Do in vivo experimental models reflect human cerebral small vessel disease? A systematic review

Oxidative stress and chronic cerebral hypoperfusion: An overview from preclinical rodent models

Chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) is an important clinical condition characterized by a prolonged reduction in cerebral blood flow that contributes to several neurodegenerative diseases, including vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease. A number of rodent models of CCH have been developed that mimic the human pathological conditions of reduced cerebral perfusion. These models have been instrumental in elucidating the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in CCH-induced brain damage. Oxidative stress is induced by perturbations in cellular pathways caused by CCH, including mitochondrial dysfunction, ion pump dysfunction, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) depletion. The deleterious stress leads to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and exacerbates damage to neuronal structures, significantly impairing cognitive function. Among the various therapeutic strategies being evaluated, edaravone, a potent antioxidant, is emerging as a promising drug due to its neuroprotective properties against oxidative stress. Initially approved for use in ischemic stroke, research using rodent CCH models has shown that edaravone has significant efficacy in scavenging free radicals and ameliorating oxidative stress-induced neuronal damage under CCH conditions. This mini-review summarizes the current literature on the rodent models of CCH and then discusses the therapeutic potential of edaravone to reduce neuronal and vascular damage caused by CCH-induced oxidative stress.

A novel rat model of cerebral small vessel disease based on vascular risk factors of hypertension, aging, and cerebral hypoperfusion

Cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) is a major cause of vascular cognitive impairment and functional loss in elderly patients. Progressive remodeling of cerebral microvessels due to arterial hypertension or other vascular risk factors, such as aging, can cause dementia or stroke. Typical imaging characteristics of CSVD include cerebral microbleeds (CMB), brain atrophy, small subcortical infarctions, white matter hyperintensities (WMH), and enlarged perivascular spaces (EPVS). Nevertheless, no animal models that reflect all the different aspects of CSVD have been identified. Here, we generated a new CSVD animal model using D-galactose (D-gal) combined with cerebral hypoperfusion in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), which showed all the hallmark pathological features of CSVD and was based on vascular risk factors. SHR were hypodermically injected with D-gal (400 mg/kg/d) and underwent modified microcoil bilateral common carotid artery stenosis surgery. Subsequently, neurological assessments and behavioral tests were performed, followed by vascular ultrasonography, electron microscopy, flow cytometry, and histological analyses. Our rat model showed multiple cerebrovascular pathologies, such as CMB, brain atrophy, subcortical small infarction, WMH, and EPVS, as well as the underlying causes of CSVD pathology, including oxidative stress injury, decreased cerebral blood flow, structural and functional damage to endothelial cells, increased blood-brain barrier permeability, and inflammation. The use of this animal model will help identify new therapeutic targets and subsequently aid the development and testing of novel therapeutic interventions. Main process of the study: Firstly, we screened for optimal conditions for mimicking aging by injecting D-gal into rats for 4 and 8 weeks. Subsequently, we performed modified microcoil BCAS intervention for 4 and 8 weeks in rats to screen for optimal hypoperfusion conditions. Finally, based on these results, we combined D-gal for 8 weeks and modified microcoil BCAS for 4 weeks to explore the changes in SHR.

Activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in a rat model of cerebral small vessel disease

Cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) is increasingly being recognized as a leading contributor to cognitive impairment in the elderly. However, there is a lack of effective preventative or therapeutic options for CSVD. In this exploratory study, we investigated the interplay between neuroinflammation and CSVD pathogenesis as well as the cognitive performance, focusing on NLRP3 signaling as a new therapeutic target. Spontaneously hypertensive stroke-prone (SHRSP) rats served as a CSVD model. We found that SHRSP rats showed decline in learning and memory abilities using morris water maze test. Activated NLRP3 signaling and an increased expression of the downstream pro-inflammatory factors, including IL (interleukin)-6 and tumor necrosis factor α were determined. We also observed a remarkable increase in the production of pyroptosis executive protein gasdermin D, and elevated astrocytic and microglial activation. In addition, we identify several neuropathological hallmarks of CSVD, including blood-brain barrier breakdown, white matter damage, and endothelial dysfunction. These results were in correlation with the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. Thus, our findings reveal that the NLRP3-mediated inflammatory pathway could play a central role in the pathogenesis of CSVD, presenting a novel target for potential CSVD treatment.

Blood-brain barrier pathology in cerebral small vessel disease

ABSTRACT

Cerebral small vessel disease is a neurological disease that affects the brain microvasculature and which is commonly observed among the elderly. Although at first it was considered innocuous, small vessel disease is nowadays regarded as one of the major vascular causes of dementia. Radiological signs of small vessel disease include small subcortical infarcts, white matter magnetic resonance imaging hyperintensities, lacunes, enlarged perivascular spaces, cerebral microbleeds, and brain atrophy; however, great heterogeneity in clinical symptoms is observed in small vessel disease patients. The pathophysiology of these lesions has been linked to multiple processes, such as hypoperfusion, defective cerebrovascular reactivity, and blood-brain barrier dysfunction. Notably, studies on small vessel disease suggest that blood-brain barrier dysfunction is among the earliest mechanisms in small vessel disease and might contribute to the development of the hallmarks of small vessel disease. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to provide a new foundation in the study of small vessel disease pathology. First, we discuss the main structural domains and functions of the blood-brain barrier. Secondly, we review the most recent evidence on blood-brain barrier dysfunction linked to small vessel disease. Finally, we conclude with a discussion on future perspectives and propose potential treatment targets and interventions.

Microvascular damage, neuroinflammation and extracellular matrix remodeling in Col18a1 knockout mice as a model for early cerebral small vessel disease

Collagen type XVIII (COL18) is an abundant heparan sulfate proteoglycan in vascular basement membranes. Here, we asked (i) if the loss of COL18 would result in blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown, pathological alterations of small arteries and capillaries and neuroinflammation as found in cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) and (ii) if such changes may be associated with remodeling of synapses and neural extracellular matrix (ECM). We found that 5-month-old Col18a1-/- mice had elevated BBB permeability for mouse IgG in the deep gray matter, and intravascular erythrocyte accumulations were observed brain-wide in capillaries and arterioles. BBB permeability increased with age and affected cortical regions and the hippocampus in 12-month-old Col18a1-/- mice. None of the Col18a1-/- mice displayed hallmarks of advanced CSVD, such as hemorrhages, and did not show perivascular space enlargement. Col18a1 deficiency-induced BBB leakage was accompanied by activation of microglia and astrocytes, a loss of aggrecan in the ECM of perineuronal nets associated with fast-spiking inhibitory interneurons and accumulation of the perisynaptic ECM proteoglycan brevican and the microglial complement protein C1q at excitatory synapses. As the pathway underlying these regulations, we found increased signaling through the TGF-ß1/Smad3/TIMP-3 cascade. We verified the pivotal role of COL18 for small vessel wall structure in CSVD by demonstrating the protein's involvement in vascular remodeling in autopsy brains from patients with cerebral hypertensive arteriopathy. Our study highlights an association between the alterations of perivascular ECM, extracellular proteolysis, and perineuronal/perisynaptic ECM, as a possible substrate of synaptic and cognitive alterations in CSVD.

Genotypes of Stim1 and the proximal region on chromosome 1 exert opposite effects on stroke susceptibility in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rat

BACKGROUND

The stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHRSP) is a genetic model for cerebral stroke. Although a recent study on a congenic SHRSP suggested that a nonsense mutation in stromal interaction molecule 1 ( Stim1 ) encoding a major component of store-operated Ca 2+ entry was a causal variant for stroke in SHRSP, this was not conclusive because the congenic region including Stim1 in that rat was too wide. On the other hand, we demonstrated that the Wistar-Kyoto (WKY)-derived congenic fragment adjacent to Stim1 exacerbated stroke susceptibility in a congenic SHRSP called SPwch1.71. In the present study, we directly examined the effects of the Stim1 genotype on stroke susceptibility using SHRSP in which wild-type Stim1 was knocked in (called Stim1 -KI SHRSP). The combined effects of Stim1 and the congenic fragment of SPwch1.71 were also investigated.

METHODS

Stroke susceptibility was assessed by the stroke symptom-free and survival periods based on observations of behavioral symptoms and reductions in body weight.

RESULTS

Stim1 -KI SHRSP was more resistant to, while SPwch1.71 was more susceptible to stroke than the original SHRSP. Introgression of the wild-type Stim1 of Stim1 -KI SHRSP into SPwch1.71 by the generation of F1 rats ameliorated stroke susceptibility in SPwch1.71. Gene expression, whole-genome sequencing, and biochemical analyses identified Art2b , Folr1 , and Pde2a as possible candidate genes accelerating stroke in SPwch1.71.

CONCLUSION

The substitution of SHRSP-type Stim1 to wild-type Stim1 ameliorated stroke susceptibility in both SHRSP and SPwch1.71, indicating that the nonsense mutation in Stim1 is causally related to stroke susceptibility in SHRSP.

Cerebral Small Vessel Disease, Hypertension, and Vascular Contributions to Cognitive Impairment and Dementia

Hypertension-associated cerebral small vessel disease is a common finding in older people. Strongly associated with age and hypertension, small vessel disease is found at autopsy in over 50% of people aged ≥65 years, with a spectrum of clinical manifestations. It is the main cause of lacunar stroke and a major source of vascular contributions to cognitive impairment and dementia. The brain areas affected are subcortical and periventricular white matter and deep gray nuclei. Neuropathological sequelae are diffuse white matter lesions (seen as white matter hyperintensities on T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging), small ischemic foci (lacunes or microinfarcts), and less commonly, subcortical microhemorrhages. The most common form of cerebral small vessel disease is concentric, fibrotic thickening of small penetrating arteries (up to 300 microns outer diameter) termed arteriolosclerosis. Less common forms are small artery atheroma and lipohyalinosis (the lesions described by C. Miller Fisher adjacent to lacunes). Other microvascular lesions that are not reviewed here include cerebral amyloid angiopathy and venous collagenosis. Here, we review the epidemiology, neuropathology, clinical management, genetics, preclinical models, and pathogenesis of hypertensive small vessel disease. Knowledge gaps include initiating factors, molecular pathogenesis, relationships between arterial pathology and tissue damage, possible reversibility, pharmacological targets, and molecular biomarkers. Progress is anticipated from multicell transcriptomic and proteomic profiling, novel experimental models and further target-finding and interventional clinical studies.

Translating Animal Models of Ischemic Stroke to the Human Condition

Ischemic stroke is a leading cause of death and disability. However, very few neuroprotective agents have shown promise for treatment of ischemic stroke in clinical trials, despite showing efficacy in many successful preclinical studies. This may be attributed, at least in part, to the incongruency between experimental animal stroke models used in preclinical studies and the manifestation of ischemic stroke in humans. Most often the human population selected for clinical trials are more diverse than the experimental model used in a preclinical study. For successful translation, it is critical to develop clinical trial designs that match the experimental animal model used in the preclinical study. This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of commonly used animal models with clear correlates between rodent models used to study ischemic stroke and the clinical stroke pathologies with which they most closely align. By improving the correlation between preclinical studies and clinical trials, new neuroprotective agents and stroke therapies may be more accurately and efficiently identified.

A multi-disciplinary commentary on preclinical research to investigate vascular contributions to dementia

Although dementia research has been dominated by Alzheimer's disease (AD), most dementia in older people is now recognised to be due to mixed pathologies, usually combining vascular and AD brain pathology. Vascular cognitive impairment (VCI), which encompasses vascular dementia (VaD) is the second most common type of dementia. Models of VCI have been delayed by limited understanding of the underlying aetiology and pathogenesis. This review by a multidisciplinary, diverse (in terms of sex, geography and career stage), cross-institute team provides a perspective on limitations to current VCI models and recommendations for improving translation and reproducibility. We discuss reproducibility, clinical features of VCI and corresponding assessments in models, human pathology, bioinformatics approaches, and data sharing. We offer recommendations for future research, particularly focusing on small vessel disease as a main underpinning disorder.

L-Arginine-eNOS-NO Functional System in Brain Damage and Cognitive Impairments in Cerebral Small Vessel Disease

Cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) is a significant cause of cognitive impairment (CI), disability, and mortality. The insufficient effectiveness of antihypertensive therapy in curbing the disease justifies the search for potential targets for modifying therapy and indicators supporting its use. Using a laser-assisted optical rotational cell analyzer (LORRCA, Mechatronics, The Netherlands), the rheological properties and deformability of erythrocytes before and after incubation with 10 μmol/L of L-arginine, the nitric oxide (NO) donor, blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability assessed by dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI, clinical, and MRI signs were studied in 73 patients with CSVD (48 women, mean age 60.1 ± 6.5 years). The control group consisted of 19 volunteers (14 women (73.7%), mean age 56.9 ± 6.4 years). The erythrocyte disaggregation rate (y-dis) after incubation with L-arginine showed better performance than other rheological characteristics in differentiating patients with reduced NO bioavailability/NO deficiency by its threshold values. Patients with y-dis > 113 s-1 had more severe CI, arterial hypertension, white matter lesions, and increased BBB permeability in grey matter and normal-appearing white matter (NAWM). A test to assess changes in the erythrocyte disaggregation rate after incubation with L-arginine can be used to identify patients with impaired NO bioavailability. L-arginine may be part of a therapeutic strategy for CSVD with CI.

Cerebrovascular integrity affects gradients of aging-related dopamine D1 differences in the striatum

Extant research suggest aging-related losses of different dopaminergic markers, including presynaptic dopamine transporters as well as post-synaptic DA receptors. Given the central role of DA in neurocognitive functions, maintenance of a healthy DA system may be a key to mitigate age-related cognitive decline. Mechanisms behind DA losses in aging are however largely uncharted. Past research documented an association between dopaminergic integrity and cerebrovascular health (via white matter lesion volumes). However, it remains unclear whether proximity to lesions affected the spatial patterns of age-related D1DR differences within the striatum, and whether such differences are related to mnemonic function. Here, a large cohort of middle-aged to older healthy participants (age = 40-80 years, n = 119, 50 % women) was assessed for D1-receptor (D1DR) availability with positron emission tomography using [11C]SCH23390, and for white matter lesions using FLAIR-MRI. We found evidence for variations in degree of age-related differences along the ventro-dorsal axis, with more pronounced differences in the dorsal caudate. Further analyses revealed an association between distance to lesions and extent of D1DR losses in the caudate. Furthermore, D1DR differences in dorsal caudate (proximal to lesions) was more strongly associated with memory performance. In conclusion, the present findings suggest that maintenance of cerebrovascular health may be a key factor in promoting successful dopaminergic and memory aging.

Durative sleep fragmentation with or without hypertension suppress rapid eye movement sleep and generate cerebrovascular dysfunction

Either hypertension or chronic insomnia is the risk factor of developing vascular dementia. Durative hypertension can induce vascular remodeling and is used for modeling small vessel disease in rodents. It remains undetermined if the combination of hypertension and sleep disturbance exacerbates vascular dysfunction or pathologies. Previously, we found chronic sleep fragmentation (SF) dampened cognition in young mice without disease predispositions. In the current study, we superimposed SF with hypertension modeling in young mice. Angiotensin II (AngII)-releasing osmotic mini pumps were subcutaneously implanted to generate persistent hypertension, while sham surgeries were performed as controls. Sleep fragmentation with repetitive arousals (10 s every 2 min) during light-on 12 h for consecutive 30 days, while mice undergoing normal sleep (NS) processes were set as controls. Sleep architectures, whisker-stimulated cerebral blood flow (CBF) changes, vascular responsiveness as well as vascular pathologies were compared among normal sleep plus sham (NS + sham), SF plus sham (SF + sham), normal sleep plus AngII (NS + AngII), and SF plus AngII (SF + AngII) groups. SF and hypertension both alter sleep structures, particularly suppressing REM sleep. SF no matter if combined with hypertension strongly suppressed whisker-stimulated CBF increase, suggesting the tight association with cognitive decline. Hypertension modeling sensitizes vascular responsiveness toward a vasoactive agent, Acetylcholine (ACh, 5 mg/ml, 10 μl) delivered via cisterna magna infusion, while SF exhibits a similar but much milder effect. None of the modeling above was sufficient to induce arterial or arteriole vascular remodeling, but SF or SF plus hypertension increased vascular network density constructed by all categories of cerebral vessels. The current study would potentially help understand the pathogenesis of vascular dementia, and the interconnection between sleep and vascular health.

The Role of NMDA Receptor Partial Antagonist, Carbamathione, as a Therapeutic Agent for Transient Global Ischemia

Carbamathione (Carb), an NMDA glutamate receptor partial antagonist, has potent neuroprotective functions against hypoxia- or ischemia-induced neuronal injury in cell- or animal-based stroke models. We used PC-12 cell cultures as a cell-based model and bilateral carotid artery occlusion (BCAO) for stroke. Whole-cell patch clamp recording in the mouse retinal ganglion cells was performed. Key proteins involved in apoptosis, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and heat shock proteins were analyzed using immunoblotting. Carb is effective in protecting PC12 cells against glutamate- or hypoxia-induced cell injury. Electrophysiological results show that Carb attenuates NMDA-mediated glutamate currents in the retinal ganglion cells, which results in activation of the AKT signaling pathway and increased expression of pro-cell survival biomarkers, e.g., Hsp 27, P-AKT, and Bcl2 and decreased expression of pro-cell death markers, e.g., Beclin 1, Bax, and Cleaved caspase 3, and ER stress markers, e.g., CHOP, IRE1, XBP1, ATF 4, and eIF2α. Using the BCAO animal stroke model, we found that Carb reduced the brain infarct volume and decreased levels of ER stress markers, GRP 78, CHOP, and at the behavioral level, e.g., a decrease in asymmetric turns and an increase in locomotor activity. These findings for Carb provide promising and rational strategies for stroke therapy.

Association between morphologic features of intracranial distal arteries and brain atrophy indexes in cerebral small vessel disease: a voxel-based morphometry study

Background

Brain atrophy represents a final common pathway for pathological processes in patients with cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) and is now recognized as a strong independent predictor of clinical status and progression. The mechanism underlying brain atrophy in patients with CSVD is not yet fully comprehended. This study aims to investigate the association of morphologic features of intracranial distal arteries (A2, M2, P2 and more distal) with different brain structures [gray matter volume (GMV), white matter volume (WMV), and cerebrospinal fluid volume (CSFV)]. Furthermore, we also examined whether a correlation existed between these cerebrovascular characteristics and GMV in different brain regions.

Method

A total of 39 participants were eventually enrolled. The morphologic features of intracranial distal arteries based on TOF-MRA were extracted and quantified using the intracranial artery feature extraction technique (iCafe). The brain 3D-T1 images were segmented into gray matter (GM), white matter (WM), and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) using the "Segment" tool in CAT12 for the voxel-based morphometry (VBM) analysis. Univariable and multivariable linear regression models were used to investigate the relationship between these cerebrovascular features and different brain structures. Partial correlation analysis with a one-tailed method was used to evaluate the relationship between these cerebrovascular features and GMV in different brain regions.

Results

Our findings indicate that both distal artery length and density were positively correlated with GM fraction in CSVD patients, regardless of whether univariable or multivariable linear regression analyses were performed. In addition, distal artery length (β = -0.428, p = 0.007) and density (β = -0.337, p = 0.036) were also found to be negative associated with CSF fraction, although this relationship disappeared after adjusting for potential confounders. Additional adjustment for the effect of WMHs volume did not change these results. In subgroup anasysis, we found that participants in the highest distal artery length tertile had significantly higher GM fraction and lower CSF fraction level than participants in the lowest distal artery length tertile. In partial correlation analysis, we also found that these cerebrovascular characteristics associated with regional GMV, especially subcortical nuclear.

Conclusion

The morphologic features of intracranial distal arteries, including artery length, density and average tortuosity, measured from 3D-TOF MRA, are associated with generalized or focal atrophy indexes of CSVD.

Functional genomics in stroke: current and future applications of iPSCs and gene editing to dissect the function of risk variants

Stroke is an important disease with unmet clinical need. To uncover novel paths for treatment, it is of critical importance to develop relevant laboratory models that may help to shed light on the pathophysiological mechanisms of stroke. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) technology has enormous potential to advance our knowledge into stroke by creating novel human models for research and therapeutic testing. iPSCs models generated from patients with specific stroke types and specific genetic predisposition in combination with other state of art technologies including genome editing, multi-omics, 3D system, libraries screening, offer the opportunity to investigate disease-related pathways and identify potential novel therapeutic targets that can then be tested in these models. Thus, iPSCs offer an unprecedented opportunity to make rapid progress in the field of stroke and vascular dementia research leading to clinical translation. This review paper summarizes some of the key areas in which patient-derived iPSCs technology has been applied to disease modelling and discusses the ongoing challenges and the future directions for the application of this technology in the field of stroke research.

Glymphatic pathway in sporadic cerebral small vessel diseases: From bench to bedside

Cerebral small vessel diseases (CSVD) consist of a group of diseases with high heterogeneity induced by pathologies of intracranial small blood vessels. Endothelium dysfunction, bloodbrain barrier leakage and the inflammatory response are traditionally considered to participate in the pathogenesis of CSVD. However, these features cannot fully explain the complex syndrome and related neuroimaging characteristics. In recent years, the glymphatic pathway has been discovered to play a pivotal role in clearing perivascular fluid and metabolic solutes, which has provided novel insights into neurological disorders. Researchers have also explored the potential role of perivascular clearance dysfunction in CSVD. In this review, we presented a brief overview of CSVD and the glymphatic pathway. In addition, we elucidated CSVD pathogenesis from the perspective of glymphatic failure, including basic animal models and clinical neuroimaging markers. Finally, we proposed forthcoming clinical applications targeting the glymphatic pathway, hoping to provide novel ideas on promising therapies and preventions of CSVD.

Effect of long-term antihypertensive treatment on cerebrovascular structure and function in hypertensive rats

Midlife hypertension is an important risk factor for cognitive impairment and dementia, including Alzheimer's disease. We investigated the effects of long-term treatment with two classes of antihypertensive drugs to determine whether diverging mechanisms of blood pressure lowering impact the brain differently. Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) were either left untreated or treated with a calcium channel blocker (amlodipine) or beta blocker (atenolol) until one year of age. The normotensive Wistar Kyoto rat (WKY) was used as a reference group. Both drugs lowered blood pressure equally, while only atenolol decreased heart rate. Cerebrovascular resistance was increased in SHR, which was prevented by amlodipine but not atenolol. SHR showed a larger carotid artery diameter with impaired pulsatility, which was prevented by atenolol. Cerebral arteries demonstrated inward remodelling, stiffening and endothelial dysfunction in SHR. Both treatments similarly improved these parameters. MRI revealed that SHR have smaller brains with enlarged ventricles. In addition, neurofilament light levels were increased in cerebrospinal fluid of SHR. However, neither treatment affected these parameters. In conclusion, amlodipine and atenolol both lower blood pressure, but elicit a different hemodynamic profile. Both medications improve cerebral artery structure and function, but neither drug prevented indices of brain damage in this model of hypertension.

Stroke-prone salt-sensitive spontaneously hypertensive rats show higher susceptibility to spreading depolarization (SD) and altered hemodynamic responses to SD

Spreading depolarization (SD) occurs in a plethora of clinical conditions including migraine aura, delayed ischemia after subarachnoid hemorrhage and malignant hemispheric stroke. It describes waves of near-breakdown of ion homeostasis, particularly Na⁺ homeostasis in brain gray matter. SD induces tone alterations in resistance vessels, causing either hyperperfusion in healthy tissue; or hypoperfusion (inverse hemodynamic response = spreading ischemia) in tissue at risk. Observations from mice with genetic dysfunction of the ATP1A2-encoded α₂-isoform of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase (α₂NaKA) suggest a mechanistic link between (1) SD, (2) vascular dysfunction, and (3) salt-sensitive hypertension via α₂NaKA. Thus, α₂NaKA-dysfunctional mice are more susceptible to SD and show a shift toward more inverse hemodynamic responses. α₂NaKA-dysfunctional patients suffer from familial hemiplegic migraine type 2, a Mendelian model disease of SD. α₂NaKA-dysfunctional mice are also a genetic model of salt-sensitive hypertension. To determine whether SD thresholds and hemodynamic responses are also altered in other genetic models of salt-sensitive hypertension, we examined these variables in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRsp). Compared with Wistar Kyoto control rats, we found in SHRsp that electrical SD threshold was significantly reduced, propagation speed was increased, and inverse hemodynamic responses were prolonged. These results may have relevance to both migraine with aura and stroke.

VCAM1 Drives Vascular Inflammation Leading to Continuous Cortical Neuronal Loss Following Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion

BACKGROUND

Chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) is associated with neuronal loss and blood-brain barrier (BBB) impairment in vascular dementia (VaD). However, the relationship and the molecular mechanisms between BBB dysfunction and neuronal loss remain elusive.

OBJECTIVE

We explored the reasons for neuron loss following CCH.

METHODS

Using permanent bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (2VO) rat model, we observed the pathological changes of cortical neurons and BBB in the sham group as well as rats 3d, 7d, 14d and 28d post 2VO. In order to further explore the factors influencing neuron loss following CCH with regard to cortical blood vessels, we extracted cortical brain microvessels at five time points for transcriptome sequencing. Finally, integrin receptor a4β1 (VLA-4) inhibitor was injected into the tail vein, and cortical neuron loss was detected again.

RESULTS

We found that cortical neuron loss following CCH is a continuous process, but damage to the BBB is acute and transient. Results of cortical microvessel transcriptome analysis showed that biological processes related to vascular inflammation mainly occurred in the chronic phase. Meanwhile, cell adhesion molecules, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction were significantly changed at this phase. Among them, the adhesion molecule VCAM1 plays an important role. Using VLA-4 inhibitor to block VCAM1-VLA-4 interaction, cortical neuron damage was ameliorated at 14d post 2VO.

CONCLUSION

Injury of the BBB may not be the main reason for persistent loss of cortical neurons following CCH. The continuous inflammatory response within blood vessels maybe an important factor in the continuous loss of cortical neurons following CCH.

[Nitric oxide availability in cerebral microangiopathy]

OBJECTIVE

To develop a test of individual nitric oxide (NO) availability based on changes in erythrocyte rheological properties after incubation with a NO donor and to evaluate the role of these disorders in brain damage and development of cognitive impairment (CI) in cerebral small vessel disease (cSVD).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In 73 cSVD patients (48 (65.8%) women, mean age 60.1±6.5), the rheological properties of erythrocytes before and after incubation with 10 μmol/L L-arginine-NO donor were evaluated using a laser-optical rotating cell analyzer, and the blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability by MRI-T1 dynamic contrast.

RESULTS

Among the studied parameters of erythrocyte rheological properties, the best characteristic by ROC analysis was the rate of erythrocyte disaggregation (y-dis) after incubation with L-arginine (area under the curve 0.733 (0.609-0.856), sensitivity 67%, specificity 79%). Patients with a y-dis threshold >113 sec-1 had more severe CI, arterial hypertension, white matter lesions, and increased BBB permeability in gray matter and normal-appearing white matter.

CONCLUSION

The prolonged rate of erythrocyte disaggregation in cSVD patients after incubation with L-arginine indicates the risk for disease progression due to decreased NO bioavailability/disruption of the functional L-arginine-eNOS-NO system. This test can be used to assess individual NO bioavailability and potentially identify indications for modifying therapy with NO donors such as L-arginine. Clinical trials are needed to standardize and evaluate the efficacy of NO donor therapy in patients with cSVD and CI.

The Ties That Bind: Glial Transplantation in White Matter Ischemia and Vascular Dementia

White matter injury is a progressive vascular disease that leads to neurological deficits and vascular dementia. It comprises up to 30% of all diagnosed strokes, though up to ten times as many events go undiagnosed in early stages. There are several pathologies that can lead to white matter injury. While some studies suggest that white matter injury starts as small infarcts in deep penetrating blood vessels in the brain, others point to the breakdown of endothelial function or the blood-brain barrier as the primary cause of the disease. Whether due to local endothelial or BBB dysfunction, or to local small infarcts (or a combination), white matter injury progresses, accumulates, and expands from preexisting lesions into adjacent white matter to produce motor and cognitive deficits that present as vascular dementia in the elderly. Vascular dementia is the second leading cause of dementia, and white matter injury-attributed vascular dementia represents 40% of all diagnosed dementias and aggravates Alzheimer's pathology. Despite the advances in the last 15 years, there are few animal models of progressive subcortical white matter injury or vascular dementia. This review will discuss recent progress in animal modeling of white matter injury and the emerging principles to enhance glial function as a means of promoting repair and recovery.

Fecal microbiota transplantation and replenishment of short-chain fatty acids protect against chronic cerebral hypoperfusion-induced colonic dysfunction by regulating gut microbiota, differentiation of Th17 cells, and mitochondrial energy metabolism

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the association between gut microbiota and intestinal injury under a state of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH). Here, the effects of gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), as important metabolic products, on intestinal function and potential mechanisms after CCH were investigated.

METHODS

Rats were subjected to bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAo) to induce CCH. The gut microbiota and metabolites of SCFAs were assessed by 16S rRNA sequencing and targeted metabolomics, respectively. Transcriptomic analysis of colon tissues was also conducted. Subsequently, potential molecular pathways and differentially expressed genes were verified by western blot, immunoprecipitation, and immunofluorescence analyses. Furthermore, the integrity of the colonic barrier was evaluated by hematoxylin and eosin and mucin 2 staining and expression levels of tight junction proteins. Besides, colonic inflammation was further assessed by flow cytometry and expression levels of inflammatory cytokines. In addition, colonic mitochondrial dysfunction was analyzed via membrane potential, reactive oxygen species, electron transport chain (ETC) activities, adenosine triphosphate content, and mitochondrial ultrastructure.

RESULTS

CCH modified gut microbial composition and microbial metabolism of SCFAs, which may be associated with inhibition of mitochondrial ETC activities and oxidative phosphorylation, leading to dysregulation of mitochondrial energy metabolism. Furthermore, CCH induced differentiation of pathogenic Th17 cells, promoted the formation of complexes of interferon regulatory factor 4 and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), and increased the phosphorylation of STAT3. This was associated with an impairment of colonic barrier function and chronic colonic inflammation. In contrast, FMT and SCFA replenishment ameliorated CCH-induced gut microbial dysbiosis by increasing the intestinal content of Ruminococcus_sp_N15_MGS_57 and modulating microbial metabolism of SCFAs by increasing acetic acid contents associated with an improvment of the balance between Tregs and Th17 cells, mitochondrial ETC activities, and oxidative phosphorylation to prevent colonic inflammation and dysregulation of mitochondrial energy metabolism.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that FMT and SCFA replenishment present a promising therapeutic strategy against colonic dysfunction under a state of chronic cerebral ischemia.

Disorders of Hippocampus Facilitated by Hypertension in Purine Metabolism Deficiency is Repressed by Naringin, a Bi-flavonoid in a Rat Model via NOS/cAMP/PKA and DARPP-32, BDNF/TrkB Pathways

Individuals who are hypertensive have a higher tendency of predisposition to other genetic diseases including purine metabolism deficiency. Therefore, the search for nontoxic and effective chemo protective agents to abrogate hypertension-mediated genetic disease is vital. This study therefore investigated the repressive effect of naringin (NAR) against disorder of hippocampus facilitated by hypertension in purine metabolism deficiency. Male albino rats randomly assigned into nine groups (n = 7) were treated for 35 days. Group I: control animals, Group II was treated with 100 mg/kg KBrO₃, Group III was treated with 250 mg/kg caffeine, and Group IV was treated with 100 mg/kg KBrO₃ + 250 mg/kg caffeine. Group V was administered with 100 mg/kg KBrO₃ + 100 mg/kg haloperidol. Group VI was administered with 100 mg/kg KBrO₃ + 50 mg/kg NAR. Group VII was administered with 250 mg/kg caffeine + 50 mg/kg NAR, and Group VIII was administered with 100 mg/kg KBrO₃ + 250 mg/kg caffeine + 50 mg/kg NAR. Finally, group IX was treated with 50 mg/kg NAR. The sub-acute exposure to KBrO₃ and CAF induced hypertension and mediated impairment in the hippocampus cells. This was apparent by the increase in PDE-5¹, arginase, and enzymes of ATP hydrolysis (ATPase and AMPase) with a simultaneous increase in cholinergic (AChE and BuChE) and adenosinergic (ADA) enzymes. The hypertensive-mediated hippocampal impairment was associated to alteration of NO and AC signaling coupled with lower expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its receptor (BDNF-TrkB), down regulation of Bcl11b and DARPP-32 which are neurodevelopmental proteins, and hypoxanthine accumulation. However, these features of CAF-mediated hippocampal damage in KBrO₃-induced hypertensive rats were repressed by post-treatment with NAR via production of neuro-inflammatory mediators, attenuation of biochemical alterations, stabilizing neurotransmitter enzymes, regulating NOS/cAMP/PKA and DARPP-32, BDNF/TrkB signaling, and restoring hippocampal tissues.

A novel rat model of cerebral small vessel disease and evaluation by super-resolution ultrasound imaging

Cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD), which causes cognitive, functional and emotional decline, is related to stroke events, and it is a major cause of Alzheimer's disease. In the social context of an aging population, the incidence of CSVD is on the rise yearly, and the exact pathogenesis is still controversial and remains unclear. Exploring the pathological mechanism of CSVD on the histological level using animal models is important for the investigation of new clinical diagnostic methods and treatment options. The existing surgical CSVD model preparation methods are difficult to operate and cannot control the injury location or degree. This study used ultrasound combined with microbubbles (MBs) to induce an easy-to-operate and non-invasive animal model of CSVD with controllable location and degree. The rat model was evaluated from the perspective of histology, ethology, and imageology, respectively. In addition, we utilized super-resolution ultrasound imaging (SR-US) technology to directly observe the microvessels of the model. The histological results showed that the modeling was successful in the preset position, and neurology deficits were observed in 62.5% of 8 rats. The SR-US results of one rat showed that compared with the non-sonication region, the number of cerebral small blood vessels discovered in the sonication area was reduced (43 vs 11), the blood flow speed decreased significantly (p 0.001), and blood flow volume decreased (144.7 vs 11.7 μL/s) because of vasoconstriction. This study provides a new modeling method with controllable damage location and degree for the study of CSVD, and SR-US is found to be an effective evaluation method, which can directly assess the hemodynamic changes of CSVD in vivo.

A Novel Rodent Model of Hypertensive Cerebral Small Vessel Disease with White Matter Hyperintensities and Peripheral Oxidative Stress

Cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) is the second most common cause of stroke and a major contributor to dementia. Manifestations of CSVD include cerebral microbleeds, intracerebral hemorrhages (ICH), lacunar infarcts, white matter hyperintensities (WMH) and enlarged perivascular spaces. Chronic hypertensive models have been found to reproduce most key features of the disease. Nevertheless, no animal models have been identified to reflect all different aspects of the human disease. Here, we described a novel model for CSVD using salt-sensitive ‘Sabra’ hypertension-prone rats (SBH/y), which display chronic hypertension and enhanced peripheral oxidative stress. SBH/y rats were either administered deoxycorticosteroid acetate (DOCA) (referred to as SBH/y-DOCA rats) or sham-operated and provided with 1% NaCl in drinking water. Rats underwent neurological assessment and behavioral testing, followed by ex vivo MRI and biochemical and histological analyses. SBH/y-DOCA rats show a neurological decline and cognitive impairment and present multiple cerebrovascular pathologies associated with CSVD, such as ICH, lacunes, enlarged perivascular spaces, blood vessel stenosis, BBB permeability and inflammation. Remarkably, SBH/y-DOCA rats show severe white matter pathology as well as WMH, which are rarely reported in commonly used models. Our model may serve as a novel platform for further understanding the mechanisms underlying CSVD and for testing novel therapeutics.

Stage-Dependent Cerebral Blood Flow and Leukoaraiosis Couplings in Subcortical Ischemic Vascular Disease and Alzheimer's Disease

Background:

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and subcortical ischemic vascular disease (SIVD) have both been associated with white matter hyperintensities (WMHs) and altered cerebral blood flow (CBF) although the etiology of AD is still unclear.

Objective:

To test the hypothesis that CBF and WMHs have differential effects on cognition and that the relationship between CBF and WMHs changes with the subtypes and stages of dementia.

Methods:

Forty-two patients with SIVD, 50 patients with clinically-diagnosed AD, and 30 cognitively-normal subjects were included. Based on the Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR), the patients were dichotomized into early-stage (CDR = 0.5) and late-stage (CDR = 1 or 2) groups. CBF and WMH metrics were derived from magnetic resonance imaging and correlated with cognition.

Results:

Hierarchical linear regression revealed that CBF metrics had distinct contribution to global cognition, memory, and attention, whereas WMH metrics had distinct contribution to executive function (all p < 0.05). In SIVD, the WMHs in frontotemporal areas correlated with the CBF in bilateral thalami at the early stage; the correlation then became between the WMHs in basal ganglia and the CBF in frontotemporal areas at the late stage. A similar corticosubcortical coupling was observed in AD but involved fewer areas.

Conclusion:

A stage-dependent coupling between CBF and WMHs was identified in AD and SIVD, where the extent of cortical WMHs correlated with subcortical CBF for CDR = 0.5, whereas the extent of subcortical WMHs correlated with cortical CBF for CDR = 1–2.

Post-stroke treatment with K-134, a phosphodiesterase 3 inhibitor, improves stroke outcomes in the stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rat model-A comparative evaluation of antiplatelet drugs

Post-stroke antiplatelet therapy has been proved to reduce the risk of recurrent stroke; however, it may also increase the incidence of intracranial hemorrhage that could offset any benefits. Therefore, the balance between the benefits and risks of antiplatelet drugs is a critical issue to consider. In the present study, we have compared the effects of post-stroke administration of antiplatelet agents on functional outcomes in the stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHRSP), an established animal model that mimics human lacunar stroke and cerebral small vessel disease. We confirmed that a potent phosphodiesterase 3 (PDE3) inhibitor, K-134, significantly improved post-stroke survival rate and survival time, attenuated stroke-induced neurological deficits, and decreased the incidence of cerebral lesion caused by intracerebral hemorrhage and softening. Similarly, cilostazol showed beneficial effects, though to a lower extent with respect to the survival outcome and neurological symptoms. On the other hand, a P2Y12 inhibitor, clopidogrel significantly improved survival outcomes at the higher dose but caused massive bleeding in the brain at both low and high doses. In contrast, no hemorrhagic lesion was observed in K-134-treated SHRSPs despite its antiplatelet activity. Our findings indicate that K-134 may have a superior post-stroke therapeutic outcome in comparison to other antiplatelet drugs.

The Potential Impact of Neuroimaging and Translational Research on the Clinical Management of Lacunar Stroke

Lacunar infarcts represent one of the most frequent subtypes of ischemic strokes and may represent the first recognizable manifestation of a progressive disease of the small perforating arteries, capillaries, and venules of the brain, defined as cerebral small vessel disease. The pathophysiological mechanisms leading to a perforating artery occlusion are multiple and still not completely defined, due to spatial resolution issues in neuroimaging, sparsity of pathological studies, and lack of valid experimental models. Recent advances in the endovascular treatment of large vessel occlusion may have diverted attention from the management of patients with small vessel occlusions, often excluded from clinical trials of acute therapy and secondary prevention. However, patients with a lacunar stroke benefit from early diagnosis, reperfusion therapy, and secondary prevention measures. In addition, there are new developments in the knowledge of this entity that suggest potential benefits of thrombolysis in an extended time window in selected patients, as well as novel therapeutic approaches targeting different pathophysiological mechanisms involved in small vessel disease. This review offers a comprehensive update in lacunar stroke pathophysiology and clinical perspective for managing lacunar strokes, in light of the latest insights from imaging and translational studies.

Inflammation and the Link to Vascular Brain Health: Timing Is Brain

Inflammation and its myriad pathways are now recognized to play both causal and consequential roles in vascular brain health. From acting as a trigger for vascular brain injury, as evidenced by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, to steadily increasing the risk for chronic cerebrovascular disease, distinct inflammatory cascades play differential roles in varying states of cerebrovascular injury. New evidence is regularly emerging that characterizes the role of specific inflammatory pathways in these varying states including those at risk for stroke and chronic cerebrovascular injury as well as during the acute, subacute, and repair phases of stroke. Here, we aim to highlight recent basic science and clinical evidence for many distinct inflammatory cascades active in these varying states of cerebrovascular injury. The role of cerebrovascular infections, spotlighted by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 pandemic, and its association with increased stroke risk is also reviewed. Rather than converging on a shared mechanism, these emerging studies implicate varied and distinct inflammatory processes in vascular brain injury and repair. Recognition of the phasic nature of inflammatory cascades on varying states of cerebrovascular disease is likely essential to the development and implementation of an anti-inflammatory strategy in the prevention, treatment, and repair of vascular brain injury. Although advances in revascularization have taught us that time is brain, targeting inflammation for the treatment of cerebrovascular disease will undoubtedly show us that timing is brain.

Trehalose, a natural disaccharide, reduces stroke occurrence in the stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rat

Cerebrovascular disease, a frequent complication of hypertension, is a major public health issue for which novel therapeutic and preventive approaches are needed. Autophagy activation is emerging as a potential therapeutic and preventive strategy toward stroke. Among usual activators of autophagy, the natural disaccharide trehalose (TRE) has been reported to be beneficial in preclinical models of neurodegenerative diseases, atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction. In this study, we tested for the first time the effects of TRE in the stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHRSP) fed with a high-salt stroke permissive diet (JD). We found that TRE reduced stroke occurrence and renal damage in high salt-fed SHRSP. TRE was also able to decrease systolic blood pressure. Through ex-vivo studies, we assessed the beneficial effect of TRE on the vascular function of high salt-fed SHRSP. At the molecular level, TRE restored brain autophagy and reduced mitochondrial mass, along with the improvement of mitochondrial function. The beneficial effects of TRE were associated with increased nuclear translocation of TFEB, a transcriptional activator of autophagy. Our results suggest that TRE may be considered as a natural compound efficacious for the prevention of hypertension-related target organ damage, with particular regard to stroke and renal damage.

Synthetic VSMCs induce BBB disruption mediated by MYPT1 in ischemic stroke

Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) have been widely recognized as key players in regulating blood-brain barrier (BBB) function, and their roles are unclear in ischemic stroke. Myosin phosphatase target subunit 1 (MYPT1) is essential for VSMC contraction and maintaining healthy vasculature. We generated VSMC-specific MYPT1 knockout (MYPT1^SMKO) mice and cultured VSMCs infected with Lv-shMYPT1 to explore phenotypic switching of VSMCs and the accompanied impacts on BBB integrity. We found that MYPT1 deficiency induced phenotypic switching of synthetic VSMCs, which aggravated BBB disruption. Proteomic analysis identified evolutionarily conserved signaling intermediates in Toll pathways (ECSIT) as a downstream molecule that promotes activation of synthetic VSMCs and contributed to IL-6 expression. Knocking down ECSIT rescued phenotypic switching of VSMCs and BBB disruption. Additionally, inhibition of IL-6 decreased BBB permeability. These findings reveal that MYPT1 deficiency activated phenotypic switching of synthetic VSMCs and induced BBB disruption through ECSIT-IL-6 signaling after ischemic stroke.

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MYPT1 deficiency induces activation of synthetic VSMCs and aggravates BBB disruption

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Synthetic VSMCs release more IL-6 to destroy BBB in a contact-independent way

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MYPT1-ECSIT-IL-6 signaling pathway regulates synthetic VSMC-mediated BBB disruption

MRI-Based Investigation of Association Between Cerebrovascular Structural Alteration and White Matter Hyperintensity Induced by High Blood Pressure

BACKGROUND

High blood pressure (BP) is a common risk factor for cerebral small vessel disease including white matter hyperintensity (WMH). Whether increased BP exacerbates WMH by impacting cerebral vascular morphologies remains poorly studied.

PURPOSE

To determine the relationships among high BP, cerebrovascular morphologies, and WMH in elderly individuals.

STUDY TYPE

Cohort.

SUBJECTS

Eight hundred sixty-three participants (54.2% female) from the Taizhou Imaging Study without clinical evidence of neurologic disorders were included in the analyses.

FIELD STRENGTH/SEQUENCE

3.0 T; time-of-flight magnetic resonance angiography (TOF MRA); T2 fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR); T1 magnetization-prepared rapid gradient-echo; gradient echo T2*-weighted; diffusion tensor imaging; pulsed arterial spin labeling.

ASSESSMENT

Cerebrovascular morphologic measurements were quantified based on the TOF MRA images, including vessel density, radius, tortuosity, and branch number. WMH lesion volumes (WMHV) and WMH lesion counts (WMHC) were calculated automatically based on the T2 FLAIR images.

STATISTICAL TESTS

Multivariable linear regression analysis and path analysis with a linear single-mediator model were employed. A P value <0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

Higher BP, especially diastolic BP, was significantly correlated with lower cerebrovascular density (β = -104) and lower branch numbers (β = -0.02). Although decreased tortuosity (β = -1.25) and increased radius (β = 93.8) were correlated with BP, no significant relationship of tortuosity (β = -4.6 × 10^-4 , P = 0.58) or radius (β = 0.03, P = 0.08) with BP in small vessels was found. The proportion of small vessels decreased as BP increased (SBP: β = -6.6 × 10^-4 ; DBP: β = -9.0 × 10^-4 ). Similarly, increased WMHV and WMHC were associated with decreased vessel density (volumes: β = -24, counts: β = -127), decreased tortuosity (volumes: β = -0.08, counts: β = -0.53), and increased radius (volumes: β = 12.6, counts: β = 86.6). Path analyses suggested an association between high BP and WMHs that were mediated by cerebrovascular morphologic changes.

DATA CONCLUSION

Structural alterations of cerebral vessels induced by high BP are correlated with WMH. This result suggested that elevated BP might be one of the pathophysiological mechanisms involving in the co-occurrence of cerebrovascular alteration and small vessel disease.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

1 Technical Efficacy Stage: 1.

The Role of the Effects of Autophagy on NLRP3 Inflammasome in Inflammatory Nervous System Diseases

Autophagy is a stable self-sustaining process in eukaryotic cells. In this process, pathogens, abnormal proteins, and organelles are encapsulated by a bilayer membrane to form autophagosomes, which are then transferred to lysosomes for degradation. Autophagy is involved in many physiological and pathological processes. Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, containing NLRP3, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC) and pro-caspase-1, can activate caspase-1 to induce pyroptosis and lead to the maturation and secretion of interleukin-1 β (IL-1 β) and IL-18. NLRP3 inflammasome is related to many diseases. In recent years, autophagy has been reported to play a vital role by regulating the NLRP3 inflammasome in inflammatory nervous system diseases. However, the related mechanisms are not completely clarified. In this review, we sum up recent research about the role of the effects of autophagy on NLRP3 inflammasome in Alzheimer’s disease, chronic cerebral hypoperfusion, Parkinson’s disease, depression, cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury, early brain injury after subarachnoid hemorrhage, and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and analyzed the related mechanism to provide theoretical reference for the future research of inflammatory neurological diseases.

A model of silent brain infarction induced by endovascular intervention with balloon in cynomolgus macaques: A pilot study

Silent brain infarction is a special type of cerebral infarction, which can be detected by MRI or CT. The most patients with silent brain infarction show no symptoms, but some have mild depression, vascular dementia and other symptoms that are easily overlooked. Silent brain infarction is one of the risk factors for symptomatic cerebral infarction, it can develop into symptomatic cerebral infarction placing a heavy burden on families and society. Therefore, it's prevention and treatment should be as important as symptomatic cerebral infarction. However, the pathogenesis of silent brain infarction has not been elucidated. Studies have shown that silent brain infarction models have been established in rats and mice. But compared with other animals, non-human primates are more similar to humans in neuroanatomical structure and clinical characteristics. Therefore, this study is the first time to explore the silent brain infarction model in cynomolgus macaques. In this study, a model of silent brain infarction was established by endovascular intervention using balloon occlusion at the end of internal carotid artery for 45 min, which can lay a foundation for the future research on the pathological mechanism of silent brain infarction.

Prolonged lifespan in a spontaneously hypertensive rat (stroke prone) model following intravenous infusion of mesenchymal stem cells

Intravenous infusion of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) has been reported to provide therapeutic efficacy via microvascular remodeling in a spontaneously hypertensive rat. In this study, we demonstrate that intravenous infusion of MSCs increased the survival rate in a spontaneously hypertensive (stroke prone) rat model in which organs including kidney, brain, heart and liver are damaged during aging due to spontaneous hypertension. Gene expression analysis indicated that infused MSCs activates transforming growth factor-β1-smad3/forkhead box O1 signaling pathway. Renal dysfunction was recovered after MSC infusion. Collectively, intravenous infusion of MSC may extend lifespan in this model system.

A Vessel for Change: Endothelial Dysfunction in Cerebral Small Vessel Disease

The blood vessels of the brain are lined with endothelial cells and it has been long known that these help to regulate blood flow to the brain. However, there is increasing evidence that these cells also interact with the surrounding brain tissue. These interactions change when the endothelial cells become dysfunctional and have an impact in diseases such as cerebral small vessel disease, the leading cause of vascular dementia. In this review, we focus on what endothelial dysfunction is, what causes it, how it leads to surrounding brain pathology, how researchers can investigate it with current models, and where this might lead in the future for dementia therapies.

Chinese herbal medicine for vascular cognitive impairment in cerebral small vessel disease: A protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) is the most common etiology of vascular cognitive impairment (VCI). VCI in CSVD (CSVD-VCI) shows a progressive course with multiple stages and is also associated with dysfunctions such as gait, emotional and behavioral, and urinary disturbances, which seriously affect the life quality of elderly people. In mainland China, Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) is clinically used for CSVD-VCI and presenting positive efficacy, but the evidence revealed in relevant clinical trials has not been systematically evaluated. The purpose of this study is to assess the current evidence available for the clinical efficacy and safety of CHM for CSVD-VCI.

METHODS

A literature search of published RCTs up to April 30, 2020, has been conducted in the following 7 electronic databases: PubMed, Embase, the Cochrane Library, Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure Database (CNKI), Chinese Science and Technology Journals Database (VIP), Wanfang Database, and Chinese Biomedical Literature Service System (SinoMed). For unpublished studies, 2 clinical trial online registration websites will be searched: ClinicalTrials.gov and Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR). Only randomized controlled trials (RCTs) using CHM in the treatment of patients with CSVD-VCI, which compares CHM with no treatment, placebo, or other conventional treatments, will be included in this systematic review. Primary outcomes will be set as acknowledged scales measuring cognitive function. Secondary outcomes will involve activities of daily living, behavioral, and psychological symptoms, global performance of dementia, neurological function, biological markers of endothelial dysfunction, the clinical effective rate, and adverse events. After screening studies and extracting data, the Cochrane Collaborations tool for assessing risk of bias will be applied to assess the methodological quality of included RCTs. Review Manager Version 5.3 software will be used for data synthesis and statistical analysis. Subgroup analyses, sensitivity analyses, and meta-regression will be conducted to detect potential sources of heterogeneity. The funnel plot and Eggers test will be developed to evaluate publication bias, if available. We will perform the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) system to appraise the quality of evidence.

RESULTS

Evidence exhibited in this systematic review will provide practical references in the field of CHM treating CSVD-VCI. Moreover, our detailed appraisals of methodological deficiencies of relevant RCTs will offer helpful advice for researchers who are designing trials of CHMs in the treatment of CSVD-VCI.

CONCLUSION

The conclusion about the clinical efficacy and safety of CHM for CSVD-VCI will be provided for clinical plans, decisions, and policy developments in the full version of this systematic review.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

INPLASY202080120.

A Review of Translational Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Human and Rodent Experimental Models of Small Vessel Disease

Cerebral small vessel disease (SVD) is a major health burden, yet the pathophysiology remains poorly understood with no effective treatment. Since much of SVD develops silently and insidiously, non-invasive neuroimaging such as MRI is fundamental to detecting and understanding SVD in humans. Several relevant SVD rodent models are established for which MRI can monitor in vivo changes over time prior to histological examination. Here, we critically review the MRI methods pertaining to salient rodent models and evaluate synergies with human SVD MRI methods. We found few relevant publications, but argue there is considerable scope for greater use of MRI in rodent models, and opportunities for harmonisation of the rodent-human methods to increase the translational potential of models to understand SVD in humans. We summarise current MR techniques used in SVD research, provide recommendations and examples and highlight practicalities for use of MRI SVD imaging protocols in pre-selected, relevant rodent models.

The importance of BDNF and RAGE in diabetes-induced dementia

Diabetes-induced dementia is an emerging neurodisorder all over the world. The prevalence rates of dementia and diabetes have been gradually increasing worldwide. Diabetes has been known to lead to oxidative stress, inflammation aggravation, and hyperglycemia conditions in the brain. Various diabetic implications cause the lower secretion of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and the increase of receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), ultimately leading to both cerebrovascular dysfunction and cognitive decline. Here, we summarized the significant evidences highlighting the specific mechanisms between BDNF and RAGE and cerebrovascular dysfunction and memory function and how these relate to diabetes-induced dementia. Especially, we review that the association between BDFN and RAGE in neuroinflammation, the reduction of long-term potentiation, and the vascular implications in brain.

Defective Function of the Blood-Brain Barrier in a Stroke-Prone Spontaneously Hypertensive Rat: Evaluation in an In Vitro Cell Culture Model

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) comprises three cell types: brain capillary endothelial cells (BECs), astrocytes, and pericytes. Abnormal interaction among these cells may induce BBB dysfunction and lead to cerebrovascular diseases. The stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHRSP) harbors a defective BBB, so we designed the present study to examine the role of these three cell types in a functional disorder of the BBB in SHRSP in order to elucidate the role of these cells in the BBB more generally. To this end, we employed a unique in vitro model of BBB, in which various combinations of the cells could be tested. The three types of cells were prepared from both SHRSPs and Wistar Kyoto rats (WKYs). They were then co-cultured in various combinations to construct in vitro BBB models. The barrier function of the models was estimated by measuring transendothelial electrical resistance and the permeability of the endothelial monolayer to sodium fluorescein. The in vitro models revealed that (1) BECs from SHRSPs had an inherent lower barrier function, (2) astrocytes of SHRSPs had an impaired ability to induce barrier function in BECs, although (3) both pericytes and astrocytes of SHRSPs and WKYs could potentiate the barrier function of BECs under co-culture conditions. Furthermore, we found that claudin-5 expression was consistently lower in models that used BECs and/or SHRSP astrocytes. These results suggested that defective interaction among BBB cells-especially BECs and astrocytes-was responsible for a functional disorder of the BBB in SHRSPs.

Retinal Vascular Pathology in a Rat Model of Cerebral Small Vessel Disease

Introduction: The initial disease stages of hypertensive arteriopathy (HA) and cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), the two main forms of sporadic human cerebral small vessel diseases (CSVD), are too subtle to be detectable on clinical routine imaging. Small vessel disease (SVD) is a systemic condition, affecting not only the brain, but also other organs. The retina appears as an ideal marker for the early detection of incipient CSVD. We therefore investigated the retinal microvasculature of the spontaneously hypertensive stroke-prone rat (SHRSP), an animal model of sporadic CSVD.

Materials and Methods: The brains and retinas of 26 male SHRSP (18–44 weeks) were examined histologically and immunohistochemically for the presence of HA phenomena (erythrocyte thrombi, small perivascular bleeds) and amyloid angiopathy (AA).

Results: CAA and AA in the retina showed a significant correlation with age (CAA: rho = 0.55, p = 0.005; AA: rho = 0.89, p < 0.001). The number of erythrocyte thrombi in the brain correlated with the severity of retinal erythrocyte thrombi (rho = 0.46, p = 0.023), while the occurrence of CAA correlated with the appearance of AA in the retina (rho = 0.51, p = 0.012). Retinal SVD markers predicted CSVD markers with good sensitivity.

Conclusions: These results indicate that SVD also occurs in the retinal microvasculature of SHRSP and the prediction of cerebral erythrocyte thrombi and CAA might be possible using retinal biomarkers. This underlines the important role of the investigation of the retina in the early diagnosis of CSVD.

Clinical Features and Experimental Models of Cerebral Small Vessel Disease

Cerebral small vessel disease (SVD) refers to a group of disease conditions affecting the cerebral small vessels, which include the small arteries, arterioles, capillaries, and postcapillary venules in the brain. SVD is the primary cause of vascular cognitive impairment and gait disturbances in aged people. There are several types of SVD, though arteriolosclerosis, which is mainly associated with hypertension, aging, and diabetes mellitus, and cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) comprise most SVD cases. The pathology of arteriolosclerosis-induced SVD is characterized by fibrinoid necrosis and lipohyalinosis, while CAA-associated SVD is characterized by progressive deposition of amyloid beta (Aβ) protein in the cerebral vessels. Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been used for examination of SVD lesions; typical lesions are characterized by white matter hyperintensity, lacunar infarcts, enlargement of perivascular spaces (EPVS), microbleeds, cortical superficial siderosis (cSS), and cortical microinfarcts. The microvascular changes that occur in the small vessels are difficult to identify clearly; however, these consequent image findings can represent the SVD. There are two main strategies for prevention and treatment of SVD, i.e., pharmacotherapy and lifestyle modification. In this review, we discuss clinical features of SVD, experimental models replicating SVD, and treatments to further understand the pathological and clinical features of SVD.

Alterations of lymphocyte count and platelet volume precede cerebrovascular lesions in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats

Background: Cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) is associated with future stroke. Although pathological alteration in small vessels of patients with CSVD can be detected by neuroimaging, diagnosis of CSVD is delayed because it is an asymptomatic disease. The stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHRSP) show similar pathological features to human CSVD and develop stroke-related symptoms with advancing age.Objective: We investigated the time course of haematological parameters in Wistar rats and SHRSP.Material and Methods: Blood cells were analysed using an automated haematological analyser.Results: SHRSP develop stroke-related symptoms including onset of neurological symptoms, decreased body weight and blood brain barrier leakage between 12 and 14 weeks of age. Lymphocyte counts were gradually decreased at 3 weeks before development of stoke-related symptoms and then were further decreased after the development of stroke-related symptoms. The both mean platelet volume and large platelet ratio gradually increased at 3 weeks before the development of stoke-related symptoms. However, although SHRSP showed more microcytic red cells than Wistar rats, the trajectories of change in erythrocyte-related parameters were similar between Wistar rats and SHRSP.Conclusion: Our pilot study suggests that alterations of lymphocyte count and platelet volume predictive indicators for asymptomatic CSVD and symptomatic stroke in SHRSP.

Memory impairment in spontaneously hypertensive rats is associated with hippocampal hypoperfusion and hippocampal vascular dysfunction

We investigated the effect of chronic hypertension on hippocampal arterioles (HippAs) and hippocampal perfusion as underlying mechanisms of memory impairment, and how large artery stiffness relates to HippA remodeling. Using male spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and normotensive Wistar rats (n = 12/group), long-term (LTM) and spatial memory were tested using object recognition and spontaneous alternation tasks. Hippocampal blood flow was measured via hydrogen clearance basally and during hypercapnia. Reactivity of isolated and pressurized HippAs to pressure and pharmacological activators and inhibitors was investigated. To determine large artery stiffness, distensibility and elastin content were measured in thoracic aorta. SHR had impaired LTM and spatial memory associated with decreased basal blood flow (68 ± 12 mL/100 g/min) vs. Wistar (111 ± 28 mL/100 g/min, p < 0.01) that increased during hypercapnia similarly between groups. Compared to Wistar, HippAs from SHR had increased tone at 60 mmHg (58 ± 9% vs. 37 ± 7%, p < 0.01), and decreased reactivity to small- and intermediate-conductance calcium-activated potassium (SK/IK) channel activation. HippAs in both groups were unaffected by NOS inhibition. Decreased elastin content correlated with increased stiffness in aorta of SHR that was associated with increased stiffness and hypertrophic remodeling of HippAs. Hippocampal vascular dysfunction during hypertension could potentiate memory deficits and may provide a therapeutic target to limit vascular cognitive impairment.

URB597 protects against NLRP3 inflammasome activation by inhibiting autophagy dysfunction in a rat model of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion

Background

Previous studies reported that URB597 (URB) had therapeutic potential for treating chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH)-induced neuroinflammation and autophagy dysfunction. However, the interaction mechanisms underlying the CCH-induced abnormal excessive autophagy and neuroinflammation remain unknown. In this study, we investigated the roles of impaired autophagy in nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing (NLRP) 3 inflammasome activation in the rat hippocampus and the underlying mechanisms under the condition of induced CCH as well as the effect of URB treatment.

Methods

The CCH rat model was established by bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAo), and rats were randomly divided into 11 groups as follows: (1) sham-operated, (2) BCCAo; (3) BCCAo+autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA), (4) BCCAo+lysosome inhibitor chloroquine (CQ), (5) BCCAo+microglial activation inhibitor minocycline, (6) BCCAo+ROS scavenger N-acetylcysteine (NAC), (7) BCCAo+URB, (8) BCCAo+URB+3-MA, (9) BCCAo+URB+CQ, (10) BCCAo+URB+minocycline, (11) BCCAo+URB+NAC. The cell localizations of LC3, p62, LAMP1, TOM20 and NLRP3 were assessed by immunofluorescence staining. The levels of autophagy-related proteins (LC3, p62, LAMP1, BNIP3 and parkin), NLRP3 inflammasome-related proteins (NLRP3, CASP1 and IL-1β), microglial marker (OX-42) and proinflammatory cytokines (iNOS and COX-2) were evaluated by western blotting, and proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and TNF-a) were determined by ELISA. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) were assessed by dihydroethidium staining. The mitochondrial ultrastructural changes were examined by electron microscopy.

Results

CCH induced microglial overactivation and ROS accumulation, promoting the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and the release of IL-1β. Blocked autophagy and mitophagy flux enhanced the activation of the NLRP3-CASP1 inflammasome pathway. However, URB alleviated impaired autophagy and mitophagy by decreasing mitochondrial ROS and microglial overactivation as well as restoring lysosomal function, which would further inhibit the activation of the NLRP3-CASP1 inflammasome pathway.

Conclusion

These findings extended previous studies indicating the function of URB in the mitigation of chronic ischemic injury of the brain.

Animal Models of Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion: From Mouse to Primate

Vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) or vascular dementia occurs as a result of brain ischemia and represents the second most common type of dementia after Alzheimer’s disease. To explore the underlying mechanisms of VCI, several animal models of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion have been developed in rats, mice, and primates. We established a mouse model of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion by narrowing the bilateral common carotid arteries with microcoils, eventually resulting in hippocampal atrophy. In addition, a mouse model of white matter infarct-related damage with cognitive and motor dysfunction has also been established by asymmetric common carotid artery surgery. Although most experiments studying chronic cerebral hypoperfusion have been performed in rodents because of the ease of handling and greater ethical acceptability, non-human primates appear to represent the best model for the study of VCI, due to their similarities in much larger white matter volume and amyloid β depositions like humans. Therefore, we also recently developed a baboon model of VCI through three-vessel occlusion (both the internal carotid arteries and the left vertebral artery). In this review, several animal models of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion, from mouse to primate, are extensively discussed to aid in better understanding of pathophysiology of VCI.

Cerebral Small Vessel Disease (CSVD) - Lessons From the Animal Models

Cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) refers to a spectrum of clinical and imaging findings resulting from pathological processes of various etiologies affecting cerebral arterioles, perforating arteries, capillaries, and venules. Unlike large vessels, it is a challenge to visualize small vessels in vivo, hence the difficulty to directly monitor the natural progression of the disease. CSVD might progress for many years during the early stage of the disease as it remains asymptomatic. Prevalent among elderly individuals, CSVD has been alarmingly reported as an important precursor of full-blown stroke and vascular dementia. Growing evidence has also shown a significant association between CSVD's radiological manifestation with dementia and Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. Although it remains contentious as to whether CSVD is a cause or sequelae of AD, it is not far-fetched to posit that effective therapeutic measures of CSVD would mitigate the overall burden of dementia. Nevertheless, the unifying theory on the pathomechanism of the disease remains elusive, hence the lack of effective therapeutic approaches. Thus, this chapter consolidates the contemporary insights from numerous experimental animal models of CSVD, to date: from the available experimental animal models of CSVD and its translational research value; the pathomechanical aspects of the disease; relevant aspects on systems biology; opportunities for early disease biomarkers; and finally, converging approaches for future therapeutic directions of CSVD.

A Novel Model of Mixed Vascular Dementia Incorporating Hypertension in a Rat Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and mixed dementia (MxD) comprise the majority of dementia cases in the growing global aging population. MxD describes the coexistence of AD pathology with vascular pathology, including cerebral small vessel disease (SVD). Cardiovascular disease increases risk for AD and MxD, but mechanistic synergisms between the coexisting pathologies affecting dementia risk, progression and the ultimate clinical manifestations remain elusive. To explore the additive or synergistic interactions between AD and chronic hypertension, we developed a rat model of MxD, produced by breeding APPswe/PS1ΔE9 transgenes into the stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHRSP) background, resulting in the SHRSP/FAD model and three control groups (FAD, SHRSP and non-hypertensive WKY rats, n = 8-11, both sexes, 16-18 months of age). After behavioral testing, rats were euthanized, and tissue assessed for vascular, neuroinflammatory and AD pathology. Hypertension was preserved in the SHRSP/FAD cross. Results showed that SHRSP increased FAD-dependent neuroinflammation (microglia and astrocytes) and tau pathology, but plaque pathology changes were subtle, including fewer plaques with compact cores and slightly reduced plaque burden. Evidence for vascular pathology included a change in the distribution of astrocytic end-foot protein aquaporin-4, normally distributed in microvessels, but in SHRSP/FAD rats largely dissociated from vessels, appearing disorganized or redistributed into neuropil. Other evidence of SVD-like pathology included increased collagen IV staining in cerebral vessels and PECAM1 levels. We identified a plasma biomarker in SHRSP/FAD rats that was the only group to show increased Aqp-4 in plasma exosomes. Evidence of neuron damage in SHRSP/FAD rats included increased caspase-cleaved actin, loss of myelin and reduced calbindin staining in neurons. Further, there were mitochondrial deficits specific to SHRSP/FAD, notably the loss of complex II, accompanying FAD-dependent loss of mitochondrial complex I. Cognitive deficits exhibited by FAD rats were not exacerbated by the introduction of the SHRSP phenotype, nor was the hyperactivity phenotype associated with SHRSP altered by the FAD transgene. This novel rat model of MxD, encompassing an amyloidogenic transgene with a hypertensive phenotype, exhibits several features associated with human vascular or "mixed" dementia and may be a useful tool in delineating the pathophysiology of MxD and development of therapeutics.

Rehmannioside A attenuates cognitive deficits in rats with vascular dementia (VD) through suppressing oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis

Vascular dementia (VD) is a degenerative cerebrovascular disorder, leading to progressive decline of cognitive abilities and memory. Rehmannioside A (ReA) is isolated from Rehmanniae Radix, which exhibits protective role against various diseases. The present study was performed to calculate the possible neuroprotective effects of ReA on VD. Here, the morris water maze (MWM) test and electrophysiological recordings indicated that ReA reduced cognitive deficits. Additionally, through hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and Nissl staining, ReA attenuated the histological alterations of hippocampus in rats with VD. ReA group significantly reduced oxidative stress, inflammatory response and apoptosis in the hippocampus of rats with VD, which was linked to the activation of nuclear erythroid related factor-2 (Nrf2), while the inactivation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and Caspase-3. Further, the anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptosis abilities of ReA were confirmed in cells stimulated by hydrogen peroxide. Overall, the results above demonstrated the protective effects of ReA against cognitive deficits and indicated the potential value of ReA in the therapy of VD in future.