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Siedler MR, De Souza MJ, Albracht-Schulte K, Sekiguchi Y, Tinsley GM. The Influence of Energy Balance and Availability on Resting Metabolic Rate: Implications for Assessment and Future Research Directions. Sports Med 2023; 53:1507-1526. [PMID: 37213050 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01856-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Resting metabolic rate (RMR) is a significant contributor to an individual's total energy expenditure. As such, RMR plays an important role in body weight regulation across populations ranging from inactive individuals to athletes. In addition, RMR may also be used to screen for low energy availability and energy deficiency in athletes, and thus may be useful in identifying individuals at risk for the deleterious consequences of chronic energy deficiency. Given its importance in both clinical and research settings within the fields of exercise physiology, dietetics, and sports medicine, the valid assessment of RMR is critical. However, factors including varying states of energy balance (both short- and long-term energy deficit or surplus), energy availability, and prior food intake or exercise may influence resulting RMR measures, potentially introducing error into observed values. The purpose of this review is to summarize the relationships between short- and long-term changes in energetic status and resulting RMR measures, consider these findings in the context of relevant recommendations for RMR assessment, and provide suggestions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madelin R Siedler
- Department of Kinesiology and Sport Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - Mary Jane De Souza
- Departments of Kinesiology and Physiology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | | | - Yasuki Sekiguchi
- Department of Kinesiology and Sport Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - Grant M Tinsley
- Department of Kinesiology and Sport Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA.
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2
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Müller MJ, Heymsfield SB, Bosy-Westphal A. Are metabolic adaptations to weight changes an artefact? Am J Clin Nutr 2021; 114:1386-1395. [PMID: 34134143 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/nqab184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adaptive thermogenesis (AT) is currently defined as the fat-free mass (FFM)-independent change in resting energy expenditure (REE) in response to caloric restriction (CR) or overfeeding (OF). So far, the impact of changes in the anatomical and molecular composition of FFM on AT has not been addressed. OBJECTIVES To assess the impact of changes in FFM composition on AT. METHODS FFM was assessed in 32 healthy young men during controlled 21-d CR and 14 d of subsequent OF. Anatomical (i.e., the organ/tissue level) and molecular (i.e., water, mineral, and protein content and thus body density) composition of FFM were characterized. REE was measured by indirect calorimetry. RESULTS With CR, body weight and REE decreased by 4.2 ± 0.9 kg and 173 ± 107 kcal/d, respectively, with corresponding increases of 3.5 ± 1.2 kg and 194 ± 110 kcal/d during OF (P < 0.001 for all changes). Changes in FFM explained 56.7% and 66.7% of weight loss and weight gain, respectively. Weight changes were associated with changes in various anatomical (i.e., masses of skeletal muscle, liver, kidneys, and brain) and molecular components (total body water, protein, and bone minerals) of FFM. After adjustments for changes in FFM only, AT was 116 ± 127 (P < 0.001) and 27 ± 115 kcal/d (NS) with CR and OF, respectively. Adjustments for FFM and its anatomical and molecular composition reduced AT in response to CR to 83 ± 116 and 122 ± 123 kcal/d (P < 0.05 and P < 0.001) whereas during OF, AT became significant at 87 ± 146 kcal/d (anatomical; P < 0.05) and 86 ± 118 kcal/d (molecular; P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Adjusting changes in REE with under- and overfeeding for the corresponding changes in the anatomical and molecular composition of FFM decreased AT after CR and increased AT after OF, but overall adjusted AT was likely not large enough in magnitude to be able to prevent weight loss or resist weight gain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred J Müller
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | | | - Anja Bosy-Westphal
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
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3
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Dahle JH, Ostendorf DM, Pan Z, MacLean PS, Bessesen DH, Heymsfield SB, Melanson EL, Catenacci VA. Weight and body composition changes affect resting energy expenditure predictive equations during a 12-month weight-loss intervention. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2021; 29:1596-1605. [PMID: 34431624 DOI: 10.1002/oby.23234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Mathematical equations that predict resting energy expenditure (REE) are widely used to derive calorie prescriptions during weight-loss interventions. Although such equations are known to introduce group- and individual-level error into REE prediction, their validity has largely been assessed in weight-stable populations. Therefore, this study sought to characterize how weight change affects the validity of commonly used REE predictive models throughout a 12-month weight-loss intervention. METHODS Changes in predictive error of four models (Mifflin-St-Jeor, Harris-Benedict, Owen, and World Health Organization/Food and Agriculture) were assessed at 1-, 6-, and 12-month time points in adults (n = 66, 76% female, aged 18-55 years, BMI = 27-45 kg/m2 ) enrolled in a randomized clinical weight-loss trial. RESULTS All equations experienced significant negative shifts in bias (measured - predicted REE) toward overprediction from baseline to 1 month (p < 0.05). Three equations showed reversal of bias in the positive direction (toward underprediction) from baseline to 12 months (p < 0.05). Early changes in bias were correlated with decreased fat-free mass (p ≤ 0.01). CONCLUSIONS Changes in body composition and mass during a 12-month weight-loss intervention significantly affected REE predictive error in adults with overweight and obesity. Weight history should be considered when using mathematical models to predict REE during periods of weight fluctuation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared H Dahle
- Integrated Physiology Program, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Danielle M Ostendorf
- Department of Medicine, Anschutz Health and Wellness Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Zhaoxing Pan
- Department of Biostatistics and Informatics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Paul S MacLean
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Daniel H Bessesen
- Department of Medicine, Anschutz Health and Wellness Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | | | - Edward L Melanson
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Victoria A Catenacci
- Department of Medicine, Anschutz Health and Wellness Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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4
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Stubbs RJ, Turicchi J. From famine to therapeutic weight loss: Hunger, psychological responses, and energy balance-related behaviors. Obes Rev 2021; 22 Suppl 2:e13191. [PMID: 33527688 DOI: 10.1111/obr.13191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Understanding physiological and behavioral responses to energy imbalances is important for the management of overweight/obesity and undernutrition. Changes in body composition and physiological functions associated with energy imbalances provide the structural and functional context in which to consider psychological and behavioral responses. Compensatory changes in physiology and behavior are more pronounced in response to negative than positive energy balances. The physiological and psychological impact of weight loss (WL) occur on a continuum determined by (i) the degree of energy deficit (ED), (ii) its duration, (iii) body composition at the onset of the energy deficit, and (iv) the psychosocial environment in which it occurs. Therapeutic WL and famine/semistarvation both involve prolonged EDs, which are sometimes similar in magnitude. The key differences are that (i) the body mass index (BMI) of most famine victims is lower at the onset of the ED, (ii) therapeutic WL is intentional and (iii) famines are typically longer in duration (partly due to the voluntary nature of therapeutic WL and disengagement with WL interventions). The changes in psychological outcomes, motivation to eat, and energy intake in therapeutic WL are often modest (bearing in mind the nature of the measures used) and can be difficult to detect but are quantitatively significant over time. As WL progresses, these changes become more marked. It appears that extensive WL beyond 10%-20% in lean individuals has profound effects on body composition and physiological function. At this level of WL, there is a marked erosion of psychological functioning, which appears to run in parallel to WL. Psychological resources dwindle and become increasingly focused on alleviating escalating hunger and food seeking behavior. Functional changes in fat-free mass, characterized by catabolism of skeletal muscle and organs may be involved in the drive to eat associated with semistarvation. Higher levels of body fat mass may act as a buffer to protect fat-free mass, functional integrity and limit compensatory changes in energy balance behaviors. The increase in appetite that accompanies therapeutic WL appears to be very different to the intense and all-consuming drive to eat that occurs during prolonged semistarvation. The mechanisms may also differ but are not well understood, and longitudinal comparisons of the relationship between body structure, function, and behavior in response to differing EDs in those with higher and lower BMIs are currently lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- R James Stubbs
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Jake Turicchi
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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5
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Bray GA, Bouchard C. The biology of human overfeeding: A systematic review. Obes Rev 2020; 21:e13040. [PMID: 32515127 DOI: 10.1111/obr.13040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This systematic review has examined more than 300 original papers dealing with the biology of overfeeding. Studies have varied from 1 day to 6 months. Overfeeding produced weight gain in adolescents, adult men and women and in older men. In longer term studies, there was a clear and highly significant relationship between energy ingested and weight gain and fat storage with limited individual differences. There is some evidence for a contribution of a genetic component to this response variability. The response to overfeeding was affected by the baseline state of the groups being compared: those with insulin resistance versus insulin sensitivity; those prone to obesity versus those resistant to obesity; and those with metabolically abnormal obesity versus those with metabolically normal obesity. Dietary components, such as total fat, polyunsaturated fat and carbohydrate influenced the patterns of adipose tissue distribution as did the history of low or normal birth weight. Overfeeding affected the endocrine system with increased circulating concentrations of insulin and triiodothyronine frequently present. Growth hormone, in contrast, was rapidly suppressed. Changes in plasma lipids were influenced by diet, exercise and the magnitude of weight gain. Adipose tissue and skeletal muscle morphology and metabolism are substantially altered by chronic overfeeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- George A Bray
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University System, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Claude Bouchard
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University System, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
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6
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Developing evidence-based behavioural strategies to overcome physiological resistance to weight loss in the general population. Proc Nutr Soc 2020; 78:576-589. [PMID: 31670628 DOI: 10.1017/s0029665119001083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Physiological and behavioural systems are tolerant of excess energy intake and responsive to energy deficits. Weight loss (WL) changes body structure, physiological function and energy balance (EB) behaviours, which resist further WL and promote subsequent weight regain. Measuring and understanding the response of EB systems to energy deficits is important for developing evidence-based behaviour change interventions for longer-term weight management. Currently, behaviour change approaches for longer-term WL show modest effect sizes. Self-regulation of EB behaviours (e.g. goal setting, action plans, self-monitoring, relapse prevention plans) and aspects of motivation are important for WL maintenance. Stress management, emotion regulation and food hedonics may also be important for relapse prevention, but the evidence is less concrete. Although much is known about the effects of WL on physiological and psychological function, little is known about the way these dynamic changes affect human EB behaviours. Key areas of future importance include (i) improved methods for detailed tracking of energy expenditure, balance and by subtraction intake, using digital technologies, (ii) how WL impacts body structure, function and subsequent EB behaviours, (iii) how behaviour change approaches can overcome physiological resistance to WL and (iv) who is likely to maintain WL or relapse. Modelling physiological and psychological moderators and mediators of EB-related behaviours is central to understanding and improving longer-term weight and health outcomes in the general population.
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7
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Müller MJ, Bosy-Westphal A. Effect of Over- and Underfeeding on Body Composition and Related Metabolic Functions in Humans. Curr Diab Rep 2019; 19:108. [PMID: 31686224 DOI: 10.1007/s11892-019-1221-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Methodological limitations of body composition methods limit the validity of changes in body composition that are used to interpret metabolic outcome parameters of weight loss and weight gain. RECENT FINDINGS Direct assessment of energy balance is necessary for the assessment of early weight changes (i.e., within the 1st week of weight change), whereas body composition analysis with a high accuracy and a low minimal detectable change is recommended to assess ongoing changes. The sequence of underfeeding and overfeeding impacts the method inherent assumptions, and the considerable day-to-day and inter-individual variance in body composition changes is a challenge to the precision of methods. Weight loss-associated changes in body composition do not resemble their changes with subsequent hypercaloric re-feeding. Individual body components are related to specific metabolic functions where the structure-function relationships change with changes in energy balance. Analysis of structure-function relationships in response to weight changes needs to address (a) the validity, precision, and different outcome parameters of body composition methods and (b) the variance of results taking into account study protocols and the dynamics of weight changes. As for future studies, repeated measurements of body weight, body composition, and metabolic functions are needed before, during, and after weight changes focusing on the intra- and interindividual variances of weight change rather than on mean data only.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred James Müller
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Düsternbrooker Weg 17-19, D-24105, Kiel, Germany.
| | - Anja Bosy-Westphal
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Düsternbrooker Weg 17-19, D-24105, Kiel, Germany
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8
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Johannsen DL, Marlatt KL, Conley KE, Smith SR, Ravussin E. Metabolic adaptation is not observed after 8 weeks of overfeeding but energy expenditure variability is associated with weight recovery. Am J Clin Nutr 2019; 110:805-813. [PMID: 31204775 PMCID: PMC6766445 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/nqz108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A metabolic adaptation, defined as an increase in energy expenditure (EE) beyond what is expected with weight gain during overfeeding (OF), has been reported but also refuted. Much of the inconsistency stems from the difficulty in conducting large, well-controlled OF studies in humans. OBJECTIVES The primary aim of this study was to determine whether a metabolic adaptation to OF exists and if so, attenuates weight gain. METHODS Thirty-five young adults consumed 40% above their baseline energy requirements for 8 wk, and sleeping metabolic rate (SMR) and 24-h sedentary energy expenditure (24h-EE) were measured before and after OF. Subjects were asked to return for a 6-mo post-OF follow-up visit to measure body weight, body composition, and physical activity. RESULTS After adjusting for gains in fat-free mass and fat mass, SMR increased by 43 ± 123 kcal/d more than expected (P = 0.05) and 24h-EE by 23 ± 139 kcal/d (P = 0.34), indicating an overall lack of metabolic adaptation during OF despite a wide variability in the response. Among the 30 subjects who returned for the 6-mo follow-up visit, those who had a lower-than-predicted SMR (basal EE) retained more of the fat gained during OF. Likewise, subjects displaying a higher-than-predicted sedentary 24h-EE lost significantly more fat during the 6-mo follow-up. CONCLUSIONS Metabolic adaptation to OF was on average very small but variable between subjects, revealing "thrifty" or "spendthrift" metabolic phenotypes related to body weight loss 6 mo later. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01672632.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darcy L Johannsen
- Clinical Science, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA,Current address for DLJ: Laboratory of Biological Modeling, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Kara L Marlatt
- Clinical Science, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA
| | - Kevin E Conley
- Department of Radiology, Bioengineering, Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Steven R Smith
- Translational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes, Advent Health, Orlando, FL 32827, USA
| | - Eric Ravussin
- Clinical Science, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA,Address correspondence to ER (e-mail: )
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9
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Müller MJ. About "spendthrift" and "thrifty" phenotypes: resistance and susceptibility to overeating revisited. Am J Clin Nutr 2019; 110:542-543. [PMID: 31172166 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/nqz090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Manfred J Müller
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
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10
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Hollstein T, Ando T, Basolo A, Krakoff J, Votruba SB, Piaggi P. Metabolic response to fasting predicts weight gain during low-protein overfeeding in lean men: further evidence for spendthrift and thrifty metabolic phenotypes. Am J Clin Nutr 2019; 110:593-604. [PMID: 31172178 PMCID: PMC6895542 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/nqz062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Greater increase in 24-h energy expenditure (24EE) during overfeeding and smaller decrease in 24EE during fasting ("spendthrift" metabolic phenotype) are associated with more weight loss during sustained caloric restriction in overweight subjects. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to investigate whether these acute metabolic responses can also predict weight gain during sustained overfeeding in lean individuals. METHODS Seven lean men participated in this study. Prior to overfeeding, 24EE responses to fasting and 200% normal-protein overfeeding were measured in a whole-room indirect calorimeter. Volunteers underwent 6 wk of 150% low-protein (2%) overfeeding followed by another wk of weight-maintaining diet, during which 24EE was revaluated. Body composition, 24EE, and various hormone concentrations, including fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), were assessed at baseline, at wk 1, 3, and 6 of the overfeeding period, and 1 wk following overfeeding through the use of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, indirect calorimetry, and ELISA. Cumulative energy surplus was calculated from 24EE, daily physical activity, and direct measurements of calories of nutrient intake, feces, and urine by bomb calorimetry. RESULTS The average weight gain during 6 wk of low-protein overfeeding was 3.8 kg (6.1%, min: +2.5%, max: +8.0%). During 24-h fasting at baseline, 24EE decreased on average (mean ± SD) by 158 ± 81 kcal/d (P = 0.007). Subjects with less 24EE decrease during fasting (more metabolically spendthrift individuals) gained less weight (r = -0.84, P = 0.03), less fat mass (r = -0.81, P = 0.049), and stored less calories (r = -0.91, P = 0.03) during overfeeding. Following overfeeding, increased 24EE above requirements for achieved body size was associated with less weight and fat mass gain (r = -0.78, P = 0.04) and with the increase in 24EE during 200% normal-protein overfeeding measured at baseline (r = 0.91, P = 0.005). Serum FGF21 concentrations increased up to 44-fold during overfeeding (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS Low-protein overfeeding may be an important tool to identify metabolic phenotypes (spendthrift compared with thrifty) that characterize susceptibility to weight gain. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00687115.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Hollstein
- Obesity and Diabetes Clinical Research Section, Phoenix Epidemiology and Clinical Research Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phoenix, AZ
| | - Takafumi Ando
- Obesity and Diabetes Clinical Research Section, Phoenix Epidemiology and Clinical Research Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phoenix, AZ
| | - Alessio Basolo
- Obesity and Diabetes Clinical Research Section, Phoenix Epidemiology and Clinical Research Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phoenix, AZ
| | - Jonathan Krakoff
- Obesity and Diabetes Clinical Research Section, Phoenix Epidemiology and Clinical Research Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phoenix, AZ
| | - Susanne B Votruba
- Obesity and Diabetes Clinical Research Section, Phoenix Epidemiology and Clinical Research Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phoenix, AZ
| | - Paolo Piaggi
- Obesity and Diabetes Clinical Research Section, Phoenix Epidemiology and Clinical Research Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phoenix, AZ,Address correspondence to PP (e-mail: , )
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11
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Substrate utilization and metabolic profile in response to overfeeding with a high-fat diet in South Asian and white men: a sedentary lifestyle study. Int J Obes (Lond) 2019; 44:136-146. [PMID: 31040398 DOI: 10.1038/s41366-019-0368-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Revised: 02/02/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND For the same BMI, South Asians have a higher body fat percentage, a higher liver fat content and a more adverse metabolic profile than whites. South Asians may have a lower fat oxidation than whites, which could result in an unfavorable metabolic profile when exposed to increased high-fat foods consumption and decreased physical activity as in current modern lifestyle. OBJECTIVE To determine substrate partitioning, liver fat accumulation and metabolic profile in South Asian and white men in response to overfeeding with high-fat diet under sedentary conditions in a respiration chamber. DESIGN Ten South Asian men (BMI, 18-29 kg/m2) and 10 white men (BMI, 22-33 kg/m2), matched for body fat percentage, aged 20-40 year were included. A weight maintenance diet (30% fat, 55% carbohydrate, and 15% protein) was given for 3 days. Thereafter, a baseline measurement of liver fat content (1H-MRS) and blood parameters was performed. Subsequently, subjects were overfed (150% energy requirement) with a high-fat diet (60% fat, 25% carbohydrate, and 15% protein) over 3 consecutive days while staying in a respiration chamber mimicking a sedentary lifestyle. Energy expenditure and substrate use were measured for 3 × 24-h. Liver fat and blood parameters were measured again after the subjects left the chamber. RESULTS The 24-h fat oxidation as a percentage of total energy expenditure did not differ between ethnicities (P = 0.30). Overfeeding increased liver fat content (P = 0.02), but the increase did not differ between ethnicities (P = 0.64). In South Asians, overfeeding tended to increase LDL-cholesterol (P = 0.08), tended to decrease glucose clearance (P = 0.06) and tended to elevate insulin response (P = 0.07) slightly more than whites. CONCLUSIONS Despite a similar substrate partitioning and similar accretion of liver fat, overfeeding with high-fat under sedentary conditions tended to have more adverse effects on the lipid profile and insulin sensitivity in South Asians.
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12
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Metabolic adaptations during negative energy balance and their potential impact on appetite and food intake. Proc Nutr Soc 2019; 78:279-289. [DOI: 10.1017/s0029665118002811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
This review examines the metabolic adaptations that occur in response to negative energy balance and their potential putative or functional impact on appetite and food intake. Sustained negative energy balance will result in weight loss, with body composition changes similar for different dietary interventions if total energy and protein intake are equated. During periods of underfeeding, compensatory metabolic and behavioural responses occur that attenuate the prescribed energy deficit. While losses of metabolically active tissue during energy deficit result in reduced energy expenditure, an additional down-regulation in expenditure has been noted that cannot be explained by changes in body tissue (e.g. adaptive thermogenesis). Sustained negative energy balance is also associated with an increase in orexigenic drive and changes in appetite-related peptides during weight loss that may act as cues for increased hunger and food intake. It has also been suggested that losses of fat-free mass (FFM) could also act as an orexigenic signal during weight loss, but more data are needed to support these findings and the signalling pathways linking FFM and energy intake remain unclear. Taken together, these metabolic and behavioural responses to weight loss point to a highly complex and dynamic energy balance system in which perturbations to individual components can cause co-ordinated and inter-related compensatory responses elsewhere. The strength of these compensatory responses is individually subtle, and early identification of this variability may help identify individuals that respond well or poorly to an intervention.
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13
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Hall KD. The complicated relation between resting energy expenditure and maintenance of lost weight. Am J Clin Nutr 2018; 108:652-653. [PMID: 30321278 PMCID: PMC6454468 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/nqy259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin D Hall
- Laboratory of Biological Modeling, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD,Address correspondence to KDH (e-mail: )
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14
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Giroux V, Saidj S, Simon C, Laville M, Segrestin B, Mathieu ME. Physical activity, energy expenditure and sedentary parameters in overfeeding studies - a systematic review. BMC Public Health 2018; 18:903. [PMID: 30031374 PMCID: PMC6054727 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-018-5801-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND It has been proposed that compensations in physical activity, energy expenditure and sedentary parameters can occur as a result of overfeeding studies in order to maintain body weight; however, the evidence has not yet been systematically reviewed. METHODS The current study systematically reviewed the literature on this subject to determine the common tools used in overfeeding studies and to explore whether overfeeding produces changes in physical activity, energy expenditure and sedentary parameters. Eight electronic databases were searched to identify experimental studies using keywords pertaining to overfeeding, exercise, physical activity and sedentariness. Articles included healthy adults (aged 18-64 years) participating in an overfeeding study that examined at least one parameter of sedentary, energy expenditure or physical activity. Of 123 full-text articles reviewed, 15 met the inclusion criteria. RESULTS The common tools used in overfeeding studies were doubly labeled water (n = 6), room calorimeter (n = 4), accelerometer (n = 7), pedometer (n = 3), radar sensor (n = 4) and survey (n = 1). Parameters partaining to energy expenditure increased between 7 to 50% with different overfeeding duration. Physical activity parameters, such as number of steps and spontaneous activity, increased or decreased significantly in three studies, while five studies showed no significant change. Sedentary parameters were examined by only one study and its results were not significant after 3 days of overfeeding. Methodological issues existed concerning the small number of studies, disparities in sedentary and physical activity parameters and various definitions of free-living experimental conditions and physical activity limits. CONCLUSIONS There is actually a use of many tools and a large variation of parameters for physical activity in overfeeding studies. Contradictory findings showed changes in physical activity parameters following overfeeding and limited findings support the absence of changes in sedentariness. While energy expenditure parameters are more numerous and all show an increase after an overfeeding period, further studies are required to confirm changes in physical activity and sedentary parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie Giroux
- École de kinésiologie et des sciences de l'activité physique, Université de Montréal, P.O. Box 6128, Downtown Station, Montreal, Quebec, H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Soraya Saidj
- École de kinésiologie et des sciences de l'activité physique, Université de Montréal, P.O. Box 6128, Downtown Station, Montreal, Quebec, H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Chantal Simon
- CARMEN, INSERM U1060/University of Lyon/INRA U1235, Lyon, France
- Human Nutrition Research Centre of Rhône-Alpes, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Martine Laville
- CARMEN, INSERM U1060/University of Lyon/INRA U1235, Lyon, France
- Human Nutrition Research Centre of Rhône-Alpes, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Berenice Segrestin
- Human Nutrition Research Centre of Rhône-Alpes, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Marie-Eve Mathieu
- École de kinésiologie et des sciences de l'activité physique, Université de Montréal, P.O. Box 6128, Downtown Station, Montreal, Quebec, H3C 3J7, Canada.
- CHU Sainte-Justine, Montreal, Qc, Canada.
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15
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Sagayama H, Yoshimura E, Yamada Y, Tanaka H. The effects of rapid weight loss and 3-h recovery on energy expenditure, carbohydrate, and fat oxidation in boxing athletes. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2018; 59:1018-1025. [PMID: 29991217 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.18.08677-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Boxers need to consider energy metabolism during rapid weight loss (RWL) followed by rapid weight regain. We examined the effects of RWL and a 3-h acute weight recovery on energy expenditure, carbohydrate oxidation, and fat oxidation in boxing athletes. METHODS The analysis was based on the data of seven healthy young male athletes who underwent rapid weight loss followed by acute weight recovery. Energy expenditure was evaluated at three time points: one week prior to the acute weight loss (baseline); after the 1-week weight loss period; after a 3-h acute weight recovery period. This three-component model was used to estimate body composition. Sleeping metabolic rate and diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT) were measured in an indirect calorimetry room over a 17-h period. After an overnight fast, a prescribed meal was provided and the DIT was measured over a 3-h period. This was followed by a three-step treadmill running protocol. RESULTS Weight loss produced a significant decrease in fat mass, fat free mass, and body mass, with recovery of body mass within 3 h (1.7±0.3 kg). Postprandial carbohydrate oxidation was significantly lower during the recovery period than at baseline, while fat oxidation was higher, although there was no change in the DIT. CONCLUSIONS RWL, followed by a short-term of acute weight recovery, produces an increase in fat oxidation and a decrease in carbohydrate oxidation, with the increase in fat oxidation being maintained through an overnight sleep period, as well as in the postprandial and exercise periods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Sagayama
- Japan Institute of Sports Sciences, Tokyo, Japan - .,Research Fellow of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan -
| | - Eiichi Yoshimura
- Faculty of Environmental and Symbiotic Sciences, Prefectural University of Kumamoto, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Yosuke Yamada
- Department of Nutritional Science, National Institute of Health and Nutrition, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Tanaka
- Faculty of Sports and Health Science, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan.,Fukuoka University Institute for Physical Activity, Fukuoka, Japan
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16
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Müller MJ, Geisler C, Heymsfield SB, Bosy-Westphal A. Recent advances in understanding body weight homeostasis in humans. F1000Res 2018; 7. [PMID: 30026913 PMCID: PMC6039924 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.14151.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Presently, control of body weight is assumed to exist, but there is no consensus framework of body weight homeostasis. Three different models have been proposed, with a "set point" suggesting (i) a more or less tight and (ii) symmetric or asymmetric biological control of body weight resulting from feedback loops from peripheral organs and tissues (e.g. leptin secreted from adipose tissue) to a central control system within the hypothalamus. Alternatively, a "settling point" rather than a set point reflects metabolic adaptations to energy imbalance without any need for feedback control. Finally, the "dual intervention point" model combines both paradigms with two set points and a settling point between them. In humans, observational studies on large populations do not provide consistent evidence for a biological control of body weight, which, if it exists, may be overridden by the influences of the obesogenic environment and culture on personal behavior and experiences. To re-address the issue of body weight homeostasis, there is a need for targeted protocols based on sound concepts, e.g. lean rather than overweight subjects should be investigated before, during, and after weight loss and weight regain. In addition, improved methods and a multi-level-multi-systemic approach are needed to address the associations (i) between masses of individual body components and (ii) between masses and metabolic functions in the contexts of neurohumoral control and systemic effects. In the future, simplifications and the use of crude and non-biological phenotypes (i.e. body mass index and waist circumference) should be avoided. Since changes in body weight follow the mismatch between tightly controlled energy expenditure at loosely controlled energy intake, control (or even a set point) is more likely to be about energy expenditure rather than about body weight itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred J Müller
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Corinna Geisler
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | | | - Anja Bosy-Westphal
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
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17
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Stubbs RJ, Hopkins M, Finlayson GS, Duarte C, Gibbons C, Blundell JE. Potential effects of fat mass and fat-free mass on energy intake in different states of energy balance. Eur J Clin Nutr 2018; 72:698-709. [DOI: 10.1038/s41430-018-0146-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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18
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Guo J, Brager DC, Hall KD. Simulating long-term human weight-loss dynamics in response to calorie restriction. Am J Clin Nutr 2018; 107:558-565. [PMID: 29635495 PMCID: PMC6248630 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/nqx080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Mathematical models have been developed to predict body weight (BW) and composition changes in response to lifestyle interventions, but these models have not been adequately validated over the long term. Objective We compared mathematical models of human BW dynamics underlying 2 popular web-based weight-loss prediction tools, the National Institutes of Health Body Weight Planner (NIH BWP) and the Pennington Biomedical Research Center Weight Loss Predictor (PBRC WLP), with data from the 2-year Comprehensive Assessment of Long-term Effects of Reducing Intake of Energy (CALERIE) study. Design Mathematical models were initialized using baseline CALERIE data, and changes in body weight (ΔBW), fat mass (ΔFM), and energy expenditure (ΔEE) were simulated in response to time-varying changes in energy intake (ΔEI) objectively measured using the intake-balance method. No model parameters were adjusted from their previously published values. Results The PBRC WLP model simulated an exaggerated early decrease in EE in response to calorie restriction, resulting in substantial underestimation of the observed mean (95% CI) BW losses by 3.8 (3.5, 4.2) kg. The NIH WLP simulations were much closer to the data, with an overall mean ΔBW bias of -0.47 (-0.92, -0.015) kg. Linearized model analysis revealed that the main reason for the PBRC WLP model bias was a parameter value defining how spontaneous physical activity expenditure decreased with caloric restriction. Both models exhibited substantial variability in their ability to simulate individual results in response to calorie restriction. Monte Carlo simulations demonstrated that ΔEI measurement uncertainties were a major contributor to the individual variability in NIH BWP model simulations. Conclusions The NIH BWP outperformed the PBRC WLP and accurately simulated average weight-loss and energy balance dynamics in response to long-term calorie restriction. However, the substantial variability in the NIH BWP model predictions at the individual level suggests cautious interpretation of individual-level simulations. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00427193.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juen Guo
- Laboratory of Biological Modeling, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive
and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD
| | - Danielle C Brager
- School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, Arizona State University,
Tempe, AZ
| | - Kevin D Hall
- Laboratory of Biological Modeling, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive
and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD,Address correspondence to KDH (e-mail: )
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19
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Garcia-Larsen V, Potts JF, Omenaas E, Heinrich J, Svanes C, Garcia-Aymerich J, Burney PG, Jarvis DL. Dietary antioxidants and 10-year lung function decline in adults from the ECRHS survey. Eur Respir J 2017; 50:1602286. [PMID: 29269589 PMCID: PMC5739275 DOI: 10.1183/13993003.02286-2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The relationship between lung function decline and dietary antioxidants over 10 years in adults from three European countries was investigated.In 2002, adults from three participating countries of the European Community Respiratory Health Survey (ECRHS) answered a questionnaire and underwent spirometry (forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) and forced vital capacity (FVC)), which were repeated 10 years later. Dietary intake was estimated at baseline with food frequency questionnaires (FFQ). Associations between annual lung function decline (mL) and diet (tertiles) were examined with multivariable analyses. Simes' procedure was applied to control for multiple testing.A total of 680 individuals (baseline mean age 43.8±6.6 years) were included. A per-tertile increase in apple and banana intake was associated with a 3.59 mL·year-1 (95% CI 0.40, 7.68) and 3.69 mL·year-1 (95% CI 0.25, 7.14) slower decline in FEV1 and FVC, respectively. Tomato intake was also associated with a slower decline in FVC (4.5 mL·year-1; 95% CI 1.28, 8.02). Only the association with tomato intake remained statistically significant after the Simes' procedure was performed. Subgroup analyses showed that apple, banana and tomato intake were all associated with a slower decline in FVC in ex-smokers.Intake of fruits and tomatoes might delay lung function decline in adults, particularly in ex-smokers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Garcia-Larsen
- Dept of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - James F Potts
- Population Health and Occupational Disease Group, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Ernst Omenaas
- Centre for Clinical Research Haukeland University Hospital, Regional Health Authority West, Bergen, Norway
| | - Joachim Heinrich
- Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU), University Hospital, Institute of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Member of Comprehensive Pulmonology Center (CPC-M), Munich, Germany
| | - Cecilie Svanes
- Centre for International Health, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Judith Garcia-Aymerich
- Respiratory and Environmental Health Research Unit, Municipal Institute of Medical Research (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Peter G Burney
- Population Health and Occupational Disease Group, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
- MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Deborah L Jarvis
- Population Health and Occupational Disease Group, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
- MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
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20
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Howell S, Kones R. "Calories in, calories out" and macronutrient intake: the hope, hype, and science of calories. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2017; 313:E608-E612. [PMID: 28765272 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00156.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2017] [Revised: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
One of the central tenets in obesity prevention and management is caloric restriction. This perspective presents salient features of how calories and energy balance matter, also called the "calories in, calories out" paradigm. Determinants of energy balance and relationships to dietary macronutrient content are reviewed. The rationale and features of the carbohydrate-insulin hypothesis postulate that carbohydrate restriction confers a metabolic advantage. According to this model, a large amount of fat intake is enabled without weight gain. Evidence concerning this possibility is detailed. The relationship and application of the laws of thermodynamics are then clarified with current primary research. Strong data indicate that energy balance is not materially changed during isocaloric substitution of dietary fats for carbohydrates. Results from a number of sources refute both the theory and effectiveness of the carbohydrate-insulin hypothesis. Instead, risk for obesity is primarily determined by total calorie intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Howell
- Tudor Bompa Institute, Kingsport, Tennessee; and
| | - Richard Kones
- The Cardiometabolic Research Institute, Houston, Texas
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21
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Clifton P. Assessing the evidence for weight loss strategies in people with and without type 2 diabetes. World J Diabetes 2017; 8:440-454. [PMID: 29085571 PMCID: PMC5648990 DOI: 10.4239/wjd.v8.i10.440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Revised: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/01/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
This review will examine topical issues in weight loss and weight maintenance in people with and without diabetes. A high protein, low glycemic index diet would appear to be best for 12-mo weight maintenance in people without type 2 diabetes. This dietary pattern is currently being explored in a large prevention of diabetes intervention. Intermittent energy restriction is useful but no better than daily energy restriction but there needs to be larger and longer term trials performed. There appears to be no evidence that intermittent fasting or intermittent severe energy restriction has a metabolic benefit beyond the weight loss produced and does not spare lean mass compared with daily energy restriction. Meal replacements are useful and can produce weight loss similar to or better than food restriction alone. Very low calorie diets can produce weight loss of 11-16 kg at 12 mo with persistent weight loss of 1-2 kg at 4-6 years with a very wide variation in long term results. Long term medication or meal replacement support can produce more sustained weight loss. In type 2 diabetes very low carbohydrate diets are strongly recommended by some groups but the long term evidence is very limited and no published trial is longer than 12 mo. Although obesity is strongly genetically based the microbiome may play a small role but human evidence is currently very limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Clifton
- Division of Health Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
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22
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Shi X, Li X, Hou Y, Cao X, Zhang Y, Wang H, Wang H, Peng C, Li J, Li Q, Wu C, Xiao X. Paternal hyperglycemia in rats exacerbates the development of obesity in offspring. J Endocrinol 2017; 234:175-186. [PMID: 28533422 DOI: 10.1530/joe-17-0082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Parental history with obesity or diabetes will increase the risk for developing metabolic diseases in offspring. However, literatures as to transgenerational inheritance of metabolic dysfunctions through male lineage are relatively scarce. In the current study, we aimed to evaluate influences of paternal hyperglycemia on metabolic phenotypes in offspring. Male SD rats were i.p. injected with streptozotocin (STZ) or citrate buffer (CB, as control). STZ-injected rats with glucose levels higher than 16.7 mM were selected to breed with normal female rats. Offspring from STZ or CB treated fathers (STZ-O and CB-O) were maintained in the identical condition. We monitored body weight and food intake, and tests of glucose and insulin tolerance (GTTs and ITTs), fasting-refeeding and cold exposure were performed. Expression of factors involved in hypothalamic feeding and brown adipose tissue (BAT) thermogenic activity was performed by real-time PCR and Western blot. Adult STZ-O were heavier than CB-O. Impairment of GTTs was observed in STZ-O compared with CB-O at 22 and 32 weeks of age; ITTs results showed decreased insulin sensitivity in STZ-O. Daily food intake and accumulated food intake during 12-h refeeding after fasting were significantly higher in STZ-O. UCP1 levels were downregulated in BAT from STZ-O at room temperature and cold exposure. Finally, STZ-O rats showed suppressed leptin signaling in the hypothalamus as evidenced by upregulated SOCS3, reduced phosphorylation of STAT3, impaired processing POMC and decreased α-MSH production. Our study revealed that paternal hyperglycemia predisposes offspring to developing obesity, which is possibly associated with impaired hypothalamic leptin signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqin Shi
- Laboratory of Lipid & Glucose MetabolismThe First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xinyu Li
- Laboratory of Lipid & Glucose MetabolismThe First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yi Hou
- Laboratory of Lipid & Glucose MetabolismThe First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xuemei Cao
- Laboratory of Lipid & Glucose MetabolismThe First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yuyao Zhang
- Laboratory of Lipid & Glucose MetabolismThe First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Heng Wang
- Laboratory of Lipid & Glucose MetabolismThe First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Hongyin Wang
- Laboratory of Lipid & Glucose MetabolismThe First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chuan Peng
- Laboratory of Lipid & Glucose MetabolismThe First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Department of EndocrinologyThe First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jibin Li
- Department of Nutrition and Food HygieneSchool of Public Health and Management, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qifu Li
- Department of EndocrinologyThe First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chaodong Wu
- Department of Nutrition and Food ScienceTexas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Xiaoqiu Xiao
- Laboratory of Lipid & Glucose MetabolismThe First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Department of EndocrinologyThe First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Canada-China-New Zealand Joint Laboratory of Maternal and Fetal MedicineChongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
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23
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Hall KD, Guo J. Obesity Energetics: Body Weight Regulation and the Effects of Diet Composition. Gastroenterology 2017; 152:1718-1727.e3. [PMID: 28193517 PMCID: PMC5568065 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2017.01.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Revised: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Weight changes are accompanied by imbalances between calorie intake and expenditure. This fact is often misinterpreted to suggest that obesity is caused by gluttony and sloth and can be treated by simply advising people to eat less and move more. Rather various components of energy balance are dynamically interrelated and weight loss is resisted by counterbalancing physiological processes. While low-carbohydrate diets have been suggested to partially subvert these processes by increasing energy expenditure and promoting fat loss, our meta-analysis of 32 controlled feeding studies with isocaloric substitution of carbohydrate for fat found that both energy expenditure (26 kcal/d; P <.0001) and fat loss (16 g/d; P <.0001) were greater with lower fat diets. We review the components of energy balance and the mechanisms acting to resist weight loss in the context of static, settling point, and set-point models of body weight regulation, with the set-point model being most commensurate with current data.
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Abstract
Metabolic adaptation to weight changes relates to body weight control, obesity and malnutrition. Adaptive thermogenesis (AT) refers to changes in resting and non-resting energy expenditure (REE and nREE) which are independent from changes in fat-free mass (FFM) and FFM composition. AT differs in response to changes in energy balance. With negative energy balance, AT is directed towards energy sparing. It relates to a reset of biological defence of body weight and mainly refers to REE. After weight loss, AT of nREE adds to weight maintenance. During overfeeding, energy dissipation is explained by AT of the nREE component only. As to body weight regulation during weight loss, AT relates to two different set points with a settling between them. During early weight loss, the first set is related to depleted glycogen stores associated with the fall in insulin secretion where AT adds to meet brain's energy needs. During maintenance of reduced weight, the second set is related to low leptin levels keeping energy expenditure low to prevent triglyceride stores getting too low which is a risk for some basic biological functions (e.g., reproduction). Innovative topics of AT in humans are on its definition and assessment, its dynamics related to weight loss and its constitutional and neuro-endocrine determinants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred J Müller
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kiel, Düsternbrooker Weg 17, D-24105, Kiel, Germany.
| | - Janna Enderle
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kiel, Düsternbrooker Weg 17, D-24105, Kiel, Germany
| | - Anja Bosy-Westphal
- Institute of Nutritional Medicine, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
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25
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Silva KOGD, Pereira SDC, Portovedo M, Milanski M, Galindo LCM, Guzmán‐Quevedo O, Manhães‐de‐Castro R, Toscano AE. Effects of maternal low‐protein diet on parameters of locomotor activity in a rat model of cerebral palsy. Int J Dev Neurosci 2016; 52:38-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2016.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Revised: 05/10/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mariana Portovedo
- Faculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Campinas13084‐970CampinasBrazil
| | - Marciane Milanski
- Faculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Campinas13084‐970CampinasBrazil
| | | | | | | | - Ana Elisa Toscano
- Department of Nursing, CAVFederal University of Pernambuco55608‐680Vitória de Santo AntãoBrazil
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26
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27
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Müller MJ, Enderle J, Pourhassan M, Braun W, Eggeling B, Lagerpusch M, Glüer CC, Kehayias JJ, Kiosz D, Bosy-Westphal A. Metabolic adaptation to caloric restriction and subsequent refeeding: the Minnesota Starvation Experiment revisited. Am J Clin Nutr 2015; 102:807-19. [PMID: 26399868 DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.115.109173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adaptive thermogenesis (AT) is the fat-free mass (FFM)-independent reduction of resting energy expenditure (REE) to caloric restriction (CR). AT attenuates weight loss and favors weight regain. Its variance, dynamics, and control remain obscure. OBJECTIVES Our aims were to address the variance and kinetics of AT, its associations with body composition in the context of endocrine determinants, and its effect on weight regain. DESIGN Thirty-two nonobese men underwent sequential overfeeding (1 wk at +50% of energy needs), CR (3 wk at -50% of energy needs), and refeeding (2 wk at +50% of energy needs). AT and its determinants were measured together with body composition as assessed with the use of quantitative magnetic resonance, whole-body MRI, isotope dilution, and nitrogen and fluid balances. RESULTS Changes in body weight were +1.8 kg (overfeeding), -6.0 kg (CR), and +3.5 kg (refeeding). CR reduced fat mass and FFM by 114 and 159 g/d, respectively. Within FFM, skeletal muscle (-5%), liver (-13%), and kidneys (-8%) decreased. CR also led to reductions in REE (-266 kcal/d), respiratory quotient (-15%), heart rate (-14%), blood pressure (-7%), creatinine clearance (-12%), energy cost of walking (-22%), activity of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) (-38%), and plasma leptin (-44%), insulin (-54%), adiponectin (-49%), 3,5,3'-tri-iodo-thyronine (T3) (-39%), and testosterone (-11%). AT was 108 kcal/d or 48% of the decrease in REE. Changes in FFM composition explained 36 kcal, which left 72 kcal/d for true AT. The decrease in AT became significant at ≤3 d of CR and was related to decreases in insulin secretion (r = 0.92, P < 0.001), heart rate (r = 0.60, P < 0.05), creatinine clearance (r = 0.79, P < 0.05), negative fluid balance (r = 0.51, P < 0.01), and the free water clearance rate (r = -0.90, P < 0.002). SNS activity and plasma leptin, ghrelin, and T3 and their changes with CR were not related to AT. CONCLUSION During early weight loss, AT is associated with a fall in insulin secretion and body fluid balance. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01737034.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Wiebke Braun
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science and
| | | | | | - Claus-Christian Glüer
- Clinic of Radiology and Neuroradiology, Biomedical Imaging, Molecular Imaging North Competence Centre, University Medical Center Schleswig Holstein, Christian-Albrechts University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Joseph J Kehayias
- the Body Composition Laboratory, Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging, Tufts University, Boston, MA; and
| | - Dieter Kiosz
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science and
| | - Anja Bosy-Westphal
- Institute of Nutritional Medicine, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
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TRIFFONI-MELO AT, SUEN VMM, RESENDE CMM, BRAGA CBM, DIEZ-GARCIA RW. Resting energy expenditure adaptation after short-term caloric restriction in morbidly obese women. REV NUTR 2015. [DOI: 10.1590/1415-52732015000500005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Objective:The objective of this study was to describe changes in the resting energy expenditure, substrate oxidation rate, and body composition in morbidly obese women subjected to short-term caloric restriction. Methods:This was a prospective study that included ten obese women with body mass index greater than 40 kg/m2 and aged between 20-50 years. The participants were hospitalized for eight days and received a controlled conventional low-calorie diet, 1200 kcal/day, for seven days. Body weight, body mass index, abdominal circumference, body composition, resting energy expenditure, and substrate oxidation rate were evaluated at the beginning and at the end of the study. Results:A significant reduction in body weight (p=0.005), body mass index (p=0.005), abdominal circumference (p=0.005), fat mass (p=0.005) and fat-free mass (p=0.008) was observed at the end of the study. There was an average reduction in resting energy expenditure of approximately 124 kcal/day (5%). Substrate oxidation rate did not show statistically significant changes. There was a positive correlation only between body weight reduction and fat-free mass reduction (r=0.753; p=0.012). Conclusion:There was an adaptive response of the resting energy expenditure with short-term energy restriction in morbidly obese women with a 5% reduction in resting energy expenditure and a positive correlation between weight loss and the fat-free mass, which indicates the influence of fat-free mass on the decrease in resting energy expenditure. Therefore, short-term caloric restriction in morbidly obese women led to a decrease in resting energy expenditure and fat-free mass, which suggests a rapid adaptation of energy expenditure.
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Siervo M, Faber P, Lara J, Gibney ER, Milne E, Ritz P, Lobley GE, Elia M, Stubbs RJ, Johnstone AM. Imposed rate and extent of weight loss in obese men and adaptive changes in resting and total energy expenditure. Metabolism 2015; 64:896-904. [PMID: 25908563 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2015.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2014] [Revised: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Weight loss (WL) is associated with a decrease in total and resting energy expenditure (EE). We aimed to investigate whether (1) diets with different rate and extent of WL determined different changes in total and resting EE and if (2) they influenced the level of adaptive thermogenesis, defined as the decline in total or resting EE not accounted by changes in body composition. METHODS Three groups of six, obese men participated in a total fast for 6 days to achieve a 5% WL and a very low calorie (VLCD, 2.5 MJ/day) for 3 weeks or a low calorie (LCD, 5.2 MJ/day) diet for 6 weeks to achieve a 10% WL. A four-component model was used to measure body composition. Indirect calorimetry was used to measure resting EE. Total EE was measured by doubly labelled water (VLCD, LCD) and 24-hour whole-body calorimetry (fasting). RESULTS VLCD and LCD showed a similar degree of metabolic adaptation for total EE (VLCD = -6.2%; LCD = -6.8%). Metabolic adaptation for resting EE was greater in the LCD (-0.4 MJ/day, -5.3%) compared to the VLCD (-0.1 MJ/day, -1.4%) group. Resting EE did not decrease after short-term fasting and no evidence of adaptive thermogenesis (+0.4 MJ/day) was found after 5% WL. The rate of WL was inversely associated with changes in resting EE (n = 30, r = 0.-42, p=0.01). CONCLUSIONS The rate of WL did not appear to influence the decline in total EE in obese men after 10% WL. Approximately 6% of this decline in total EE was explained by mechanisms of adaptive thermogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Siervo
- Human Nutrition Research Centre, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle on Tyne, NE4 5PL, UK.
| | - Peter Faber
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Greenburn Road, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, AB21 9SB, UK
| | - Jose Lara
- Human Nutrition Research Centre, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle on Tyne, NE4 5PL, UK
| | - Eileen R Gibney
- School of Agriculture, Food, Science and Veterinary Medicine, Agriculture and Food Science Centre, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Eric Milne
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Greenburn Road, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, AB21 9SB, UK
| | - Patrick Ritz
- UTNC, Hôpital Larrey, 1, Avenue du Pr. Jean Poulhès TSA 50032, 31059 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
| | - Gerald E Lobley
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Greenburn Road, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, AB21 9SB, UK
| | - Marinos Elia
- Institute of Human Nutrition, Southampton General Hospital, Mailpoint 113, West Wing, Tremona Road, Southampton, SO16 6YD, UK
| | - R James Stubbs
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Greenburn Road, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, AB21 9SB, UK
| | - Alexandra M Johnstone
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Greenburn Road, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, AB21 9SB, UK
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Bray GA, Redman LM, de Jonge L, Covington J, Rood J, Brock C, Mancuso S, Martin CK, Smith SR. Effect of protein overfeeding on energy expenditure measured in a metabolic chamber. Am J Clin Nutr 2015; 101:496-505. [PMID: 25733634 DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.114.091769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Energy expenditure (EE) increases with overfeeding, but it is unclear how rapidly this is related to changes in body composition, increased body weight, or diet. OBJECTIVE The objective was to quantify the effects of excess energy from fat or protein on energy expenditure of men and women living in a metabolic chamber. DESIGN We conducted a randomized controlled trial in 25 participants who ate ∼40% excess energy for 56 d from 5%, 15%, or 25% protein diets. Twenty-four-hour EE (24EE) and sleeping EE (SleepEE) were measured on days 1, 14, and 56 of overfeeding and on day 57 while consuming the baseline diet (usually day 57). Metabolic and molecular markers of muscle metabolism were measured in skeletal muscle biopsy specimens. RESULTS In the low-protein diet group whose excess energy was fat, the 24EE and SleepEE did not increase during the first day of overfeeding. When extra energy contained protein, both 24EE and SleepEE increased in relation to protein intake (r = 0.50, P = 0.02). The 24EE over 8 wk in all 3 groups was correlated with protein intake (r = 0.60, P = 0.004) but not energy intake (r = 0.16; P = 0.70). SleepEE was unchanged by overfeeding in the low-protein diet group, and baseline surface area predicted increased 24EE in this group. Protein and fat oxidation were reciprocally related during overfeeding. Observed 24EE was higher than predicted on days 1 (P ≤ 0.05), 14 (P = 0.0001), and 56 (P = 0.0007). There was no relation between change in fat mass and change in EE. CONCLUSIONS Excess energy, as fat, does not acutely increase 24EE, which rises slowly as body weight increases. Excess energy as protein acutely stimulates 24EE and SleepEE. The strongest relation with change in 24EE was the change in energy expenditure in tissue other than muscle or fat-free mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- George A Bray
- From the Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA (GAB, LMR, JC, JR, CB, SM, and CKM); George Mason University, Arlington, VA (LdJ); and Translational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes Florida Hospital and Sanford Burnham Institute, Orlando, FL (SRS)
| | - Leanne M Redman
- From the Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA (GAB, LMR, JC, JR, CB, SM, and CKM); George Mason University, Arlington, VA (LdJ); and Translational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes Florida Hospital and Sanford Burnham Institute, Orlando, FL (SRS)
| | - Lilian de Jonge
- From the Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA (GAB, LMR, JC, JR, CB, SM, and CKM); George Mason University, Arlington, VA (LdJ); and Translational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes Florida Hospital and Sanford Burnham Institute, Orlando, FL (SRS)
| | - Jeffrey Covington
- From the Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA (GAB, LMR, JC, JR, CB, SM, and CKM); George Mason University, Arlington, VA (LdJ); and Translational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes Florida Hospital and Sanford Burnham Institute, Orlando, FL (SRS)
| | - Jennifer Rood
- From the Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA (GAB, LMR, JC, JR, CB, SM, and CKM); George Mason University, Arlington, VA (LdJ); and Translational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes Florida Hospital and Sanford Burnham Institute, Orlando, FL (SRS)
| | - Courtney Brock
- From the Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA (GAB, LMR, JC, JR, CB, SM, and CKM); George Mason University, Arlington, VA (LdJ); and Translational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes Florida Hospital and Sanford Burnham Institute, Orlando, FL (SRS)
| | - Susan Mancuso
- From the Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA (GAB, LMR, JC, JR, CB, SM, and CKM); George Mason University, Arlington, VA (LdJ); and Translational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes Florida Hospital and Sanford Burnham Institute, Orlando, FL (SRS)
| | - Corby K Martin
- From the Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA (GAB, LMR, JC, JR, CB, SM, and CKM); George Mason University, Arlington, VA (LdJ); and Translational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes Florida Hospital and Sanford Burnham Institute, Orlando, FL (SRS)
| | - Steven R Smith
- From the Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA (GAB, LMR, JC, JR, CB, SM, and CKM); George Mason University, Arlington, VA (LdJ); and Translational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes Florida Hospital and Sanford Burnham Institute, Orlando, FL (SRS)
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Daily physical activity as determined by age, body mass and energy balance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2015; 115:1177-84. [PMID: 25712831 PMCID: PMC4429144 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-015-3135-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2014] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Aim Insight into the determinants of physical activity, including age, body mass and energy balance, facilitates the design of intervention studies with body mass and energy balance as determinants of health and optimal performance. Methods An analysis of physical activity energy expenditure in relation to age and body mass and in relation to energy balance, where activity energy expenditure is derived from daily energy expenditure as measured with doubly labelled water and body movement is measured with accelerometers, was conducted in healthy subjects under daily living conditions over intervals of one or more weeks. Results Activity energy expenditure as a fraction of daily energy expenditure is highest in adults at the reproductive age. Then, activity energy expenditure is a function of fat-free mass. Excess body mass as fat does not affect daily activity energy expenditure, but body movement decreases with increasing fatness. Overweight and obesity possibly affect daily physical activity energy expenditure through endurance. Physical activity is affected by energy availability; a negative energy balance induces a reduction of activity expenditure. Conclusion Optimal performance and health require prevention of excess body fat and maintenance of energy balance, where energy balance determines physical activity rather than physical activity affecting energy balance.
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Apolzan JW, Bray GA, Smith SR, de Jonge L, Rood J, Han H, Redman LM, Martin CK. Effects of weight gain induced by controlled overfeeding on physical activity. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2014; 307:E1030-7. [PMID: 25294214 PMCID: PMC4254990 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00386.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
It is unclear whether physical activity changes following long-term overfeeding and in response to different dietary protein intakes. Twenty-five (16 males, 9 females) healthy adults (18-35 yr) with BMI ranging from 19 to 30 kg/m(2) enrolled in this inpatient study. In a parallel group design, participants were fed 140% of energy needs, with 5, 15, or 25% of energy from protein, for 56 days. Participants wore an RT3 accelerometer for at least 59 days throughout baseline and during overfeeding and completed 24-h whole room metabolic chamber assessments at baseline and on days 1, 14, and 56 of overfeeding and on day 57, when the baseline energy intake was consumed, to measure percent of time active and spontaneous physical activity (SPA; kcal/day). Changes in activity were also assessed by doubly labeled water (DLW). From accelerometry, vector magnitude (VM), a weight-independent measure of activity, and activity energy expenditure (AEE) increased with weight gain during overfeeding. AEE remained increased after adjusting for changes in body composition. Activity-related energy expenditure (AREE) from DLW and percent activity and SPA in the metabolic chamber increased with overfeeding, but SPA was no longer significant after adjusting for change in body composition. Change in VM and AEE were positively correlated with weight gain; however, change in activity was not affected by protein intake. Overfeeding produces an increase in physical activity and in energy expended in physical activity after adjusting for changes in body composition, suggesting that increased activity in response to weight gain might be one mechanism to support adaptive thermogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Apolzan
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
| | - George A Bray
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
| | - Steven R Smith
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
| | - Lilian de Jonge
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
| | - Jennifer Rood
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
| | - Hongmei Han
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
| | - Leanne M Redman
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
| | - Corby K Martin
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
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McGill AT. Causes of metabolic syndrome and obesity-related co-morbidities Part 1: A composite unifying theory review of human-specific co-adaptations to brain energy consumption. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 72:30. [PMID: 25708524 PMCID: PMC4335398 DOI: 10.1186/2049-3258-72-30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Accepted: 04/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
One line summary Metabolic syndrome and obesity-related co-morbidities are largely explained by co-adaptations to the energy use of the large human brain in the cortico-limbic-striatal and NRF2 systems. The medical, research and general community is unable to effect significantly decreased rates of central obesity and related type II diabetes mellitus (TIIDM), cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cancer. All conditions seem to be linked by the concept of the metabolic syndrome (MetS), but the underlying causes are not known. MetS markers may have been mistaken for causes, thus many treatments are destined to be suboptimal. The current paper aims to critique current paradigms, give explanations for their persistence, and to return to first principles in an attempt to determine and clarify likely causes of MetS and obesity related comorbidities. A wide literature has been mined, study concepts analysed and the basics of human evolution and new biochemistry reviewed. A plausible, multifaceted composite unifying theory is formulated. The basis of the theory is that the proportionately large, energy-demanding human brain may have driven co-adaptive mechanisms to provide, or conserve, energy for the brain. A ‘dual system’ is proposed. 1) The enlarged, complex cortico-limbic-striatal system increases dietary energy by developing strong neural self-reward/motivation pathways for the acquisition of energy dense food, and (2) the nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) cellular protection system amplifies antioxidant, antitoxicant and repair activity by employing plant chemicals, becoming highly energy efficient in humans. The still-evolving, complex human cortico-limbic-striatal system generates strong behavioural drives for energy dense food procurement, including motivating agricultural technologies and social system development. Addiction to such foods, leading to neglect of nutritious but less appetizing ‘common or garden’ food, appears to have occurred. Insufficient consumption of food micronutrients prevents optimal human NRF2 function. Inefficient oxidation of excess energy forces central and non-adipose cells to store excess toxic lipid. Oxidative stress and metabolic inflammation, or metaflammation, allow susceptibility to infectious, degenerative atherosclerotic cardiovascular, autoimmune, neurodegenerative and dysplastic diseases. Other relevant human-specific co-adaptations are examined, and encompass the unusual ability to store fat, certain vitamin pathways, the generalised but flexible intestine and microbiota, and slow development and longevity. This theory has significant past and future corollaries, which are explored in a separate article by McGill, A-T, in Archives of Public Health, 72: 31.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Thea McGill
- School of Population Health and Human Nutrition Unit, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand ; B-Med Weight Control Consultancy, Auckland, New Zealand
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Grantham JP, Staub K, Rühli FJ, Henneberg M. Modern diet and metabolic variance--a recipe for disaster? Nutr J 2014; 13:15. [PMID: 24502225 PMCID: PMC3923254 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2891-13-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recently, a positive correlation between alanine transaminase activity and body mass was established among healthy young individuals of normal weight. Here we explore further this relationship and propose a physiological rationale for this link. DESIGN Cross-sectional statistical analysis of adiposity across large samples of adults differing by age, diet and lifestyle. SUBJECTS 46,684 19-20 years old Swiss male conscripts and published data on 1000 Eskimos, 518 Toronto residents and 97,000 North American Adventists. MEASUREMENTS Serum concentrations of the alanine transaminase, post-prandial glucose levels, cholesterol, body height and weight, blood pressure and routine blood analysis (thrombocytes and leukocytes) for Swiss conscripts. Adiposity measures and dietary information for other groups were also obtained. RESULTS Stepwise multiple regression after correction for random errors of physiological tests showed that 28% of the total variance in body mass is associated with ALT concentrations. This relationship remained significant when only metabolically healthy (as defined by the American Heart Association) Swiss conscripts were selected. The data indicated that high protein only or high carbohydrate only diets are associated with lower levels of obesity than a diet combining proteins and carbohydrates. CONCLUSION Elevated levels of alanine transaminase, and likely other transaminases, may result in overactivity of the alanine cycle that produces pyruvate from protein. When a mixed meal of protein, carbohydrate and fat is consumed, carbohydrates and fats are digested faster and metabolised to satisfy body's energetic needs while slower digested protein is ultimately converted to malonyl CoA and stored as fat. Chronicity of this sequence is proposed to cause accumulation of somatic fat stores and thus obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- James P Grantham
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Lincoln College, 45 Brougham Place, Adelaide 5006, SA, Australia
| | - Kaspar Staub
- Centre for Evolutionary Medicine, Institute of Anatomy, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Frank J Rühli
- Centre for Evolutionary Medicine, Institute of Anatomy, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Maciej Henneberg
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Lincoln College, 45 Brougham Place, Adelaide 5006, SA, Australia
- Centre for Evolutionary Medicine, Institute of Anatomy, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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Higher body fatness in intrauterine growth retarded juvenile pigs is associated with lower fat and higher carbohydrate oxidation during ad libitum and restricted feeding. Eur J Nutr 2013; 53:583-97. [PMID: 23907209 PMCID: PMC3925302 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-013-0567-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Purpose
A thrifty energy metabolism has been suggested in intrauterine growth restricted (IUGR) offspring. We characterized energy metabolism and substrate oxidation patterns in IUGR pigs in response to food restriction (FR) and refeeding (RFD). Methods Female pigs with low (L; 1.1 kg; n = 20) or normal birth weight (N; 1.5 kg; n = 24) were fed ad libitum after weaning. Half of L and N pigs were food restricted (R; LR, NR) from days 80 to 100 (57 % of ad libitum) and refeed from days 101 to 131, while the remaining pigs were fed ad libitum (control, C). Using indirect calorimetry, carbohydrate and fat oxidation (COX, FOX), energy expenditure (EE) and balance (EB), resting metabolic rate (RMR) [all related to kg body weight0.62 (BW)] and RQ were determined at 4 days before (day 76) and after (day 83) beginning of FR, 4 days before (day 97) and after (day 104) end of FR and 25 days after beginning of RFD (day 125). Body fat and muscle weights were determined at day 131. Results In spite of higher relative food intake (FI), BW was lower in L pigs. In L pigs, physical activity was lower at age 76 and 83 days compared to N pigs. IUGR did not affect EE or RMR, but resulted in higher COX and lower FOX, causing greater and earlier onset of fat deposition. During FR, EE and RMR of R pigs dropped below that of C pigs, and BW gain was delayed by 30 % irrespective of birth weight. In response to FR, COX decreased and FOX increased. During FR, in LR pigs FOX was ~50 % of that in NR pigs. After 4 days, but not 25 days of RFD, EB and fat synthesis were higher in pigs previously subjected to FR, indicating early catch-up fat. In R pigs, BW and the abdominal fat proportion were lower at 131 days. Conclusions Differences in food intake and substrate oxidation pattern, but not in EE and RMR, between L and N pigs were reflected in higher body fat proportions but lower body and muscle weights in L pigs. Refeeding following FR was initially associated with increased FI, a more positive EB and a more intense stimulation of fat synthesis which did not persist after 25 days of refeeding. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00394-013-0567-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Westerterp KR. Physical activity and physical activity induced energy expenditure in humans: measurement, determinants, and effects. Front Physiol 2013; 4:90. [PMID: 23637685 PMCID: PMC3636460 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2013.00090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 04/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Physical activity is defined as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure. The doubly labeled water method for the measurement of total energy expenditure (TEE), in combination with resting energy expenditure, is the reference for physical activity under free-living conditions. To compare the physical activity level (PAL) within and between species, TEE is divided by resting energy expenditure resulting in a figure without dimension. The PAL for sustainable lifestyles ranges between a minimum of 1.1–1.2 and a maximum of 2.0–2.5. The average PAL increases from 1.4 at age 1 year to 1.7–1.8 at reproductive age and declines again to 1.4 at age 90 year. Exercise training increases PAL in young adults when energy balance is maintained by increasing energy intake. Professional endurance athletes can reach PAL values around 4.0. Most of the variation in PAL between subjects can be ascribed to predisposition. A higher weight implicates higher movement costs and less body movement but not necessarily a lower PAL. Changes in physical activity primarily affect body composition and to a lesser extent body weight. Modern man has a similar PAL as a wild mammal of a similar body size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaas R Westerterp
- Department of Human Biology, Maastricht University Medical Centre Maastricht, Netherlands
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Ellrott T. [18 reasons why diet fail]. MMW Fortschr Med 2013; 155:49-52. [PMID: 23654132 DOI: 10.1007/s15006-013-0292-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Ellrott
- Institut für Ernährungspsychologie, Georg August-Universität Gottingen, Universitätsmedizin, Gottingen.
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