for predicting recurrence.

METHODS

CXCR3 and immune cell subsets (CD4, CD8, CD68 and FoXP3) were measured on RCC samples by multiplex immunofluorescence (mIF) staining. Cellular localization of CXCR3 was evaluated using single-cell RNA analysis on a publicly available dataset.

RESULTS

Tumor samples of 42 RCC patients were analyzed, from which 59.5% were classified as clear-cell RCC and of which 20 had recurrence. Single-cell RNA analysis revealed that CXCR3 was predominantly expressed in intratumoral T cells and dendritic cells. CXCR3 expression was higher in advanced tumors stages (p = 0.0044) and grade (p = 0.0518), correlating significantly with a higher CD8⁺ T cell expression (p < 0.001). Patients with CXCR3^high RCCs had also a significant shorter RFS compared to CXCR3^low (median: 78 vs. 147 months, p = 0.0213). In addition, also tumor stage pT3/4 (p < 0.0001) as well as grade G3/4 (p = 0.0008) negatively influenced RFS.

CONCLUSION

CXCR3^high cell density was associated with high T cell infiltration and advanced tumor stage, worsening RFS in surgically resected RCC patients. Beside its prognostic value, CXCR3 might be a predictive biomarker to guide therapy decision for adjuvant therapy in localized RCC.

Molecular characterization of early breast cancer onset to understand disease phenotypes in African patients

Female breast cancer (BC) is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide with higher mortality rates and early onset in developing countries. The molecular basis of early disease onset is still elusive. We recruited 472 female breast cancer from two sub-Saharan African countries (Cameroon and Congo) between 2007 and 2018 and collected clinical data from these patients. To investigate the molecular drivers of early disease onset, we analyzed publicly available breast cancer molecular data from the cancer genome atlas (TCGA) and the gene expression omnibus (GEO) for copy number alteration, mutation and gene expression. Early BC onset (EOBRCA) (diagnosis before 45 years) was higher in African women compared with the TCGA cohort (51.7% vs 15.6%). The tumor grade, mitotic index, HER2 + phenotype, basal-like phenotype and ki67 were higher in EOBRCA for all cohorts. BC risk factors such as parity, breastfeeding early onset of menarche and use of hormonal contraceptives were significantly associated with EOBRCA (p < 0.05). EOBRCA was equally associated with copy number alterations in several oncogenes including CDH6 and FOXM1 and tumor suppressor including TGM3 and DMBT1 as well as higher TP53 mutation rates (OR: 2.93, p < 0.01). There was a significant enrichment of TGFß signaling in EOBRCA with TGM3 deletions, which was associated with high expression of all SMAD transcription factors as well as WNT ligands. The Frizzled receptors FZD1, FZD4 and FZD6 were significantly upregulated in EOBRCA, suggesting activation of non-canonical WNT signaling. Our data, suggest the implication of TGM3 deletion in early breast cancer onset. Further molecular investigations are warranted in African patients.

EGFR-Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors Induced Activation of the Autocrine CXCL10/CXCR3 Pathway through Crosstalk between the Tumor and the Microenvironment in EGFR-Mutant Lung Cancer

CXCL10 is a cytokine that is elevated during EGFR-TKI treatment in the tumor microenvironment of lung cancer. Here, we report an original study that the impact of the CXCL10/CXCR3 pathway on EGFR-TKI resistance in EGFR-mutant lung cancer through a cytokine array analysis during in vitro coculture with tumor cells and activated PBMCs treated with EGFR-TKI, as well as the serial analysis of CXCL10 in EGFR-mutant lung cancer transgenic mice during EGFR-TKI treatment. In EGFR-mutant tumor cells cocultured with activated PBMCs, EGFR-TKI treatment increased CXCL10 in the supernatant; this activated CXCR3 in the tumor cells to induce the phosphorylation of Src and the NF-κB subunit, p65, and the expression of HIF-1α. CXCL10 siRNA treatment of EGFR-mutant tumor cells also decreased CXCL10 in the supernatant from coculturing with activated PBMCs, suggesting that the effects of CXCL10 occur via autocrine and paracrine pathways. Importantly, elevated CXCL10/CXCR3 signaling was recapitulated in a transgenic lung cancer mouse model. Our results show that increased CXCL10 levels during early EGFR-TKI treatment stimulate oncogenic signaling of persistent tumor cells to contribute to EGFR-TKI resistance via autocrine and paracrine pathways.

Tumor Immunogenic Cell Death as a Mediator of Intratumor CD8 T-Cell Recruitment

The success of anticancer treatments relies on a long-term response which can be mediated by the immune system. Thus, the concept of immunogenic cell death (ICD) describes the capacity of dying cancer cells, under chemotherapy or physical stress, to express or release danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). These DAMPs are essential to activate dendritic cells (DCs) and to stimulate an antigen presentation to CD8 cytotoxic cells. Then, activated CD8 T cells exert their antitumor effects through cytotoxic molecules, an effect which is transitory due to the establishment of a feedback loop leading to T-cell exhaustion. This phenomenon can be reversed using immune checkpoint blockers (ICBs), such as anti-PD-1, PD-L1 or CTLA-4 Abs. However, the blockade of these checkpoints is efficient only if the CD8 T cells are recruited within the tumor. The CD8 T-cell chemoattraction is mediated by chemokines. Hence, an important question is whether the ICD can not only influence the DC activation and resulting CD8 T-cell activation but can also favor the chemokine production at the tumor site, thus triggering their recruitment. This is the aim of this review, in which we will decipher the role of some chemokines (and their specific receptors), shown to be released during ICD, on the CD8 T-cell recruitment and antitumor response. We will also analyze the clinical applications of these chemokines as predictive or prognostic markers or as new targets which should be used to improve patients' response.

CXC chemokine ligand-10 promotes the accumulation of monocyte-like myeloid-derived suppressor cells by activating p38 MAPK signaling under tumor conditions

CXC chemokine ligand-10 (CXCL10) is a small (10 kDa) secretory protein in the CXC subfamily of cytokines. CXCL10 has been reported to play an important role in antitumor immunity as a chemotactic factor. Tumor development is always accompanied by the formation of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, and the role of CXCL10 in tumor immunosuppression remains unclear. Here, we reported that CXCL10 expression was significantly upregulated in mice with melanoma, and tumor cells secreted large amounts of CXCL10. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are an important part of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Our results showed that CXCL10 promoted the proliferation of monocyte-like (mo)-MDSCs by activating the p38 MAPK signaling pathway through CXCR3, which led to the abnormal accumulation of mo-MDSCs under tumor conditions. This finding provides a new understanding of the mechanism by which a tumor-induced immunosuppressive microenvironment forms and suggests that CXCL10 could be a potential intervention target for slowing tumor progression.

Polarization and β-Glucan Reprogram Immunomodulatory Metabolism in Human Macrophages and Ex Vivo in Human Lung Cancer Tissues

Immunomodulatory (IM) metabolic reprogramming in macrophages (Mϕs) is fundamental to immune function. However, limited information is available for human Mϕs, particularly in response plasticity, which is critical to understanding the variable efficacy of immunotherapies in cancer patients. We carried out an in-depth analysis by combining multiplex stable isotope-resolved metabolomics with reversed phase protein array to map the dynamic changes of the IM metabolic network and key protein regulators in four human donors' Mϕs in response to differential polarization and M1 repolarizer β-glucan (whole glucan particles [WGPs]). These responses were compared with those of WGP-treated ex vivo organotypic tissue cultures (OTCs) of human non-small cell lung cancer. We found consistently enhanced tryptophan catabolism with blocked NAD+ and UTP synthesis in M1-type Mϕs (M1-Mϕs), which was associated with immune activation evidenced by increased release of IL-1β/CXCL10/IFN-γ/TNF-α and reduced phagocytosis. In M2a-Mϕs, WGP treatment of M2a-Mϕs robustly increased glucose utilization via the glycolysis/oxidative branch of the pentose phosphate pathway while enhancing UDP-N-acetyl-glucosamine turnover and glutamine-fueled gluconeogenesis, which was accompanied by the release of proinflammatory IL-1β/TNF-α to above M1-Mϕ's levels, anti-inflammatory IL-10 to above M2a-Mϕ's levels, and attenuated phagocytosis. These IM metabolic responses could underlie the opposing effects of WGP, i.e., reverting M2- to M1-type immune functions but also boosting anti-inflammation. Variable reprogrammed Krebs cycle and glutamine-fueled synthesis of UTP in WGP-treated OTCs of human non-small cell lung cancer were observed, reflecting variable M1 repolarization of tumor-associated Mϕs. This was supported by correlation with IL-1β/TNF-α release and compromised tumor status, making patient-derived OTCs unique models for studying variable immunotherapeutic efficacy in cancer patients.

Multifaceted role of chemokines in solid tumors: From biology to therapy

Chemokines are small secretory chemotactic cytokines that control the directed migration of immune cells. Chemokines are involved in both anti-and pro-tumorigenic immune responses. Accumulating evidence suggests that the balance between these responses is influenced by several factors such as the stage of tumorigenesis, immune cell activation, recruitment of immune activating or immunosuppressive cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME), and chemokine receptor expression on effector and regulatory target cells. Cancer cells engage in a complex network with their TME components via several factors including growth factors, cytokines and chemokines that are critical for the growth of primary tumor and metastasis. However, chemokines show a multifaceted role in tumor progression including maintenance of stem-like properties, tumor cell proliferation/survival/senescence, angiogenesis, and metastasis. The heterogeneity of solid tumors in primary and metastatic cancers presents a challenge to the development of successful cancer therapy. Despite extensive research on how solid tumors escape immune cell-mediated anti-tumor response, finding an effective therapy for metastatic cancer still remains a challenge. This review discusses the multifarious roles of chemokines in solid tumors including various chemokine signaling pathways such as CXCL8-CXCR1/2, CXCL9, 10, 11-CXCR3, CXCR4-CXCL12, CCL(X)-CCR(X) in primary and metastatic cancers. We further discuss the novel therapeutic approaches that have been developed by major breakthroughs in chemokine research to treat cancer patients by the strategic blockade/activation of these signaling axes alone or in combination with immunotherapies.

A systemic study on the vulnerability and fatality of prostate cancer patients towards COVID-19 through analysis of the TMPRSS2, CXCL10 and their co-expressed genes

A pandemic of respiratory disease named coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by a novel coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It is reported prostate cancer patients are susceptible to COVID-19 infection. To understand the possible causes of prostate cancer patients' increased vulnerability and mortality from COVID-19 infection, we focused on the two most important agents, transmembrane protease serine subtype 2 (TMPRSS2) and the C-X-C motif 10 (CXCL10). When SARS-CoV-2 binds to the host cell via S protein–angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 receptor interaction, TMPRSS2 contributes in the proteolytic cleavage of the S protein, allowing the viral and cellular membranes to fuse. CXCL10 is a cytokine found in elevated level in both COVID-19 and cancer-causing cytokine storm. We discovered that TMPRSS2 and CXCL10 are overexpressed in prostate cancer and COVID-19 using the UALCAN and GEPIA2 datasets. The functional importance of TMPRSS2 and CXCL10 in prostate cancer development was then determined by analyzing the frequency of genetic changes in their amino acid sequences using the cBioPortal online portal. Finally, we used the PANTHER database to examine the pathology of the targeted genes. We observed that TMPRSS2 and CXCL10, together with their often co-expressed genes, are important in the binding activity and immune responses in prostate cancer and COVID-19 infection, respectively. Finally, we found that TMPRSS2 and CXCL10 are two putative biomarkers responsible for the increased vulnerability and fatality of prostate cancer patients to COVID-19.

Identification of Key Genes and FUNCTIONAL Pathway in Radioresistance of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Purpose

For better understanding of radiotherapy resistance and its potential mechanism.

Methods

We established radioresistance cell lines of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) followed by microarray analysis. 529 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were then screened between radiation resistant cell lines compared with the sensitive cell lines. The biological functions and enrichment pathways of the above DEGs were identified using Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and gene ontology (GO) enrichment analyses. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) revealed that the radiation resistance group had the most gene sets enriched in altered immune response, such as TNF signaling pathway, when compared to the radiation sensitive group. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was carried out through the STRING database, and then five hub genes (CXCL10, IFIH1, DDX58, CXCL11, RSAD2) were screened by Cytoscape software. RT-PCR confirmed the expression of the above hub genes. ChIP-X Enrichment Analysis showed that STAT1 might be the transcription factor of the above hub genes. Considering that PD-L1 could be activated by STAT1 in a variety of tumors and ultimately lead to immune exhaustion, RT-PCR and Western blot verified the expression level of PD-L1.

Results

Five hub genes (CXCL10, IFIH1, DDX58, CXCL11, RSAD2) were screened and verified to be highly expressed in radioresistance group, STAT1 might be the transcription factor of the above hub genes. Our study found that the expression level of PD-L1 was increased after radiotherapy resistance.

Conclusion

Although immune system activation occurs followed by radiation resistance, we hypothesized that the upregulation of PD-L1 expression caused by STAT1 activation might be one of the mechanisms of radiotherapy resistance.

Bioinformatics analysis identifies potential biomarkers involved in the metastasis of locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is one of the malignant epithelial tumors with a high metastasis rate. This study aimed to screen potential novel biomarkers involved in NPC metastasis. Microarray data of locoregionally advanced NPC (LA-NPC; GSE103611) were obtained from the database of Gene Expression Omnibus. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between LA-NPC tissues with and without distant metastasis after radical treatment were screened. Functional analysis was performed and the protein-protein interaction and submodule were analyzed. The univariate Cox regression analysis was performed to identify prognostic genes in NPC in the validation microarray dataset GSE102349. The drug-gene interactions and key genes were identified. Totally, 107 DEGs were identified. The upregulated DEGs and the key nodes in the protein-protein interaction network were associated with pathways or biological processes related to the cell cycle. Four genes including CD44, B2M, PTPN11, and TRIM74 were associated with disease-free survival in NPC. The drug-gene interaction analysis revealed that upregulated genes CXCL10, CD44, B2M, XRCC5, and RPL11 might be potential druggable genes for patients with LA-NPC metastasis by regulating cell cycle, autophagy, and drug resistance. Upregulated CXCL10, CD44, B2M, XRCC5, and RPL11 might play important roles in LA-NPC metastasis by regulating cell cycle-related pathways.

Azithromycin and Ceftriaxone Differentially Activate NLRP3 in LPS Primed Cancer Cells

Background: Cancer patients are prescribed antibiotics, such as macrolides and lactamides, for infection treatment. However, the effect of these antibiotics on NLRP3 activation remains largely unknown. Method: Lung cancer (A549) and prostate cancer (PC3) cell lines were primed with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to activate NLRP3 transcription. Cells were then treated with azithromycin (Az) or ceftriaxone (Cf). NLRP3 activation was analyzed by qPCR, Western blot, and ELISA. Cell growth and viability were assessed by real-time cell analysis and Annexin V expression. Levels of 41 cytokines were also analyzed using a multiplex assay. Results: LPS-Az activated transcription of NLRP3, Pro-CASP-1, and Pro-IL-1β in A549 cells, while failing to upregulate NLRP3 and Pro-IL-1β in PC3 cells. LPS-Az decreased the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines while it induced the pro-angiogenic factors in A549 and PC3 cells. In contrast, LPS-Cf suppressed the expression of NLRP3-associated genes, NLRP3 protein expression, the inflammatory cytokine secretion in A549 and PC3 cells. LPS-Az and LPS-Cf had a limited effect on cell growth and viability. Discussion: Our data suggest that Cf could suppress LPS induced NLRP3, which should be considered when selecting antibiotics for cancer treatment. In contrast, the effect of Az on LPS primed NLRP3 and the inflammatory cytokines production appears to depend on the cancer cell origin. Therefore, these data indicate that considerations are required when selecting Az for the treatment of cancer patients.

[scRNA-sequencing uncovers metabolism and CD52 as new targets in ibrutinib-surviving mantle cell lymphoma cells]

BACKGROUND

Ibrutinib improves the treatment of relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma, a mature B cell neoplasm. However, relapses following treatment with this Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitor occur frequently, and the outcome of affected patients is poor.

OBJECTIVES

Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) can track trends in gene expression of mantle cell lymphoma cells across ibrutinib treatment and new therapeutic targets can be defined based on the detected resistance mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The ibrutinib-sensitive mantle cell lymphoma cell line REC‑1 was treated with ibrutinib for 6 h and 48 h. Droplet-based scRNA-seq was performed to examine the transcriptomic alterations of surviving cells using the 10× Genomics platform. Extracellular flux analysis and flow cytometry were applied to further study the observed adaptations to ibrutinib treatment.

RESULTS

REC‑1 harbored a subpopulation with potential for crosstalk with microenvironment and therefore greater risk for aggressiveness and drug resistance. Following ibrutinib treatment, NF-κB signaling was turned off. In contrast, the cells upregulated B-cell receptor genes and surface antigens such as CD52, and switched their metabolism to increased dependence on oxidative phosphorylation.

CONCLUSIONS

Targeting oxidative phosphorylation or CD52 in combination with or as follow-up to ibrutinib might overcome resistance and provide improved prognosis for mantle cell lymphoma patients.

Identification of Novel Tumor Microenvironment Regulating Factor That Facilitates Tumor Immune Infiltration in Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer is one of the most common gynecologic malignancies and one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths in women worldwide. There are more than 30 categories of human papillomavirus infections in the genital tract. The recently discovered immune checkpoint suppression is a potential approach to improve clinical outcomes in these patients by altering immune cell function. However, many questions remain unanswered in terms of this method. For example, the proportion of responders is limited and the exact mechanism of action is uncertain. The tumor microenvironment (TME) has long been regarded as having nonnegligible influence on effectiveness of immunotherapy. The programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) pathway has received much attention due to its involvement in activating T-cell immune checkpoint responses. Since tumor cells may evade immune detection and become highly resistant to conventional treatments, anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies are preferred as a kind of cancer treatment and many have just been licensed. To provide a theoretical basis for the development of new therapies, investigating the effect of tumor microenvironment on the prognosis of cervical cancer is necessary. In this work, immunological scores obtained from the ESTIMATE algorithm were used to differentiate between patients with high and low immune cell infiltration. We identified 11 immunologically significant differentially expressed genes (DEGs). For example, CXCR3 was found to be an important factor in CD8⁺ T cell recruitment and tumor immunological infiltration in cervical cancer. These results may lead to novel directions of understanding complex interactions between cancer cells and the tumor microenvironment, as well as new treatment options for cervical cancer.

Cytokine‐ and chemokine‐induced inflammatory colorectal tumor microenvironment: Emerging avenue for targeted therapy

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a predominant life‐threatening cancer, with liver and peritoneal metastases as the primary causes of death. Intestinal inflammation, a known CRC risk factor, nurtures a local inflammatory environment enriched with tumor cells, endothelial cells, immune cells, cancer‐associated fibroblasts, immunosuppressive cells, and secretory growth factors. The complex interactions of aberrantly expressed cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and matrix‐remodeling enzymes promote CRC pathogenesis and evoke systemic responses that affect disease outcomes. Mounting evidence suggests that these cytokines and chemokines play a role in the progression of CRC through immunosuppression and modulation of the tumor microenvironment, which is partly achieved by the recruitment of immunosuppressive cells. These cells impart features such as cancer stem cell‐like properties, drug resistance, invasion, and formation of the premetastatic niche in distant organs, promoting metastasis and aggressive CRC growth. A deeper understanding of the cytokine‐ and chemokine‐mediated signaling networks that link tumor progression and metastasis will provide insights into the mechanistic details of disease aggressiveness and facilitate the development of novel therapeutics for CRC. Here, we summarized the current knowledge of cytokine‐ and chemokine‐mediated crosstalk in the inflammatory tumor microenvironment, which drives immunosuppression, resistance to therapeutics, and metastasis during CRC progression. We also outlined the potential of this crosstalk as a novel therapeutic target for CRC. The major cytokine/chemokine pathways involved in cancer immunotherapy are also discussed in this review.

Identification of cell types in multiplexed in situ images by combining protein expression and spatial information using CELESTA

Advances in multiplexed in situ imaging are revealing important insights in spatial biology. However, cell type identification remains a major challenge in imaging analysis, with most existing methods involving substantial manual assessment and subjective decisions for thousands of cells. We developed an unsupervised machine learning algorithm, CELESTA, which identifies the cell type of each cell, individually, using the cell's marker expression profile and, when needed, its spatial information. We demonstrate the performance of CELESTA on multiplexed immunofluorescence images of colorectal cancer and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Using the cell types identified by CELESTA, we identify tissue architecture associated with lymph node metastasis in HNSCC, and validate our findings in an independent cohort. By coupling our spatial analysis with single-cell RNA-sequencing data on proximal sections of the same specimens, we identify cell-cell crosstalk associated with lymph node metastasis, demonstrating the power of CELESTA to facilitate identification of clinically relevant interactions.

Role of chemokine systems in cancer and inflammatory diseases

Chemokines are a large family of small secreted proteins that have fundamental roles in organ development, normal physiology, and immune responses upon binding to their corresponding receptors. The primary functions of chemokines are to coordinate and recruit immune cells to and from tissues and to participate in regulating interactions between immune cells. In addition to the generally recognized antimicrobial immunity, the chemokine/chemokine receptor axis also exerts a tumorigenic function in many different cancer models and is involved in the formation of immunosuppressive and protective tumor microenvironment (TME), making them potential prognostic markers for various hematologic and solid tumors. In fact, apart from its vital role in tumors, almost all inflammatory diseases involve chemokines and their receptors in one way or another. Modulating the expression of chemokines and/or their corresponding receptors on tumor cells or immune cells provides the basis for the exploitation of new drugs for clinical evaluation in the treatment of related diseases. Here, we summarize recent advances of chemokine systems in protumor and antitumor immune responses and discuss the prevailing understanding of how the chemokine system operates in inflammatory diseases. In this review, we also emphatically highlight the complexity of the chemokine system and explore its potential to guide the treatment of cancer and inflammatory diseases.

Intratumoral administration of STING-activating nanovaccine enhances T cell immunotherapy

BACKGROUND

Cancer vaccines are able to achieve tumor-specific immune editing in early-phase clinical trials. However, the infiltration of cytotoxic T cells into immune-deserted tumors is still a major limiting factor. An optimized vaccine approach to induce antigen-specific T cells that can perform robust tumor infiltration is important to accelerate their clinical translation. We previously developed a STING-activating PC7A nanovaccine that produces a strong anti-tumor T cell response on subcutaneous injection. This study systematically investigated the impact of administration methods on the performance of nanovaccines.

METHODS

Tumor growth inhibition by intratumoral delivery and subcutaneous delivery of nanovaccine was investigated in TC-1 human papillomavirus-induced cancer model and B16-OVA melanoma model. Nanovaccine distribution in vivo was detected by clinical camera imaging, systemic T cell activation and tumor infiltration were tested by in vivo cytotoxicity killing assay and flow cytometry. For mechanism analysis, T cell recruitment was investigated by in vivo migration blocking assay, multiplex chemokine array, flow cytometry, RT-qPCR, chemotaxis assay and gene knockout mice.

RESULTS

Nanovaccine administration was found to alter T cell production and infiltration in tumors. Intratumoral delivery of nanovaccines displayed superior antitumor effects in multiple tumor models compared with subcutaneous delivery. Mechanistic investigation revealed that intratumoral administration of the nanovaccine significantly increased the infiltration of antigen-specific T cells in TC-1 tumors, despite the lower systemic levels of T cells compared with subcutaneous injection. The inhibition of tumor growth by nanovaccines is primarily dependent on CD8⁺ cytotoxic T cells. Nanovaccine accumulation in tumors upregulates CXCL9 expression in myeloid cells in a STING dependent manner, leading to increased recruitment of IFNγ-expressing CD8⁺ T cells from the periphery, and IFNγ reciprocally stimulates CXCL9 expression in myeloid cells, resulting in positive feedback between myeloid-CXCL9 and T cell-IFNγ to promote T cell recruitment. However, the STING agonist alone could not sustain this effect in the presence of a systemic deficiency in antigen-specific T cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that intratumoral administration of PC7A nanovaccine achieved stronger antitumor immunity and efficacy over subcutaneous injection. These data suggest intratumoral administration should be included in the therapeutic design in the clinical use of nanovaccine.

Plasma secretome analyses identify IL-8 and nitrites as predictors of poor prognosis in nasopharyngeal carcinoma patients

Predicting tumor recurrence and death in patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) remains to date challenging. We here analyzed the plasmatic secretomes of NPC untreated and relapsing patients, and explored possible correlations with the clinical and pathological features and survival characteristics of the corresponding patient cohorts, with the aim of identifying novel prognostic biomarkers. This study included 27 controls, 45 untreated NPC and 11 relapsed patients. A set of 14 plasma cytokines were analyzed using Millipore multiplex assay. Nitrites were assessed by Griess method. A comparative analysis of each groups' secretome showed upregulation of IL-8, IL-12p70, IL-10 and IP-10 in untreated patients, and of IL-6, IL-10, MCP-1 and IP-10 in relapsing patients. Nitrites significantly correlated with IL-8 during relapse. Secretomes' network analyses revealed prevalence of high correlations between IL8/IL-17A and IFN-γ/IL12p70 in the control group, between TNF-α/IL-8/IL-6, TNF-α/VEGF/IFN-γ and IL-10/MCP-1 in the untreated group, and between IL-8/IL-6/IL-10, TNF-α/IL-8/IL-6, IL12-p70/VEGF/IL-10/IFN-γ, IL-6/IL-10/IFN-γ and IL-8/IP-10 in the relapse group. IL-12p70, IP-10 and MCP-1 levels respectively associated with gender, age and node metastasis respectively. Recurrence-free survival (RFS) analysis showed that patients presenting High IL-8/Low NO immunological scores presented a combined 80% probability of relapse/death after 53 months (combined log-rank test p = 0.0034; individual p = 0.012 and p = 0.016). Multivariate Cox hazard regression analysis revealed that IL-8 (HR = 7.451; 95% CI [2.398-23.152]; p = 0.001) and treatment type (HR = 0.232; 95% CI 0.072-0.749; p = 0.015) were independent prognostic factors. C&RT decision tree analysis showed that High IL-8/Low NO immunological scores predicted treatment failure in 50% cases starting the 36th month of follow-up (AUC = 1) for all of the studied cases and in 57% cases for patients receiving chemotherapy alone (AUC = 1). Altogether, our results showed that NPC development is accompanied with cytokines deregulation to form specific interaction networks at time of diagnosis and relapse, and demonstrate that High IL-8/Low NO signature may constitute a predictor of poor prognosis which may be useful to improve risk stratification and therapy failure management.

Integrative Analysis of Biomarkers and Mechanisms in Adamantinomatous Craniopharyngioma

Craniopharyngioma is a benign tumor, and the predominant treatment methods are surgical resection and radiotherapy. However, both treatments may lead to complex complications, seriously affecting patients’ survival rate and quality of life. Adamantinomatous craniopharyngioma (ACP), as one of the histological subtypes of craniopharyngioma, is associated with a high incidence and poor prognosis, and there is a gap in the targeted therapy of immune-related genes for ACP. In this study, two gene expression profiles of ACP, namely GSE68015 and GSE94349, were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified by the Limma package, and 271 differentially expressed immune-related genes (DEIRGs) were obtained from the Immport database. The gene ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) were performed for annotation, visualization, and integrated discovery. Five hub genes, including CXCL6, CXCL10, CXCL11, CXCL13, and SAA1, were screened out through protein-protein interaction (PPI) network interaction construction. Two diagnostic markers, namely S100A2 and SDC1 (both of which have the Area Under Curve value of 1), were screened by the machine learning algorithm. CIBERSORT analysis showed that M2 macrophages, activated NK cells, and gamma delta T cells had higher abundance in ACP infiltration, while CD8+ T cells, regulatory T cells, and Neutrophils had less abundance in ACP infiltration. The expression of gamma delta T cells was positively correlated with CXCL6, S100A2, SDC1, and SAA1, while CD8+ T cells expression was negatively correlated with CXCL6, S100A2, SDC1, and CXCL10. ACP with high CXCL6 showed remarkable drug sensitivity to Pentostatin and Wortmannin via CellMiner database analysis. Our results deepened the understanding of the molecular immune mechanism in ACP and provided potential biomarkers for the precisely targeted therapy for ACP.

Rg1 exerts protective effect in CPZ-induced demyelination mouse model via inhibiting CXCL10-mediated glial response

Myelin damage and abnormal remyelination processes lead to central nervous system dysfunction. Glial activation-induced microenvironment changes are characteristic features of the diseases with myelin abnormalities. We previously showed that ginsenoside Rg1, a main component of ginseng, ameliorated MPTP-mediated myelin damage in mice, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. In this study we investigated the effects of Rg1 and mechanisms in cuprizone (CPZ)-induced demyelination mouse model. Mice were treated with CPZ solution (300 mg· kg^-1· d^-1, ig) for 5 weeks; from week 2, the mice received Rg1 (5, 10, and 20 mg· kg^-1· d^-1, ig) for 4 weeks. We showed that Rg1 administration dose-dependently alleviated bradykinesia and improved CPZ-disrupted motor coordination ability in CPZ-treated mice. Furthermore, Rg1 administration significantly decreased demyelination and axonal injury in pathological assays. We further revealed that the neuroprotective effects of Rg1 were associated with inhibiting CXCL10-mediated modulation of glial response, which was mediated by NF-κB nuclear translocation and CXCL10 promoter activation. In microglial cell line BV-2, we demonstrated that the effects of Rg1 on pro-inflammatory and migratory phenotypes of microglia were related to CXCL10, while Rg1-induced phagocytosis of microglia was not directly related to CXCL10. In CPZ-induced demyelination mouse model, injection of AAV-CXCL10 shRNA into mouse lateral ventricles 3 weeks prior CPZ treatment occluded the beneficial effects of Rg1 administration in behavioral and pathological assays. In conclusion, CXCL10 mediates the protective role of Rg1 in CPZ-induced demyelination mouse model. This study provides new insight into potential disease-modifying therapies for myelin abnormalities.

Identification of CXCL10 as a Prognostic Biomarker for Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma

Background

One of the widespread forms of kidney tumor is clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC), with poor prognosis and insensitivity to radio chemotherapy as there is limited capacity to understand the disease mechanism. This study aims at identifying potential biomarkers and the underlying processes of ccRCC using bioinformatics analysis.

Methods

Transcriptome data of relevant samples were downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. R software was used to screen differentially expressed genes (DEGs) using the “edgeR” package. Two types of analysis—Gene Ontology (GO) functional and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment—were accomplished by applying Database for Annotation, Visualization, and Integrated Discovery (DAVID) and Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes database (STRING) online bioinformatics tools. A protein–protein interaction (PPI) network of the identified DEGs was constructed using Cytoscape software, and hub genes were subsequently selected via the Cytohubba plug-in. The selected genes were input into Oncomine for verification. Finally, selected hub genes were analyzed by doing survival analysis to notice the relationship between survival (OS) rate and the selected genes’ level of expression.

Results

There were 1,855 DEGs found connected to ccRCC, with 1,207 upregulated genes and 648 downregulated genes. G-protein-coupled receptor signaling pathway, integral component of membrane, calcium ion binding, and cytokine–cytokine receptor interaction were among the DEGs discovered. Oncomine confirmed the top six hub genes from the PPI network (C3, CXCR3, CXCL10, CCR5, CCL4, and CCL5). A high level of expression of CXCL10, one of these hub genes, was linked to a poor prognosis in individuals with ccRCC. The results of survival analysis showed that the expression level of CXCL10 was significantly correlated with the prognosis of ccRCC patients (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

From the analysis, the following results were drawn: CXCL10 might be a potential prognostic biomarker and novel therapeutic target for ccRCC.

Mesenchymal stromal cells equipped by IFNα empower T cells with potent anti-tumor immunity

Cancer treatments have been revolutionized by the emergence of immune checkpoint blockade therapies. However, only a minority of patients with various tumor types have benefited from such treatments. New strategies focusing on the immune contexture of the tumor tissue microenvironment hold great promises. Here, we created IFNα-overexpressing mesenchymal stromal cells (IFNα-MSCs). Upon direct injection into tumors, we found that these cells are powerful in eliminating several types of tumors. Interestingly, the intra-tumoral injection of IFNα-MSCs could also induce specific anti-tumor effects on distant tumors. These IFNα-MSCs promoted tumor cells to produce CXCL10, which in turn potentiates the infiltration of CD8⁺ T cells in the tumor site. Furthermore, IFNα-MSCs enhanced the expression of granzyme B (GZMB) in CD8⁺ T cells and invigorated their cytotoxicity in a Stat3-dependent manner. Genetic ablation of Stat3 in CD8⁺ T cells impaired the effect of IFNα-MSCs on GZMB expression. Importantly, the combination of IFNα-MSCs and PD-L1 blockade induced an even stronger anti-tumor immunity. Therefore, IFNα-MSCs represent a novel tumor immunotherapy strategy, especially when combined with PD-L1 blockade.

Identify potential prognostic indicators and tumor-infiltrating immune cells in pancreatic adenocarcinoma

Background: Pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAAD) is a kind of highly malignant tumor and lacks early diagnosis method and effective treatment. Tumor microenvironment (TME) is of great importance for the occurrence and development of PAAD. Thus, a comprehensive overview of genes and tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TICs) related to TME dynamic changes conduce to develop novel therapeutic targets and prognostic indicators.

Methods: We used MAlignant Tumors using Expression data (ESTIMATE) algorithm to analyze the transcriptome RNA-seq data of 182 PAAD cases on The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) platform. Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), protein–protein interaction (PPI) network, COX regression analysis and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) were carried out to get the hub genes related to the prognosis of PAAD patients. These core genes were validated in GEPIA. CXCL10 expression as a poor prognostic indicator was validated in GEO database. Finally, CIBERSORT algorithm was applied to understand the status of TICs.

Results: A total of 715 up-regulated differential expression genes (DEGs) and 57 down-regulated DEGs were found simultaneously in stromal and immune groups. These DEGs were mainly enriched in immune recognition, activation and response processes. CD4, CXCL12, CXCL10, CCL5 and CXCL9 were the top five core genes. Then, the validation of these genes showed that CD4, CXCL10, CXCL5, CXCL9 were up-regulated in PAAD. Among the core genes, CXCL10 had a negative correlation with the survival time of PAAD patients. CD8+ T cells, CD4+ T cells memory activated, macrophages M1 had positive correlation of CXCL10 expression, whereas regulatory T cells (Tregs), macrophages M0 and B cells memory had negative correlation.

Conclusion: We generated a series of genes related to TME with prognostic implications and TICs in PAAD, which have the potential to be novel immunotherapy targets and prognostic markers. The data showed that CXCL10 was favorable as a poor prognostic indicator in PAAD patients.

The Highly Expressed IFIT1 in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Enhances Proliferation, Migration, and Invasion of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Cells

In this study, we aimed to identify potential targets modulating the progression of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) using integrated bioinformatics analysis and functional assays. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between NPC and normal tissues samples were obtained from publicly availably microarray datasets (GSE68799, GSE34573, and GSE53819) in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. The bioinformatics analysis identified 49 common DEGs from three GEO datasets, which were mainly enriched in cytokine/chemokine pathways and extracellular matrix organization pathway. Further protein-protein interaction network analysis identified 11 hub genes from the 49 DEGs. The 11 hub genes were significantly up-regulated in the NPC tissues when compared to normal tissues by analyzing the Oncomine database. The 8 hub genes including COL5A1, COL7A1, COL22A1, CXCL11, IFI44L, IFIT1, RSAD2, and USP18 were significantly up-regulated in the NPC tissues when compared to normal tissues by using the Oncomine database. Further validation studies showed that IFIT1 was up-regulated in the NPC cells. Knockdown of IFI1T1 suppressed the proliferation, migration, and invasion of NPC cells; while IFIT1 overexpression promoted the proliferation, migration, and invasion of NPC cells. In conclusion, a total of 49 DEGs and 11 hub genes in NPC using the integrated bioinformatics analysis. IFIT1 was up-regulated in the NPC cells lines, and IFIT1 may act as an oncogene by promoting NPC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion.

Integrative Analysis of the Genomic and Immune Microenvironment Characteristics Associated With Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma Progression: Implications for Prognosis and Immunotherapy

Unlike early clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC), locally advanced and metastatic ccRCC present poor treatment outcomes and prognosis. As immune checkpoint inhibitors have achieved favorable results in the adjuvant treatment of metastatic ccRCC, we aimed to investigate the immunogenomic landscape during ccRCC progression and its potential impact on immunotherapy and prognosis. Using multi-omics and immunotherapy ccRCC datasets, an integrated analysis was performed to identify genomic alterations, immune microenvironment features, and related biological processes during ccRCC progression and evaluate their relevance to immunotherapy response and prognosis. We found that aggressive and metastatic ccRCC had higher proportions of genomic alterations, including SETD2 mutations, Del(14q), Del(9p), and higher immunosuppressive cellular and molecular infiltration levels. Of these, the Del(14q) might mediate immune escape in ccRCC via the VEGFA-VEGFR2 signaling pathway. Furthermore, immune-related pathways associated with ccRCC progression did not affect the immunotherapeutic response to ccRCC. Conversely, cell cycle pathways not only affected ccRCC progression and prognosis, but also were related to ccRCC immunotherapeutic response resistance. Overall, we described the immunogenomic characteristics of ccRCC progression and their correlations with immunotherapeutic response and prognosis, providing new insights into their prediction and the development of novel therapeutic strategies.

Shared Gene Expression and Immune Pathway Changes Associated with Progression from Nevi to Melanoma

Simple Summary

Melanoma is a deadly skin cancer, and the incidence of melanoma is rising. Chemoprevention, using small molecule drugs to prevent the development of cancer, is a key strategy that could reduce the burden of melanoma on society. The long-term goal of our study is to develop a gene signature biomarker of progression from nevi to melanoma. We found that a small number of genes can distinguish nevi from melanoma and identified shared genes and immune-related pathways that are associated with progression from nevi to melanoma across independent datasets. This study demonstrates (1) a novel approach to aid melanoma chemoprevention trials by using a gene signature as a surrogate endpoint and (2) the feasibility of determining a gene signature biomarker of melanoma progression.

Abstract

There is a need to identify molecular biomarkers of melanoma progression to assist the development of chemoprevention strategies to lower melanoma incidence. Using datasets containing gene expression for dysplastic nevi and melanoma or melanoma arising in a nevus, we performed differential gene expression analysis and regularized regression models to identify genes and pathways that were associated with progression from nevi to melanoma. A small number of genes distinguished nevi from melanoma. Differential expression of seven genes was identified between nevi and melanoma in three independent datasets. C1QB, CXCL9, CXCL10, DFNA5 (GSDME), FCGR1B, and PRAME were increased in melanoma, and SCGB1D2 was decreased in melanoma, compared to dysplastic nevi or nevi that progressed to melanoma. Further supporting an association with melanomagenesis, these genes demonstrated a linear change in expression from benign nevi to dysplastic nevi to radial growth phase melanoma to vertical growth phase melanoma. The genes associated with melanoma progression showed significant enrichment of multiple pathways related to the immune system. This study demonstrates (1) a novel application of bioinformatic approaches to aid clinical trials of melanoma chemoprevention and (2) the feasibility of determining a gene signature biomarker of melanomagenesis.

Identification of Potential Prognostic and Predictive Immunological Biomarkers in Patients with Stage I and Stage III Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC): A Prospective Exploratory Study

Radiotherapy (RT) and chemotherapy can induce immune responses, but not much is known regarding treatment-induced immune changes in patients. This exploratory study aimed to identify potential prognostic and predictive immune-related proteins associated with progression-free survival (PFS) in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). In this prospective study, patients with stage I NSCLC treated with stereotactic body radiation therapy (n = 26) and patients with stage III NSCLC treated with concurrent chemoradiotherapy (n = 18) were included. Blood samples were collected before (v1), during (v2), and after RT (v3). In patients with stage I NSCLC, CD244 (HR: 10.2, 95% CI: 1.8-57.4) was identified as a negative prognostic biomarker. In patients with stage III NSCLC, CR2 and IFNGR2 were identified as positive prognostic biomarkers (CR2, HR: 0.00, 95% CI: 0.00-0.12; IFNGR2, HR: 0.04, 95% CI: 0.00-0.46). In addition, analysis of the treatment-induced changes of circulating protein levels over time (Δv2/v3-v1) also identified CXCL10 and IL-10 as negative predictive biomarkers (CXCL10, HR: 3.86, 95% CI: 1.0-14.7; IL-10, HR: 16.92 (2.74-104.36)), although serum-induced interferon (IFN) response was a positive prognostic. In conclusion, we identified several circulating immunogenic proteins that are correlated with PFS in patients with stage I and stage III NSCLC before and during treatment.

Cxcl10 chemokine induces migration of ING4-deficient breast cancer cells via a novel crosstalk mechanism between the Cxcr3 and Egfr receptors

The chemokine Cxcl10 has been associated with poor prognosis in breast cancer, but the mechanism is not well understood. Our previous study have shown that CXCL10 was repressed by the ING4 tumor suppressor, suggesting a potential inverse functional relationship. We thus investigated a role for Cxcl10 in the context of ING4 deficiencies in breast cancer. We first analyzed public gene expression datasets and found that patients with CXCL10-high/ING4-low expressing tumors had significantly reduced disease-free survival in breast cancer. In vitro, Cxcl10 induced migration of ING4-deleted breast cancer cells, but not of ING4-intact cells. Using inhibitors, we found that Cxcl10-induced migration of ING4-deleted cells required Cxcr3, Egfr, and the Gβγ subunits downstream of Cxcr3, but not Gαi. Immunofluorescent imaging showed that Cxcl10 induced early transient colocalization between Cxcr3 and Egfr in both ING4-intact and ING4-deleted cells, which recurred only in ING4-deleted cells. A peptide agent that binds to the internal juxtamembrane domain of Egfr inhibited Cxcr3/Egfr colocalization and cell migration. Taken together, these results presented a novel mechanism of Cxcl10 that elicits migration of ING4-deleted cells, in part by inducing a physical or proximal association between Cxcr3 and Egfr and signaling downstream via Gβγ. These results further indicated that ING4 plays a critical role in the regulation of Cxcl10 signaling that enables breast cancer progression.

Chemokine Pathways in Cutaneous Melanoma: Their Modulation by Cancer and Exploitation by the Clinician

The incidence of cutaneous malignant melanoma is rising globally and is projected to continue to rise. Advances in immunotherapy over the last decade have demonstrated that manipulation of the immune cell compartment of tumours is a valuable weapon in the arsenal against cancer; however, limitations to treatment still exist. Cutaneous melanoma lesions feature a dense cell infiltrate, coordinated by chemokines, which control the positioning of all immune cells. Melanomas are able to use chemokine pathways to preferentially recruit cells, which aid their growth, survival, invasion and metastasis, and which enhance their ability to evade anticancer immune responses. Aside from this, chemokine signalling can directly influence angiogenesis, invasion, lymph node, and distal metastases, including epithelial to mesenchymal transition-like processes and transendothelial migration. Understanding the interplay of chemokines, cancer cells, and immune cells may uncover future avenues for melanoma therapy, namely: identifying biomarkers for patient stratification, augmenting the effect of current and emerging therapies, and designing specific treatments to target chemokine pathways, with the aim to reduce melanoma pathogenicity, metastatic potential, and enhance immune cell-mediated cancer killing. The chemokine network may provide selective and specific targets that, if included in current therapeutic regimens, harbour potential to improve outcomes for patients.

Pathogenic Roles of CXCL10 in Experimental Autoimmune Prostatitis by Modulating Macrophage Chemotaxis and Cytokine Secretion

Chronic prostatitis and chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) is an inflammatory immune disease characterized by intraprostatic leukocyte infiltration and pelvic or perineal pain. Macrophages play vital roles in the pathogenesis of CP/CPPS. However, the mechanisms controlling the activation and chemotaxis of macrophages in CP/CPPS remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the roles of the CXCL10/CXCR3 pathway in the activation and chemotaxis of macrophages in CP/CPPS patients. The serums of CP/CPPS patients and healthy volunteers were collected and measured. Results showed that CXCL10 expression was significantly elevated and correlated with the severity of CP/CPPS patients. The experimental autoimmune prostatitis (EAP) model was generated, and adeno-associated virus and CXCR3 inhibitors were used to treat EAP mice. Immunofluorescence, flow cytometry, and Western blotting were used to analyze the functional phenotype and regulation mechanism of macrophages. Results showed that CXCL10 deficiency ameliorates EAP severity by inhibiting infiltration of macrophages to prostate. Moreover, CXCL10 could induce macrophage migrations and secretions of proinflammatory mediators via CXCR3, which consequently activated the downstream Erk1/2 and p38 MAPK signaling pathways. We also showed that prostatic stromal cell is a potential source of CXCL10. Our results indicated CXCL10 as an important mediator involved in inflammatory infiltration and pain symptoms of prostatitis by promoting the migration of macrophages and secretion of inflammatory mediators via CXCR3-mediated ERK and p38 MAPK activation.

Contribution of CXCR3-mediated signaling in the metastatic cascade of solid malignancies

Metastasis is a significant cause of the mortality resulting from solid malignancies. The process of metastasis is complex and is regulated by numerous cancer cell-intrinsic and -extrinsic factors. CXCR3 is a chemokine receptor that is frequently expressed by cancer cells, endothelial cells and immune cells. CXCR3A signaling in cancer cells tends to promote the invasive and migratory phenotype of cancer cells. Indirectly, CXCR3 modulates the anti-tumor immune response resulting in variable effects that can permit or inhibit metastatic progression. Finally, the activity of CXCR3B in endothelial cells is generally angiostatic, which limits the access of cancer cells to key conduits to secondary sites. However, the interaction of these activities within a tumor and the presence of opposing CXCR3 splice variants clouds the picture of the role of CXCR3 in metastasis. Consequently, thorough analysis of the contributions of CXCR3 to cancer metastasis is necessary. This review is an in-depth examination of the involvement of CXCR3 in the metastatic process of solid malignancies.

Wrinkle in the plan: miR-34a-5p impacts chemokine signaling by modulating CXCL10/CXCL11/CXCR3-axis in CD4+, CD8+ T cells, and M1 macrophages

BACKGROUND

In 2016 the first-in-human phase I study of a miRNA-based cancer therapy with a liposomal mimic of microRNA-34a-5p (miR-34a-5p) was closed due to five immune related serious adverse events (SAEs) resulting in four patient deaths. For future applications of miRNA mimics in cancer therapy it is mandatory to unravel the miRNA effects both on the tumor tissue and on immune cells. Here, we set out to analyze the impact of miR-34a-5p over-expression on the CXCL10/CXCL11/CXCR3 axis, which is central for the development of an effective cancer control.

METHODS

We performed a whole genome expression analysis of miR-34a-5p transfected M1 macrophages followed by an over-representation and a protein-protein network analysis. In-silico miRNA target prediction and dual luciferase assays were used for target identification and verification. Target genes involved in chemokine signaling were functionally analyzed in M1 macrophages, CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells.

RESULTS

A whole genome expression analysis of M1 macrophages with induced miR-34a-5p over-expression revealed an interaction network of downregulated target mRNAs including CXCL10 and CXCL11. In-silico target prediction in combination with dual luciferase assays identified direct binding of miR-34a-5p to the 3'UTRs of CXCL10 and CXCL11. Decreased CXCL10 and CXCL11 secretion was shown on the endogenous protein level and in the supernatant of miR-34a-5p transfected and activated M1 macrophages. To complete the analysis of the CXCL10/CXCL11/CXCR3 axis, we activated miR-34a-5p transfected CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells by PMA/Ionomycin and found reduced levels of endogenous CXCR3 and CXCR3 on the cell surface.

CONCLUSIONS

MiR-34a-5p mimic administered by intravenous administration will likely not only be up-taken by the tumor cells but also by the immune cells. Our results indicate that miR-34a-5p over-expression leads in M1 macrophages to a reduced secretion of CXCL10 and CXCL11 chemokines and in CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells to a reduced expression of CXCR3. As a result, less immune cells will be attracted to the tumor site. Furthermore, high levels of miR-34a-5p in naive CD4⁺ T cells can in turn hinder Th1 cell polarization through the downregulation of CXCR3 leading to a less pronounced activation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes, natural killer, and natural killer T cells and possibly contributing to lymphocytopenia.

Single-cell RNA-seq reveals invasive trajectory and determines cancer stem cell-related prognostic genes in pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic duct adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is an aggressive and lethal malignancy. Pancreatic cancer stem cells (PCSCs) are assumed to contribute to the initiation and invasion of PDAC. In this study, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) analysis of PDAC tumor samples from patients and control pancreas tissues to reveal the transformation process of cancer stem cell (CSC)-like ductal cells into ductal cells with invasive potential and we screened out CSC-related genes (CRGs). Subsequently, we applied LASSO and Cox regression models to identify five CRGs with potential prognostic values and constructed a risk prognostic model using the Cancer Genome Atlas datasets. The risk models were verified using Gene Expression Omnibus datasets. Patients in the high-risk group had a significantly poor overall survival (Pvalue<0.0001), as illustrated by the Kaplan-Meier survival curve, and the area under the curve confirmed the accuracy of predictions by our risk model. Tumor mutation burden variations were used to further explore the differences between the two risk cohorts. In addition, the Human Protein Atlas was used to investigate the protein expression of five hub CRGs. In brief, we utilized scRNA-seq to reveal the invasive trajectory of ductal cells and identified crucial CRGs in PDAC, which may help predict patient survival and provide potential clinical therapeutic targets against CSCs.

CXCL10 Produced by HPV-Positive Cervical Cancer Cells Stimulates Exosomal PDL1 Expression by Fibroblasts via CXCR3 and JAK-STAT Pathways

Persistent infection with human papillomavirus (HPV) and immune surveillance failure may be the initiating factors for the carcinogenesis of cervical squamous cell carcinoma (CSCC). HPV infection might affect the innate immune pathway of cervical epithelial cells that constitute the “microenvironment” for tumor cells. Programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) has been reported to be an immunosuppressor that helps cancer cells escape the actions of T cells. In the present study, CXCL10 was substantially upregulated both in cervical tissues of HPV infected patients with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) or CSCC, as well as in HPV16 E6/E7 transgenic murine cervix. The HPV-positive (HPV+) cervical cancer cell lines SiHa and Caski secreted increased levels of CXCL10 compared to human foreskin fibroblasts (HFF-1), and its receptor CXCR3 was overexpressed in HFF-1. After co-culture with SiHa or Caski, the JAK-STAT signaling pathway and exosomal PD-L1 expression were both upregulated in HFF-1. Recombinant human CXCL10 induced JAK-STAT and PD-L1, while the CXCL10-CXCR3 and JAK-STAT inhibitors AMG487 or ruxolitinib reduced the expression of PD-L1 in HFF-1 cells. Furthermore, the upregulated expression of PD-L1 was verified in HPV+ but not HPV-negative (HPV-) patients with cervical cancers by analysis of tissue microarray cores in 25 cervical lesion patients (P < 0.05). The results indicate that HPV infection can induce cervical cancer cells to secrete CXCL10, which binds to CXCR3 in the surrounding fibroblast cells,leading to JAK-STAT pathway activation and the subsequent upregulated expression of exosomal PD-L1. These mechanisms may help HPV to escape immune response attack, leading to carcinogenesis.

Bioinformatics-Based Identification of Tumor Microenvironment-Related Prognostic Genes in Pancreatic Cancer

Objective

Growing evidence has highlighted that the immune and stromal cells that infiltrate in pancreatic cancer microenvironment significantly influence tumor progression. However, reliable microenvironment-related prognostic gene signatures are yet to be established. The present study aimed to elucidate tumor microenvironment-related prognostic genes in pancreatic cancer.

Methods

We applied the ESTIMATE algorithm to categorize patients with pancreatic cancer from TCGA dataset into high and low immune/stromal score groups and determined their differentially expressed genes. Then, univariate and LASSO Cox regression was performed to identify overall survival-related differentially expressed genes (DEGs). And multivariate Cox regression analysis was used to screen independent prognostic genes and construct a risk score model. Finally, the performance of the risk score model was evaluated by Kaplan-Meier curve, time-dependent receiver operating characteristic and Harrell’s concordance index.

Results

The overall survival analysis demonstrated that high immune/stromal score groups were closely associated with poor prognosis. The multivariate Cox regression analysis indicated that the signatures of four genes, including TRPC7, CXCL10, CUX2, and COL2A1, were independent prognostic factors. Subsequently, the risk prediction model constructed by those genes was superior to AJCC staging as evaluated by time-dependent receiver operating characteristic and Harrell’s concordance index, and both KRAS and TP53 mutations were closely associated with high risk scores. In addition, CXCL10 was predominantly expressed by tumor associated macrophages and its receptor CXCR3 was highly expressed in T cells at the single-cell level.

Conclusions

This study comprehensively investigated the tumor microenvironment and verified immune/stromal-related biomarkers for pancreatic cancer.

TNF-α augments CXCL10/CXCR3 axis activity to induce Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in colon cancer cell

Chronic inflammation-induced metastases have long been regarded as one of the significant obstacles in treating cancer. Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), a main inflammation mediator within tumor microenvironment, affects tumor development by inducing multiple chemokines to establish a complex network. Recent reports have revealed that CXCL10/CXCR3 axis affects cancer cells invasiveness and metastases, and Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is the main reason for frequent proliferation and distant organ metastases of colon cancer (CC) cells, However, it is unclear whether TNF-α- mediated chronic inflammation can synergically enhance EMT-mediated CC metastasis through promoting chemokine expression. According to this study, TNF-α activated the PI3K/Akt and p38 MAPK parallel signal transduction pathways, then stimulate downstream NF-κB pathway p65 into the nucleus to activate CXCL10 transcription. CXCL10 enhanced the metastases of CC-cells by triggering small GTPases such as RhoA and cdc42. Furthermore, overexpression of CXCL10 significantly enhanced tumorigenicity and mobility of CC cells in vivo. We further clarified that CXCL10 activated the PI3K/Akt pathway through CXCR3, resulting in suppression of GSK-3β phosphorylation and leading to upregulation of Snail expression, thereby regulating EMT in CC cells. These outcomes lay the foundation for finding new targets to inhibit CC metastases.

Circulating Biomarkers of Colorectal Cancer (CRC)-Their Utility in Diagnosis and Prognosis

The global burden of colorectal cancer (CRC) is expected to increase, with 2.2 million new cases and 1.1 million annual deaths by 2030. Therefore, the establishment of novel biomarkers useful in the early diagnosis of CRC is of utmost importance. A number of publications have documented the significance of the overexpression of several specific proteins, such as inflammatory mediators, in CRC progression. However, little is known about the potential utility of these proteins as circulating blood tumor biomarkers of CRC. Therefore, in the present review we report the results of our previous original studies as well as the findings of other authors who investigated whether inflammatory mediators might be used as novel biomarkers in the diagnosis and prognosis of CRC. Our study revealed that among all of the tested proteins, serum M-CSF, CXCL-8, IL-6 and TIMP-1 have the greatest value in the diagnosis and progression of CRC. Serum TIMP-1 is useful in differentiating between CRC and colorectal adenomas, whereas M-CSF and CRP are independent prognostic factors for the survival of patients with CRC. This review confirms the promising significance of these proteins as circulating biomarkers for CRC. However, due to their non-specific nature, further validation of their sensitivity and specificity is required.

IP-10 (CXCL10) Can Trigger Emergence of Dormant Breast Cancer Cells in a Metastatic Liver Microenvironment

Metastatic breast cancer remains a largely incurable and fatal disease with liver involvement bearing the worst prognosis. The danger is compounded by a subset of disseminated tumor cells that may lie dormant for years to decades before re-emerging as clinically detectable metastases. Pathophysiological signals can drive these tumor cells to emerge. Prior studies indicated CXCR3 ligands as being the predominant signals synergistically and significantly unregulated during inflammation in the gut-liver axis. Of the CXCR3 ligands, IP-10 (CXCL10) was the most abundant, correlated significantly with shortened survival of human breast cancer patients with metastatic disease and was highest in those with triple negative (TNBC) disease. Using a complex ex vivo all-human liver microphysiological (MPS) model of dormant-emergent metastatic progression, CXCR3 ligands were found to be elevated in actively growing populations of metastatic TNBC breast cancer cells whereas they remained similar to the tumor-free hepatic niche in those with dormant breast cancer cells. Subsequent stimulation of dormant breast cancer cells in the ex vivo metastatic liver MPS model with IP-10 triggered their emergence in a dose-dependent manner. Emergence was indicated to occur indirectly possibly via activation of the resident liver cells in the surrounding metastatic microenvironment, as stimulation of breast cancer cells with exogenous IP-10 did not significantly change their migratory, invasive or proliferative behavior. The findings reveal that IP-10 is capable of triggering the emergence of dormant breast cancer cells within the liver metastatic niche and identifies the IP-10/CXCR3 as a candidate targetable pathway for rational approaches aimed at maintaining dormancy.