1
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Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses contributing to mitochondrial dysfunction: Implications for post-COVID complications. Mitochondrion 2023; 69:43-56. [PMID: 36690315 PMCID: PMC9854144 DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2023.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2022] [Revised: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondria play a central role in oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), bioenergetics linked with ATP production, fatty acids biosynthesis, calcium signaling, cell cycle regulation, apoptosis, and innate immune response. Severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) infection manipulates the host cellular machinery for its survival and replication in the host cell. The infectiaon causes perturbed the cellular metabolism that favours viral replication leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and chronic inflammation. By localizing to the mitochondria, SARS CoV proteins increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, perturbation of Ca2+ signaling, changes in mtDNA copy number, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), mitochondrial mass, and induction of mitophagy. These proteins also influence the fusion and fission kinetics, size, structure, and distribution of mitochondria in the infected host cells. This results in compromised bioenergetics, altered metabolism, and innate immune signaling, and hence can be a key player in determining the outcome of SARS-CoV infection. SARS-CoV infection contributes to stress and activates apoptotic pathways. This review summarizes how mitochondrial function and dynamics are affected by SARS-CoV and how the mitochondria-SARS-CoV interaction benefits viral survival and growth by evading innate host immunity. We also highlight how the SARS-CoV-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to post-COVID complications. Besides, a discussion on targeting virus-mitochondria interactions as a therapeutic strategy is presented.
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2
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Ghafouri F, Ahangari Cohan R, Samimi H, Hosseini Rad S M A, Naderi M, Noorbakhsh F, Haghpanah V. Development of a Multiepitope Vaccine Against SARS-CoV-2: Immunoinformatics Study. JMIR BIOINFORMATICS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 3:e36100. [PMID: 35891920 PMCID: PMC9302570 DOI: 10.2196/36100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Background Since the first appearance of SARS-CoV-2 in China in December 2019, the world witnessed the emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak. Due to the high transmissibility rate of the virus, there is an urgent need to design and develop vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 to prevent more cases affected by the virus. Objective A computational approach is proposed for vaccine design against the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein, as the key target for neutralizing antibodies, and envelope (E) protein, which contains a conserved sequence feature. Methods We used previously reported epitopes of S protein detected experimentally and further identified a collection of predicted B-cell and major histocompatibility (MHC) class II–restricted T-cell epitopes derived from E proteins with an identical match to SARS-CoV-2 E protein. Results The in silico design of our candidate vaccine against the S and E proteins of SARS-CoV-2 demonstrated a high affinity to MHC class II molecules and effective results in immune response simulations. Conclusions Based on the results of this study, the multiepitope vaccine designed against the S and E proteins of SARS-CoV-2 may be considered as a new, safe, and efficient approach to combatting the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Ghafouri
- Department of Biotechnology Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology Shahid Beheshti University Tehran Iran
| | - Reza Ahangari Cohan
- Department of Nanobiotechnology New Technologies Research Group Pasteur Institute of Iran Tehran Iran
| | - Hilda Samimi
- Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinical Sciences Institute Tehran University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | | | - Mahmood Naderi
- Digestive Diseases Research Center Digestive Diseases Research Institute Tehran University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Farshid Noorbakhsh
- Department of Immunology School of Medicine Tehran University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Vahid Haghpanah
- Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinical Sciences Institute Tehran University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
- Personalized Medicine Research Center Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinical Sciences Institute Tehran University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
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3
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Pavesi A. Prediction of two novel overlapping ORFs in the genome of SARS-CoV-2. Virology 2021; 562:149-157. [PMID: 34339929 PMCID: PMC8317007 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2021.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Six candidate overlapping genes have been detected in SARS-CoV-2, yet current methods struggle to detect overlapping genes that recently originated. However, such genes might encode proteins beneficial to the virus, and provide a model system to understand gene birth. To complement existing detection methods, I first demonstrated that selection pressure to avoid stop codons in alternative reading frames is a driving force in the origin and retention of overlapping genes. I then built a detection method, CodScr, based on this selection pressure. Finally, I combined CodScr with methods that detect other properties of overlapping genes, such as a biased nucleotide and amino acid composition. I detected two novel ORFs (ORF-Sh and ORF-Mh), overlapping the spike and membrane genes respectively, which are under selection pressure and may be beneficial to SARS-CoV-2. ORF-Sh and ORF-Mh are present, as ORF uninterrupted by stop codons, in 100% and 95% of the SARS-CoV-2 genomes, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo Pavesi
- Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area Delle Scienze 23/A, I-43124, Parma, Italy.
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4
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Karami Fath M, Jahangiri A, Ganji M, Sefid F, Payandeh Z, Hashemi ZS, Pourzardosht N, Hessami A, Mard-Soltani M, Zakeri A, Rahbar MR, Khalili S. SARS-CoV-2 Proteome Harbors Peptides Which Are Able to Trigger Autoimmunity Responses: Implications for Infection, Vaccination, and Population Coverage. Front Immunol 2021; 12:705772. [PMID: 34447375 PMCID: PMC8383889 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.705772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Autoimmune diseases (ADs) could occur due to infectious diseases and vaccination programs. Since millions of people are expected to be infected with SARS-CoV-2 and vaccinated against it, autoimmune consequences seem inevitable. Therefore, we have investigated the whole proteome of the SARS-CoV-2 for its ability to trigger ADs. In this regard, the entire proteome of the SARS-CoV-2 was chopped into more than 48000 peptides. The produced peptides were searched against the entire human proteome to find shared peptides with similar experimentally confirmed T-cell and B-cell epitopes. The obtained peptides were checked for their ability to bind to HLA molecules. The possible population coverage was calculated for the most potent peptides. The obtained results indicated that the SARS-CoV-2 and human proteomes share 23 peptides originated from ORF1ab polyprotein, nonstructural protein NS7a, Surface glycoprotein, and Envelope protein of SARS-CoV-2. Among these peptides, 21 peptides had experimentally confirmed equivalent epitopes. Amongst, only nine peptides were predicted to bind to HLAs with known global allele frequency data, and three peptides were able to bind to experimentally confirmed HLAs of equivalent epitopes. Given the HLAs which have already been reported to be associated with ADs, the ESGLKTIL, RYPANSIV, NVAITRAK, and RRARSVAS were determined to be the most harmful peptides of the SARS-CoV-2 proteome. It would be expected that the COVID-19 pandemic and the vaccination against this pathogen could significantly increase the ADs incidences, especially in populations harboring HLA-B*08:01, HLA-A*024:02, HLA-A*11:01 and HLA-B*27:05. The Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Oceania are at higher risk of AD development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohsen Karami Fath
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abolfazl Jahangiri
- Applied Microbiology Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Ganji
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Sefid
- Department of Medical Genetics, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran
| | - Zahra Payandeh
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Zahra Sadat Hashemi
- Advanced Therapy Medicinal Product (ATMP) Department, Breast Cancer Research Center, Motamed Cancer Institute, Academic Center for Education, Culture and Research (ACECR), Tehran, Iran
| | - Navid Pourzardosht
- Biochemistry Department, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran
| | - Anahita Hessami
- School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Maysam Mard-Soltani
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Dezful University of Medical Sciences, Dezful, Iran
| | - Alireza Zakeri
- Department of Biology Sciences, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Reza Rahbar
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Saeed Khalili
- Department of Biology Sciences, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, Tehran, Iran
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5
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Chazal N. Coronavirus, the King Who Wanted More Than a Crown: From Common to the Highly Pathogenic SARS-CoV-2, Is the Key in the Accessory Genes? Front Microbiol 2021; 12:682603. [PMID: 34335504 PMCID: PMC8317507 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.682603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), that emerged in late 2019, is the etiologic agent of the current "coronavirus disease 2019" (COVID-19) pandemic, which has serious health implications and a significant global economic impact. Of the seven human coronaviruses, all of which have a zoonotic origin, the pandemic SARS-CoV-2, is the third emerging coronavirus, in the 21st century, highly pathogenic to the human population. Previous human coronavirus outbreaks (SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV) have already provided several valuable information on some of the common molecular and cellular mechanisms of coronavirus infections as well as their origin. However, to meet the new challenge caused by the SARS-CoV-2, a detailed understanding of the biological specificities, as well as knowledge of the origin are crucial to provide information on viral pathogenicity, transmission and epidemiology, and to enable strategies for therapeutic interventions and drug discovery. Therefore, in this review, we summarize the current advances in SARS-CoV-2 knowledges, in light of pre-existing information of other recently emerging coronaviruses. We depict the specificity of the immune response of wild bats and discuss current knowledge of the genetic diversity of bat-hosted coronaviruses that promotes viral genome expansion (accessory gene acquisition). In addition, we describe the basic virology of coronaviruses with a special focus SARS-CoV-2. Finally, we highlight, in detail, the current knowledge of genes and accessory proteins which we postulate to be the major keys to promote virus adaptation to specific hosts (bat and human), to contribute to the suppression of immune responses, as well as to pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Chazal
- Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM), Université de Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
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6
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Jungreis I, Sealfon R, Kellis M. SARS-CoV-2 gene content and COVID-19 mutation impact by comparing 44 Sarbecovirus genomes. Nat Commun 2021; 12:2642. [PMID: 33976134 PMCID: PMC8113528 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-22905-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite its clinical importance, the SARS-CoV-2 gene set remains unresolved, hindering dissection of COVID-19 biology. We use comparative genomics to provide a high-confidence protein-coding gene set, characterize evolutionary constraint, and prioritize functional mutations. We select 44 Sarbecovirus genomes at ideally-suited evolutionary distances, and quantify protein-coding evolutionary signatures and overlapping constraint. We find strong protein-coding signatures for ORFs 3a, 6, 7a, 7b, 8, 9b, and a novel alternate-frame gene, ORF3c, whereas ORFs 2b, 3d/3d-2, 3b, 9c, and 10 lack protein-coding signatures or convincing experimental evidence of protein-coding function. Furthermore, we show no other conserved protein-coding genes remain to be discovered. Mutation analysis suggests ORF8 contributes to within-individual fitness but not person-to-person transmission. Cross-strain and within-strain evolutionary pressures agree, except for fewer-than-expected within-strain mutations in nsp3 and S1, and more-than-expected in nucleocapsid, which shows a cluster of mutations in a predicted B-cell epitope, suggesting immune-avoidance selection. Evolutionary histories of residues disrupted by spike-protein substitutions D614G, N501Y, E484K, and K417N/T provide clues about their biology, and we catalog likely-functional co-inherited mutations. Previously reported RNA-modification sites show no enrichment for conservation. Here we report a high-confidence gene set and evolutionary-history annotations providing valuable resources and insights on SARS-CoV-2 biology, mutations, and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irwin Jungreis
- MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Rachel Sealfon
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron Institute, Simons Foundation, New York, NY, USA
| | - Manolis Kellis
- MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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7
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Chakraborty S, Mallajosyula V, Tato CM, Tan GS, Wang TT. SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in advanced clinical trials: Where do we stand? Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 172:314-338. [PMID: 33482248 PMCID: PMC7816567 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has led to the focused application of resources and scientific expertise toward the goal of developing investigational vaccines to prevent COVID-19. The highly collaborative global efforts by private industry, governments and non-governmental organizations have resulted in a number of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidates moving to Phase III trials in a period of only months since the start of the pandemic. In this review, we provide an overview of the preclinical and clinical data on SARS-CoV-2 vaccines that are currently in Phase III clinical trials and in few cases authorized for emergency use. We further discuss relevant vaccine platforms and provide a discussion of SARS-CoV-2 antigens that may be targeted to increase the breadth and durability of vaccine responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saborni Chakraborty
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Vamsee Mallajosyula
- Institute for Immunity, Transplantation, and Infection, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Cristina M Tato
- Infectious Disease Initiative, Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Gene S Tan
- J. Craig Venter Institute, 4120 Capricorn Lane, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Infectious Diseases, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Taia T Wang
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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8
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Jungreis I, Nelson CW, Ardern Z, Finkel Y, Krogan NJ, Sato K, Ziebuhr J, Stern-Ginossar N, Pavesi A, Firth AE, Gorbalenya AE, Kellis M. Conflicting and ambiguous names of overlapping ORFs in the SARS-CoV-2 genome: A homology-based resolution. Virology 2021; 558:145-151. [PMID: 33774510 PMCID: PMC7967279 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2021.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
At least six small alternative-frame open reading frames (ORFs) overlapping well-characterized SARS-CoV-2 genes have been hypothesized to encode accessory proteins. Researchers have used different names for the same ORF or the same name for different ORFs, resulting in erroneous homological and functional inferences. We propose standard names for these ORFs and their shorter isoforms, developed in consultation with the Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. We recommend calling the 39 codon Spike-overlapping ORF ORF2b; the 41, 57, and 22 codon ORF3a-overlapping ORFs ORF3c, ORF3d, and ORF3b; the 33 codon ORF3d isoform ORF3d-2; and the 97 and 73 codon Nucleocapsid-overlapping ORFs ORF9b and ORF9c. Finally, we document conflicting usage of the name ORF3b in 32 studies, and consequent erroneous inferences, stressing the importance of reserving identical names for homologs. We recommend that authors referring to these ORFs provide lengths and coordinates to minimize ambiguity caused by prior usage of alternative names.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irwin Jungreis
- Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA.
| | - Chase W Nelson
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 115, Taiwan; Institute for Comparative Genomics, American Museum of Natural History, New York City, NY, 10024, USA
| | - Zachary Ardern
- Chair of Microbial Ecology, Technical University of Munich, 85354, Germany
| | - Yaara Finkel
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 76100, Israel
| | - Nevan J Krogan
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI), University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA; Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA; J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Kei Sato
- Division of Systems Virology, Department of Infectious Disease Control, Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, 1088639, Tokyo, Japan
| | - John Ziebuhr
- Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, 35392, Giessen, Germany
| | - Noam Stern-Ginossar
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 76100, Israel
| | - Angelo Pavesi
- Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Italy
| | - Andrew E Firth
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke's Hospital, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Alexander E Gorbalenya
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2300 RC, Leiden, the Netherlands; Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119899, Moscow, Russia
| | - Manolis Kellis
- Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA
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9
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Jungreis I, Sealfon R, Kellis M. SARS-CoV-2 gene content and COVID-19 mutation impact by comparing 44 Sarbecovirus genomes. RESEARCH SQUARE 2020:rs.3.rs-80345. [PMID: 33024961 PMCID: PMC7536840 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-80345/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Despite its overwhelming clinical importance, the SARS-CoV-2 gene set remains unresolved, hindering dissection of COVID-19 biology. Here, we use comparative genomics to provide a high-confidence protein-coding gene set, characterize protein-level and nucleotide-level evolutionary constraint, and prioritize functional mutations from the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. We select 44 complete Sarbecovirus genomes at evolutionary distances ideally-suited for protein-coding and non-coding element identification, create whole-genome alignments, and quantify protein-coding evolutionary signatures and overlapping constraint. We find strong protein-coding signatures for all named genes and for 3a, 6, 7a, 7b, 8, 9b, and also ORF3c, a novel alternate-frame gene. By contrast, ORF10, and overlapping-ORFs 9c, 3b, and 3d lack protein-coding signatures or convincing experimental evidence and are not protein-coding. Furthermore, we show no other protein-coding genes remain to be discovered. Cross-strain and within-strain evolutionary pressures largely agree at the gene, amino-acid, and nucleotide levels, with some notable exceptions, including fewer-than-expected mutations in nsp3 and Spike subunit S1, and more-than-expected mutations in Nucleocapsid. The latter also shows a cluster of amino-acid-changing variants in otherwise-conserved residues in a predicted B-cell epitope, which may indicate positive selection for immune avoidance. Several Spike-protein mutations, including D614G, which has been associated with increased transmission, disrupt otherwise-perfectly-conserved amino acids, and could be novel adaptations to human hosts. The resulting high-confidence gene set and evolutionary-history annotations provide valuable resources and insights on COVID-19 biology, mutations, and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irwin Jungreis
- MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Cambridge, MA
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA
| | - Rachel Sealfon
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron Institute, New York, NY
| | - Manolis Kellis
- MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Cambridge, MA
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA
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10
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Jungreis I, Sealfon R, Kellis M. SARS-CoV-2 gene content and COVID-19 mutation impact by comparing 44 Sarbecovirus genomes. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2020:2020.06.02.130955. [PMID: 32577641 PMCID: PMC7302193 DOI: 10.1101/2020.06.02.130955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Despite its overwhelming clinical importance, the SARS-CoV-2 gene set remains unresolved, hindering dissection of COVID-19 biology. Here, we use comparative genomics to provide a high-confidence protein-coding gene set, characterize protein-level and nucleotide-level evolutionary constraint, and prioritize functional mutations from the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. We select 44 complete Sarbecovirus genomes at evolutionary distances ideally-suited for protein-coding and non-coding element identification, create whole-genome alignments, and quantify protein-coding evolutionary signatures and overlapping constraint. We find strong protein-coding signatures for all named genes and for 3a, 6, 7a, 7b, 8, 9b, and also ORF3c, a novel alternate-frame gene. By contrast, ORF10, and overlapping-ORFs 9c, 3b, and 3d lack protein-coding signatures or convincing experimental evidence and are not protein-coding. Furthermore, we show no other protein-coding genes remain to be discovered. Cross-strain and within-strain evolutionary pressures largely agree at the gene, amino-acid, and nucleotide levels, with some notable exceptions, including fewer-than-expected mutations in nsp3 and Spike subunit S1, and more-than-expected mutations in Nucleocapsid. The latter also shows a cluster of amino-acid-changing variants in otherwise-conserved residues in a predicted B-cell epitope, which may indicate positive selection for immune avoidance. Several Spike-protein mutations, including D614G, which has been associated with increased transmission, disrupt otherwise-perfectly-conserved amino acids, and could be novel adaptations to human hosts. The resulting high-confidence gene set and evolutionary-history annotations provide valuable resources and insights on COVID-19 biology, mutations, and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irwin Jungreis
- MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Cambridge, MA
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA
| | - Rachel Sealfon
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron Institute, New York, NY
| | - Manolis Kellis
- MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Cambridge, MA
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA
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11
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Lamers MM, Beumer J, van der Vaart J, Knoops K, Puschhof J, Breugem TI, Ravelli RBG, Paul van Schayck J, Mykytyn AZ, Duimel HQ, van Donselaar E, Riesebosch S, Kuijpers HJH, Schipper D, van de Wetering WJ, de Graaf M, Koopmans M, Cuppen E, Peters PJ, Haagmans BL, Clevers H. SARS-CoV-2 productively infects human gut enterocytes. Science 2020; 369:50-54. [PMID: 32358202 DOI: 10.1101/2020.04.25.060350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) can cause coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), an influenza-like disease that is primarily thought to infect the lungs with transmission through the respiratory route. However, clinical evidence suggests that the intestine may present another viral target organ. Indeed, the SARS-CoV-2 receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is highly expressed on differentiated enterocytes. In human small intestinal organoids (hSIOs), enterocytes were readily infected by SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, as demonstrated by confocal and electron microscopy. Enterocytes produced infectious viral particles, whereas messenger RNA expression analysis of hSIOs revealed induction of a generic viral response program. Therefore, the intestinal epithelium supports SARS-CoV-2 replication, and hSIOs serve as an experimental model for coronavirus infection and biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mart M Lamers
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Joep Beumer
- Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Jelte van der Vaart
- Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Kèvin Knoops
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Jens Puschhof
- Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Tim I Breugem
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Raimond B G Ravelli
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - J Paul van Schayck
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Anna Z Mykytyn
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Hans Q Duimel
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Elly van Donselaar
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Samra Riesebosch
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Helma J H Kuijpers
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Debby Schipper
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Willine J van de Wetering
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Miranda de Graaf
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Marion Koopmans
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Edwin Cuppen
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Oncode Institute, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Hartwig Medical Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Peter J Peters
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Bart L Haagmans
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Hans Clevers
- Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center, Utrecht, Netherlands.
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12
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Lamers MM, Beumer J, van der Vaart J, Knoops K, Puschhof J, Breugem TI, Ravelli RBG, Paul van Schayck J, Mykytyn AZ, Duimel HQ, van Donselaar E, Riesebosch S, Kuijpers HJH, Schipper D, van de Wetering WJ, de Graaf M, Koopmans M, Cuppen E, Peters PJ, Haagmans BL, Clevers H. SARS-CoV-2 productively infects human gut enterocytes. Science 2020; 369:50-54. [PMID: 32358202 PMCID: PMC7199907 DOI: 10.1126/science.abc1669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1234] [Impact Index Per Article: 308.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) can cause coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), an influenza-like disease that is primarily thought to infect the lungs with transmission through the respiratory route. However, clinical evidence suggests that the intestine may present another viral target organ. Indeed, the SARS-CoV-2 receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is highly expressed on differentiated enterocytes. In human small intestinal organoids (hSIOs), enterocytes were readily infected by SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, as demonstrated by confocal and electron microscopy. Enterocytes produced infectious viral particles, whereas messenger RNA expression analysis of hSIOs revealed induction of a generic viral response program. Therefore, the intestinal epithelium supports SARS-CoV-2 replication, and hSIOs serve as an experimental model for coronavirus infection and biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mart M Lamers
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Joep Beumer
- Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Jelte van der Vaart
- Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Kèvin Knoops
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Jens Puschhof
- Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Tim I Breugem
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Raimond B G Ravelli
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - J Paul van Schayck
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Anna Z Mykytyn
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Hans Q Duimel
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Elly van Donselaar
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Samra Riesebosch
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Helma J H Kuijpers
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Debby Schipper
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Willine J van de Wetering
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Miranda de Graaf
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Marion Koopmans
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Edwin Cuppen
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Oncode Institute, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Hartwig Medical Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Peter J Peters
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Bart L Haagmans
- Viroscience Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Hans Clevers
- Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center, Utrecht, Netherlands.
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13
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Shukla A, Hilgenfeld R. Acquisition of new protein domains by coronaviruses: analysis of overlapping genes coding for proteins N and 9b in SARS coronavirus. Virus Genes 2014; 50:29-38. [PMID: 25410051 PMCID: PMC7089080 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-014-1139-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Accepted: 10/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Acquisition of new proteins by viruses usually occurs through horizontal gene transfer or through gene duplication, but another, less common mechanism is the usage of completely or partially overlapping reading frames. A case of acquisition of a completely new protein through introduction of a start codon in an alternative reading frame is the protein encoded by open reading frame (orf) 9b of SARS coronavirus. This gene completely overlaps with the nucleocapsid (N) gene (orf9a). Our findings indicate that the orf9b gene features a discordant codon-usage pattern. We analyzed the evolution of orf9b in concert with orf9a using sequence data of betacoronavirus-lineage b and found that orf9b, which encodes the overprinting protein, evolved largely independent of the overprinted orf9a. We also examined the protein products of these genomic sequences for their structural flexibility and found that it is not necessary for a newly acquired, overlapping protein product to be intrinsically disordered, in contrast to earlier suggestions. Our findings contribute to characterizing sequence properties of newly acquired genes making use of overlapping reading frames.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditi Shukla
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Structural and Cell Biology in Medicine, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23538 Lübeck, Germany
- Graduate School for Computing in Medicine & Life Sciences, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Rolf Hilgenfeld
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Structural and Cell Biology in Medicine, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23538 Lübeck, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
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14
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Shi CS, Qi HY, Boularan C, Huang NN, Abu-Asab M, Shelhamer JH, Kehrl JH. SARS-coronavirus open reading frame-9b suppresses innate immunity by targeting mitochondria and the MAVS/TRAF3/TRAF6 signalosome. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 193:3080-9. [PMID: 25135833 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1303196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 351] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Coronaviruses (CoV) have recently emerged as potentially serious pathogens that can cause significant human morbidity and death. The severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-CoV was identified as the etiologic agent of the 2002-2003 international SARS outbreak. Yet, how SARS evades innate immune responses to cause human disease remains poorly understood. In this study, we show that a protein encoded by SARS-CoV designated as open reading frame-9b (ORF-9b) localizes to mitochondria and causes mitochondrial elongation by triggering ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of dynamin-like protein 1, a host protein involved in mitochondrial fission. Also, acting on mitochondria, ORF-9b targets the mitochondrial-associated adaptor molecule MAVS signalosome by usurping PCBP2 and the HECT domain E3 ligase AIP4 to trigger the degradation of MAVS, TRAF3, and TRAF 6. This severely limits host cell IFN responses. Reducing either PCBP2 or AIP4 expression substantially reversed the ORF-9b-mediated reduction of MAVS and the suppression of antiviral transcriptional responses. Finally, transient ORF-9b expression led to a strong induction of autophagy in cells. The induction of autophagy depended upon ATG5, a critical autophagy regulator, but the inhibition of MAVS signaling did not. These results indicate that SARS-CoV ORF-9b manipulates host cell mitochondria and mitochondrial function to help evade host innate immunity. This study has uncovered an important clue to the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV infection and illustrates the havoc that a small ORF can cause in cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chong-Shan Shi
- B Cell Molecular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Hai-Yan Qi
- Critical Care Medicine Department, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892; and
| | - Cedric Boularan
- B Cell Molecular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Ning-Na Huang
- B Cell Molecular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Mones Abu-Asab
- Immunopathology Section, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - James H Shelhamer
- Critical Care Medicine Department, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892; and
| | - John H Kehrl
- B Cell Molecular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892;
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15
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McBride R, Fielding BC. The role of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-coronavirus accessory proteins in virus pathogenesis. Viruses 2012. [PMID: 23202509 PMCID: PMC3509677 DOI: 10.3390/v4112902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
A respiratory disease caused by a novel coronavirus, termed the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), was first reported in China in late 2002. The subsequent efficient human-to-human transmission of this virus eventually affected more than 30 countries worldwide, resulting in a mortality rate of ~10% of infected individuals. The spread of the virus was ultimately controlled by isolation of infected individuals and there has been no infections reported since April 2004. However, the natural reservoir of the virus was never identified and it is not known if this virus will re-emerge and, therefore, research on this virus continues. The SARS-CoV genome is about 30 kb in length and is predicted to contain 14 functional open reading frames (ORFs). The genome encodes for proteins that are homologous to known coronavirus proteins, such as the replicase proteins (ORFs 1a and 1b) and the four major structural proteins: nucleocapsid (N), spike (S), membrane (M) and envelope (E). SARS-CoV also encodes for eight unique proteins, called accessory proteins, with no known homologues. This review will summarize the current knowledge on SARS-CoV accessory proteins and will include: (i) expression and processing; (ii) the effects on cellular processes; and (iii) functional studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth McBride
- Anatomy Cluster, Department of Medical Biosciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Modderdam Road, Bellville, Western Cape, 7535, South Africa;
| | - Burtram C. Fielding
- Molecular Biology and Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical Biosciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Modderdam Road, Bellville, Western Cape, 7535, South Africa
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; ; Tel.: +27-21-959-3620; Fax: +27-21-959-3125
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16
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Calvo E, DeDiego ML, García P, López JA, Pérez-Breña P, Falcón A. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus accessory proteins 6 and 9b interact in vivo. Virus Res 2012; 169:282-8. [PMID: 22820404 PMCID: PMC7114373 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2012.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2012] [Revised: 07/11/2012] [Accepted: 07/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The 3'proximal one-third of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) genome encodes the structural proteins and eight accessory proteins, including 3a, 3b, 6, 7a, 7b, 8a, 8b and 9b, varying in length from 39 to 274aa which do not share significant homology with viral proteins of known coronaviruses. The SARS-CoV protein 6 is 63 amino acids in length and has been previously involved in virus pathogenicity and replication. To further analyze this functions, the interaction of SARS-CoV protein 6 with other viral and/or cellular factors has been analyzed during SARS-CoV infective cycle. Protein 6 immunoprecipitation from extracts of SARS-CoV infected cells and mass spectrometry analysis revealed an interaction of viral proteins 6 and 9b in biologically relevant conditions. This interaction has been reinforced by co-localization of both proteins in the cytoplasm of SARS-CoV infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrique Calvo
- Unidad de Proteómica, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Madrid, Spain
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17
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Varshney B, Agnihotram S, Tan YJ, Baric R, Lal SK. SARS coronavirus 3b accessory protein modulates transcriptional activity of RUNX1b. PLoS One 2012; 7:e29542. [PMID: 22253733 PMCID: PMC3257236 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Accepted: 11/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The causative agent of severe acute respiratory syndrome, SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) genome encodes several unique group specific accessory proteins with unknown functions. Among them, accessory protein 3b (also known as ORF4) was lately identified as one of the viral interferon antagonist. Recently our lab uncovered a new role for 3b in upregulation of AP-1 transcriptional activity and its downstream genes. Thus, we believe that 3b might play an important role in SARS-CoV pathogenesis and therefore is of considerable interest. The current study aims at identifying novel host cellular interactors of the 3b protein. Methodology/Principal Findings In this study, using yeast two-hybrid and co-immunoprecipitation techniques, we have identified a host transcription factor RUNX1b (Runt related transcription factor, isoform b) as a novel interacting partner for SARS-CoV 3b protein. Chromatin immunoprecipitaion (ChIP) and reporter gene assays in 3b expressing jurkat cells showed recruitment of 3b on the RUNX1 binding element that led to an increase in RUNX1b transactivation potential on the IL2 promoter. Kinase assay and pharmacological inhibitor treatment implied that 3b also affect RUNX1b transcriptional activity by regulating its ERK dependent phosphorylation levels. Additionally, mRNA levels of MIP-1α, a RUNX1b target gene upregulated in SARS-CoV infected monocyte-derived dendritic cells, were found to be elevated in 3b expressing U937 monocyte cells. Conclusions/Significance These results unveil a novel interaction of SARS-CoV 3b with the host factor, RUNX1b, and speculate its physiological relevance in upregulating cytokines and chemokine levels in state of SARS virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhavna Varshney
- Virology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Sudhakar Agnihotram
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Yee-Joo Tan
- Department of Microbiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Ralph Baric
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Sunil K. Lal
- Virology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
- * E-mail:
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18
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Abstract
Coronaviruses infect many species of animals including humans, causing acute and chronic diseases. This review focuses primarily on the pathogenesis of murine coronavirus mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) and severe acute respiratory coronavirus (SARS-CoV). MHV is a collection of strains, which provide models systems for the study of viral tropism and pathogenesis in several organs systems, including the central nervous system, the liver, and the lung, and has been cited as providing one of the few animal models for the study of chronic demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis. SARS-CoV emerged in the human population in China in 2002, causing a worldwide epidemic with severe morbidity and high mortality rates, particularly in older individuals. We review the pathogenesis of both viruses and the several reverse genetics systems that made much of these studies possible. We also review the functions of coronavirus proteins, structural, enzymatic, and accessory, with an emphasis on roles in pathogenesis. Structural proteins in addition to their roles in virion structure and morphogenesis also contribute significantly to viral spread in vivo and in antagonizing host cell responses. Nonstructural proteins include the small accessory proteins that are not at all conserved between MHV and SARS-CoV and the 16 conserved proteins encoded in the replicase locus, many of which have enzymatic activities in RNA metabolism or protein processing in addition to functions in antagonizing host response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan R Weiss
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA
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19
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Zhou P, Li H, Wang H, Wang LF, Shi Z. Bat severe acute respiratory syndrome-like coronavirus ORF3b homologues display different interferon antagonist activities. J Gen Virol 2011; 93:275-281. [PMID: 22012463 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.033589-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The ORF3b protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) has a nuclear localization signal (NLS) at its C terminus and antagonizes interferon (IFN) function by modulating the activity of IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF3). SARS-like coronaviruses (SL-CoVs) found in bats share an identical genome organization and high sequence identity for most of their gene products. In this study, ORF3b homologues were identified from three bat SL-CoV strains. These ORF3b homologues were C-terminally truncated and lacked the C-terminal NLS of SARS-CoV. IFN antagonist activities analysis demonstrated that one SL-CoV ORF3b still possessed IFN antagonist and IRF3-modulating activities. These results indicate that different ORF3b proteins display different IFN antagonist activities and this function is independent of the protein's nuclear localization, suggesting a potential link between bat SL-CoV ORF3b function and viral pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Republic of China
| | - Hongxia Li
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Republic of China
| | - Hanzhong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Republic of China
| | - Lin-Fa Wang
- Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation Livestock Industries, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Zhengli Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Republic of China
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20
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Sharma K, Åkerström S, Sharma AK, Chow VTK, Teow S, Abrenica B, Booth SA, Booth TF, Mirazimi A, Lal SK. SARS-CoV 9b protein diffuses into nucleus, undergoes active Crm1 mediated nucleocytoplasmic export and triggers apoptosis when retained in the nucleus. PLoS One 2011; 6:e19436. [PMID: 21637748 PMCID: PMC3103500 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2010] [Accepted: 04/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND 9b is an accessory protein of the SARS-CoV. It is a small protein of 98 amino acids and its structure has been solved recently. 9b is known to localize in the extra-nuclear region and has been postulated to possess a nuclear export signal (NES), however the role of NES in 9b functioning is not well understood. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS/METHODOLOGY In this report, we demonstrate that 9b in the absence of any nuclear localization signal (NLS) enters the nucleus by passive transport. Using various cell cycle inhibitors, we have shown that the nuclear entry of 9b is independent of the cell cycle. Further, we found that 9b interacts with the cellular protein Crm1 and gets exported out of the nucleus using an active NES. We have also revealed that this NES activity influences the half-life of 9b and affects host cell death. We found that an export signal deficient SARS-CoV 9b protein induces apoptosis in transiently transfected cells and showed elevated caspase-3 activity. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE Here, we showed that nuclear shuttling of 9b and its interaction with Crm1 are essential for the proper degradation of 9b and blocking the nuclear export of this protein induces apoptosis. This phenomenon may be critical in providing a novel role to the 9b accessory protein of SARS-CoV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kulbhushan Sharma
- Virology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Sara Åkerström
- Swedish Institute for Communicable Disease Control, Solna, Sweden
| | - Anuj Kumar Sharma
- The School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Vincent T. K. Chow
- The YLL School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Shumein Teow
- The National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Bernard Abrenica
- The National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Stephanie A. Booth
- The National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- The Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Basic Medical Sciences Building, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Timothy F. Booth
- The National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- The Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Basic Medical Sciences Building, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Ali Mirazimi
- Swedish Institute for Communicable Disease Control, Solna, Sweden
| | - Sunil K. Lal
- Virology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
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21
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Abstract
Coronaviruses infect many species of animals including humans, causing acute and chronic diseases. This review focuses primarily on the pathogenesis of murine coronavirus mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) and severe acute respiratory coronavirus (SARS-CoV). MHV is a collection of strains, which provide models systems for the study of viral tropism and pathogenesis in several organs systems, including the central nervous system, the liver, and the lung, and has been cited as providing one of the few animal models for the study of chronic demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis. SARS-CoV emerged in the human population in China in 2002, causing a worldwide epidemic with severe morbidity and high mortality rates, particularly in older individuals. We review the pathogenesis of both viruses and the several reverse genetics systems that made much of these studies possible. We also review the functions of coronavirus proteins, structural, enzymatic, and accessory, with an emphasis on roles in pathogenesis. Structural proteins in addition to their roles in virion structure and morphogenesis also contribute significantly to viral spread in vivo and in antagonizing host cell responses. Nonstructural proteins include the small accessory proteins that are not at all conserved between MHV and SARS-CoV and the 16 conserved proteins encoded in the replicase locus, many of which have enzymatic activities in RNA metabolism or protein processing in addition to functions in antagonizing host response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan R Weiss
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA
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22
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Modulation of Host Cell Death by SARS Coronavirus Proteins. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE SARS-CORONAVIRUS 2010. [PMCID: PMC7176189 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-03683-5_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Both types of cell death, namely necrosis and apoptosis, are found in organs of SARS coronavirus (CoV) infected patients. The gastrointestinal tract, however, although also a target for SARS-CoV replication, is obviously not affected by cell death mechanisms. Such differences in cell death induction are paralleled by in-vitro studies. In a colon-derived cell line (Caco-2), proapoptotic proteins were down- and antiapoptotic proteins were upregulated during SARS-CoV infection. By contrast, in SARS-CoV infected Vero E6 cells, apoptosis was induced via the p38 MAPK and caspase dependent pathways. Both apoptotic pathways, although mostly the intrinsic signal transduction, can be targeted by structural as well as accessory proteins of SARS-CoV. The fact that all structural and most of the accessory proteins of SARS-CoV are implicated in apoptotic scenarios indicates the fundamental role of apoptosis in the SARS-CoV life cycle. Interestingly, at least for the nucleocapsid protein of SARS-CoV, a cell-type specific manipulation of apoptosis was confirmed.
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23
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The open reading frame 3a protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus promotes membrane rearrangement and cell death. J Virol 2009; 84:1097-109. [PMID: 19889773 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01662-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The genome of the severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) contains eight open reading frames (ORFs) that encode novel proteins. These accessory proteins are dispensable for in vitro and in vivo replication and thus may be important for other aspects of virus-host interactions. We investigated the functions of the largest of the accessory proteins, the ORF 3a protein, using a 3a-deficient strain of SARS-CoV. Cell death of Vero cells after infection with SARS-CoV was reduced upon deletion of ORF 3a. Electron microscopy of infected cells revealed a role for ORF 3a in SARS-CoV induced vesicle formation, a prominent feature of cells from SARS patients. In addition, we report that ORF 3a is both necessary and sufficient for SARS-CoV-induced Golgi fragmentation and that the 3a protein accumulates and localizes to vesicles containing markers for late endosomes. Finally, overexpression of ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (Arf1), a small GTPase essential for the maintenance of the Golgi apparatus, restored Golgi morphology during infection. These results establish an important role for ORF 3a in SARS-CoV-induced cell death, Golgi fragmentation, and the accumulation of intracellular vesicles.
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24
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Abstract
Coronavirus genomes are single-stranded positive-sense RNA that are transcribed into a nested set of 3′ coterminal subgenomic RNAs for gene expression. Members of the Coronaviridae express canonical polymerase genes, as well as structural genes, including S, E, M, and N, but also express a highly divergent set of accessory genes whose open reading frames are interspersed among the structural genes within the 3′ one-third of the viral genome. The accessory genes are thought to contain “luxury” functions that are often not required for in-vitro virus replication. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) expresses eight such accessory genes (ORF3a, -3b, -6, -7a, -7b, -8a, -8b, and -9b), the most of any known coronavirus. This chapter will review our current knowledge of expression, structure, and function of each of the SARS-CoV accessory genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil K. Lal
- Engineering & Biotechnology, International Centre for Genetic, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, 110067 India
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25
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Chan CM, Tsoi H, Chan WM, Zhai S, Wong CO, Yao X, Chan WY, Tsui SKW, Chan HYE. The ion channel activity of the SARS-coronavirus 3a protein is linked to its pro-apoptotic function. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2009; 41:2232-9. [PMID: 19398035 PMCID: PMC7108357 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2009.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2008] [Revised: 03/12/2009] [Accepted: 04/20/2009] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus (SARS-CoV) caused an outbreak of atypical pneumonia in 2003. The SARS-CoV viral genome encodes several proteins which have no homology to proteins in any other coronaviruses, and a number of these proteins have been implicated in viral cytopathies. One such protein is 3a, which is also known as X1, ORF3 and U274. 3a expression is detected in both SARS-CoV infected cultured cells and patients. Among the different functions identified, 3a is a capable of inducing apoptosis. We previously showed that caspase pathways are involved in 3a-induced apoptosis. In this study, we attempted to find out protein domains on 3a that are essential for its pro-apoptotic function. Protein sequence analysis reveals that 3a possesses three major protein signatures, the cysteine-rich, Yxx phi and diacidic domains. We showed that 3a proteins carrying respective mutations in these protein domains exhibit reduced pro-apoptotic activities, indicating the importance of these domains on 3a's pro-apoptotic function. It was previously reported that 3a possesses potassium ion channel activity. We further demonstrated that the blockade of 3a's potassium channel activity abolished caspase-dependent apoptosis. This report provides the first evidence that ion channel activity of 3a is required for its pro-apoptotic function. As ion channel activity has been reported to regulate apoptosis in different pathologic conditions, finding ways to modulate the ion channel activity may offer a new direction toward the inhibition of apoptosis triggered by SARS-CoV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chak-Ming Chan
- Laboratory of Drosophila Research, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong SAR, China
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26
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Molecular determinants for subcellular localization of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus open reading frame 3b protein. J Virol 2009; 83:6631-40. [PMID: 19403678 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00367-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses such as hepatitis C and the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) encode proteins that are distributed between mitochondria and the nucleus, but little is known about the factors that control partitioning between these sites. SARS-CoV encodes a unique accessory gene called open reading frame (ORF) 3b that, like other unique accessory genes in SARS-CoV, likely contributes to viral pathogenicity. The ORF 3b protein is 154 amino acids and is predicted to express from the second ORF in subgenomic RNA3. In this report, we have characterized the molecular components that regulate intracellular localization of the ORF 3b protein. We demonstrate unique shuttling behavior of ORF 3b, whereby the protein initially accumulates in the nucleus and subsequently translocates to mitochondria. Following nuclear localization, ORF 3b traffics to the outer membrane of mitochondria via a predicted amphipathic alpha-helix. Additionally, ORF 3b contains a consensus nuclear export sequence, and we demonstrate that nuclear export and thus mitochondrial translocation are dependent on a leptomycin B-sensitive nuclear export mechanism. We further show that ORF 3b inhibits induction of type I interferon induced by retinoic acid-induced gene 1 and the mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein. Our observations provide insights into the cellular localization of ORF 3b that may enhance our understanding of the mechanisms by which ORF 3b contributes to SARS-CoV pathogenesis. The findings reported here reveal that for multilocalized proteins, consideration of the spatiotemporal distribution may be crucial for understanding viral protein behavior and function.
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Xu K, Zheng BJ, Zeng R, Lu W, Lin YP, Xue L, Li L, Yang LL, Xu C, Dai J, Wang F, Li Q, Dong QX, Yang RF, Wu JR, Sun B. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus accessory protein 9b is a virion-associated protein. Virology 2009; 388:279-85. [PMID: 19394665 PMCID: PMC7103405 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2009.03.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2009] [Revised: 02/10/2009] [Accepted: 03/26/2009] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Eight accessory proteins have been identified in severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV). They are believed to play roles in the viral life cycle and may contribute to the pathogenesis and virulence. ORF9b as one of these accessory proteins is located in subgenomic mRNA9 and encodes a 98 amino acid protein. However, whether 9b protein is a structural component of SARS-CoV particles remains unknown. In this study, we demonstrate that 9b protein is translated from bicistronic mRNA9 via leaky ribosome scanning and it is incorporated into both virus-like particles (VLPs) and purified SARS-CoV virions. Further analysis shows that sufficient incorporation of 9b protein into VLPs is dependent upon the co-expression of E and M proteins, but not upon the presence of either S or N protein. Our data indicate that 9b protein of SARS-CoV is another virion-associated accessory protein. This finding will lead to a better understanding of the properties of the SARS-CoV 9b protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Xu
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Institut Pasteur of Shanghai, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Institutes of Biological Sciences, 225 South Chongqing Road, Shanghai 200025, China
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28
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Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus protein 6 accelerates murine hepatitis virus infections by more than one mechanism. J Virol 2008; 82:7212-22. [PMID: 18448520 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02406-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) encodes numerous accessory proteins whose importance in the natural infection process is currently unclear. One of these accessory proteins is set apart by its function in the context of a related murine hepatitis virus (MHV) infection. SARS-CoV protein 6 increases MHV neurovirulence and accelerates MHV infection kinetics in tissue culture. Protein 6 also blocks nuclear import of macromolecules from the cytoplasm, a process known to involve its C-terminal residues interacting with cellular importins. In this study, protein 6 was expressed from plasmid DNAs and accumulated in cells prior to infection by wild-type MHV. Output of MHV progeny was significantly increased by preexisting protein 6. Protein 6 with C-terminal deletion mutations no longer interfered with nuclear import processes but still retained much of the capacity to augment MHV infections. However, some virus growth-enhancing activity could be ascribed to the C-terminal end of protein 6. To determine whether this augmentation provided by the C terminus was derived from interference with nuclear import, we evaluated the virus-modulating effects of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) directed against importin-beta mRNAs, which down-regulated classical nuclear import pathways. The siRNAs did indeed prime cells for enhanced MHV infection. Our findings indicated that protein 6-mediated nuclear import blocks augmented MHV infections but is clearly not the only way that this accessory protein operates to create a milieu conducive to robust virus growth. Thus, the SARS-CoV protein 6 accelerates MHV infections by more than one mechanism.
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Narayanan K, Huang C, Makino S. SARS coronavirus accessory proteins. Virus Res 2007; 133:113-21. [PMID: 18045721 PMCID: PMC2720074 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2007.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2007] [Revised: 09/12/2007] [Accepted: 10/10/2007] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) has led to a renewed interest in studying the role of accessory proteins in regulating coronavirus infections in the natural host. A significant body of evidence has accumulated in the area of SARS-CoV and host interactions that indicate that the accessory proteins might play an important role in modulating the host response to virus infection and thereby, contribute to pathogenesis. In this review, we have compiled the current knowledge about SARS-CoV accessory proteins, obtained from studies in cell culture systems, reverse genetics and animal models, to shed some light into the possible role of these proteins in the propagation and virulence of SARS-CoV in its natural host. We conclude by providing some questions for future studies that will greatly advance our knowledge about the biological significance and contributions of the accessory proteins in the development of SARS in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishna Narayanan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX 77555-1019, United States.
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30
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Tang JW, To K, Lo AW, Sung JJ, Ng H, Chan PK. Quantitative temporal-spatial distribution of severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in post-mortem tissues. J Med Virol 2007; 79:1245-53. [PMID: 17607787 PMCID: PMC7166469 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.20873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Few post-mortem studies have been performed on patients who have died from severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). No studies have examined how the SARS-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) loads in different organs with respect to time, post-mortem. The aim of this study was to determine the quantitative temporal-spatial distribution of SARS-CoV in the post-mortem tissue samples of seven patients. Quantitation of a house-keeping gene, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) was undertaken to standardize the amount of tissue tested. SARS-CoV viral load and SARS-CoV/GAPDH RNA ratio for each organ type were related to four time durations: onset of illness to death, death to post-mortem tissue sampling, and total durations of treatment with ribavirin and hydrocortisone. The SARS-CoV/GAPDH RNA ratio remained relatively stable in most organ tissue types for all these time durations. The ratio reached the highest value of equal to or greater than one for lung and small bowel, whereas those for heart, liver, spleen, and kidney were always less than one. It is concluded that SARS-CoV viral loads in these organs remain relatively stable, post-mortem. This quantitative assessment further supports SARS-CoV has a specific tropism for the human respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, which may be related to the density of SARS-CoV receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian W. Tang
- Department of Microbiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Ka‐Fai To
- Department of Anatomical and Cellular Pathology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Anthony W.I. Lo
- Department of Anatomical and Cellular Pathology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Joseph J.Y. Sung
- Department of Centre for Emerging Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - H.K. Ng
- Department of Anatomical and Cellular Pathology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Paul K.S. Chan
- Department of Microbiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Department of Centre for Emerging Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong SAR, China
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31
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Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus gene 7 products contribute to virus-induced apoptosis. J Virol 2007. [PMID: 17686858 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01266‐07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The proteins encoded by gene 7 of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) have been demonstrated to have proapoptotic activity when expressed from cDNA but appear to be dispensable for virus replication. Recombinant SARS-CoVs bearing deletions in gene 7 were used to assess the contribution of gene 7 to virus replication and apoptosis in several transformed cell lines, as well as to replication and pathogenesis in golden Syrian hamsters. Deletion of gene 7 had no effect on SARS-CoV replication in transformed cell lines, nor did it alter the induction of early apoptosis markers such as annexin V binding and activation of caspase 3. However, viruses with gene 7 disruptions were not as efficient as wild-type virus in inducing DNA fragmentation, as judged by terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining, indicating that the gene 7 products do contribute to virus-induced apoptosis. Disruption of gene 7 did not affect virus replication or morbidity in golden Syrian hamsters, suggesting that the gene 7 products are not required for acute infection in vivo. The data indicate that open reading frames 7a and 7b contribute to but are not solely responsible for the apoptosis seen in SARS-CoV-infected cells.
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32
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Schaecher SR, Touchette E, Schriewer J, Buller RM, Pekosz A. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus gene 7 products contribute to virus-induced apoptosis. J Virol 2007; 81:11054-68. [PMID: 17686858 PMCID: PMC2045523 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01266-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The proteins encoded by gene 7 of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) have been demonstrated to have proapoptotic activity when expressed from cDNA but appear to be dispensable for virus replication. Recombinant SARS-CoVs bearing deletions in gene 7 were used to assess the contribution of gene 7 to virus replication and apoptosis in several transformed cell lines, as well as to replication and pathogenesis in golden Syrian hamsters. Deletion of gene 7 had no effect on SARS-CoV replication in transformed cell lines, nor did it alter the induction of early apoptosis markers such as annexin V binding and activation of caspase 3. However, viruses with gene 7 disruptions were not as efficient as wild-type virus in inducing DNA fragmentation, as judged by terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining, indicating that the gene 7 products do contribute to virus-induced apoptosis. Disruption of gene 7 did not affect virus replication or morbidity in golden Syrian hamsters, suggesting that the gene 7 products are not required for acute infection in vivo. The data indicate that open reading frames 7a and 7b contribute to but are not solely responsible for the apoptosis seen in SARS-CoV-infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott R Schaecher
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, 660 S. Euclid Ave., Campus Box 8230, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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von Brunn A, Teepe C, Simpson JC, Pepperkok R, Friedel CC, Zimmer R, Roberts R, Baric R, Haas J. Analysis of intraviral protein-protein interactions of the SARS coronavirus ORFeome. PLoS One 2007; 2:e459. [PMID: 17520018 PMCID: PMC1868897 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2007] [Accepted: 04/21/2007] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) genome is predicted to encode 14 functional open reading frames, leading to the expression of up to 30 structural and non-structural protein products. The functions of a large number of viral ORFs are poorly understood or unknown. In order to gain more insight into functions and modes of action and interaction of the different proteins, we cloned the viral ORFeome and performed a genome-wide analysis for intraviral protein interactions and for intracellular localization. 900 pairwise interactions were tested by yeast-two-hybrid matrix analysis, and more than 65 positive non-redundant interactions, including six self interactions, were identified. About 38% of interactions were subsequently confirmed by CoIP in mammalian cells. Nsp2, nsp8 and ORF9b showed a wide range of interactions with other viral proteins. Nsp8 interacts with replicase proteins nsp2, nsp5, nsp6, nsp7, nsp8, nsp9, nsp12, nsp13 and nsp14, indicating a crucial role as a major player within the replication complex machinery. It was shown by others that nsp8 is essential for viral replication in vitro, whereas nsp2 is not. We show that also accessory protein ORF9b does not play a pivotal role for viral replication, as it can be deleted from the virus displaying normal plaque sizes and growth characteristics in Vero cells. However, it can be expected to be important for the virus-host interplay and for pathogenicity, due to its large number of interactions, by enhancing the global stability of the SARS proteome network, or play some unrealized role in regulating protein-protein interactions. The interactions identified provide valuable material for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albrecht von Brunn
- Genzentrum, Max-von-Pettenkofer-Institut, Lehrstuhl Virologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU), München, Germany
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: (AvB); (JH)
| | - Carola Teepe
- Genzentrum, Max-von-Pettenkofer-Institut, Lehrstuhl Virologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU), München, Germany
| | - Jeremy C. Simpson
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rainer Pepperkok
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Caroline C. Friedel
- Institut für Informatik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU), München, Germany
| | - Ralf Zimmer
- Institut für Informatik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU), München, Germany
| | - Rhonda Roberts
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Ralph Baric
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Jürgen Haas
- Genzentrum, Max-von-Pettenkofer-Institut, Lehrstuhl Virologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU), München, Germany
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: (AvB); (JH)
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34
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Gu J, Korteweg C. Pathology and pathogenesis of severe acute respiratory syndrome. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2007; 170:1136-47. [PMID: 17392154 PMCID: PMC1829448 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2007.061088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 396] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is an emerging infectious viral disease characterized by severe clinical manifestations of the lower respiratory tract. The pathogenesis of SARS is highly complex, with multiple factors leading to severe injury in the lungs and dissemination of the virus to several other organs. The SARS coronavirus targets the epithelial cells of the respiratory tract, resulting in diffuse alveolar damage. Several organs/cell types may be infected in the course of the illness, including mucosal cells of the intestines, tubular epithelial cells of the kidneys, neurons of the brain, and several types of immune cells, and certain organs may suffer from indirect injury. Extensive studies have provided a basic understanding of the pathogenesis of this disease. In this review we describe the most significant pathological features of SARS, explore the etiological factors causing these pathological changes, and discuss the major pathogenetic mechanisms. The latter include dysregulation of cytokines/chemokines, deficiencies in the innate immune response, direct infection of immune cells, direct viral cytopathic effects, down-regulation of lung protective angiotensin converting enzyme 2, autoimmunity, and genetic factors. It seems that both abnormal immune responses and injury to immune cells may be key factors in the pathogenesis of this new disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang Gu
- Professor and Chairman, Department of Pathology, Dean, School of Medical Sciences, Director, Infectious Disease Center, Peking (Beijing) University, 38 Xueyuan Rd., 100083 Beijing, China.
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35
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Moshynskyy I, Viswanathan S, Vasilenko N, Lobanov V, Petric M, Babiuk LA, Zakhartchouk AN. Intracellular localization of the SARS coronavirus protein 9b: evidence of active export from the nucleus. Virus Res 2007; 127:116-21. [PMID: 17448558 PMCID: PMC7114319 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2007.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2007] [Revised: 03/08/2007] [Accepted: 03/14/2007] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Open reading frame 9b (ORF 9b) encodes a 98 amino acid group-specific protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (CoV). It has no homology with known proteins and its function in SARS CoV replication has not been determined. The N-terminal part of the 9b protein was used to raise polyclonal antibodies in rabbits, and these antibodies could detect 9b protein in infected cells. We analyzed the sub-cellular localization of recombinant 9b protein using fluorescence microscopy of live transfected cells and indirect immunofluorescence of transfected fixed cells. Our findings indicate that the 9b protein is exported outside of a cell nucleus and localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum. Our data also suggest that the 46-LRLGSQLSL-54 amino acid sequence of 9b functions as a nuclear export signal (NES).
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Moshynskyy
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization (VIDO), University of Saskatchewan, 120 Veterinary Road, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada
| | - Sathiyanarayanan Viswanathan
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization (VIDO), University of Saskatchewan, 120 Veterinary Road, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada
| | - Natalia Vasilenko
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization (VIDO), University of Saskatchewan, 120 Veterinary Road, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada
| | - Vladislav Lobanov
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization (VIDO), University of Saskatchewan, 120 Veterinary Road, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada
| | - Martin Petric
- The University of British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4R4, Canada
| | - Lorne A. Babiuk
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization (VIDO), University of Saskatchewan, 120 Veterinary Road, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada
| | - Alexander N. Zakhartchouk
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization (VIDO), University of Saskatchewan, 120 Veterinary Road, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 306 966 1570; fax: +1 306 966 7478.
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36
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Schaecher SR, Mackenzie JM, Pekosz A. The ORF7b protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) is expressed in virus-infected cells and incorporated into SARS-CoV particles. J Virol 2007; 81:718-31. [PMID: 17079322 PMCID: PMC1797472 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01691-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2006] [Accepted: 10/16/2006] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Coronavirus replication is facilitated by a number of highly conserved viral proteins. The viruses also encode accessory genes, which are virus group specific and believed to play roles in virus replication and pathogenesis in vivo. Of the eight putative accessory proteins encoded by the severe acute respiratory distress syndrome associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV), only two-open reading frame 3a (ORF3a) and ORF7a-have been identified in virus-infected cells to date. The ORF7b protein is a putative viral accessory protein encoded on subgenomic (sg) RNA 7. The ORF7b initiation codon overlaps the ORF7a stop codon in a -1 shifted ORF. We demonstrate that the ORF7b protein is expressed in virus-infected cell lysates and from a cDNA encoding the gene 7 coding region, indicating that the sgRNA7 is bicistronic. The translation of ORF7b appears to be mediated by ribosome leaky scanning, and the protein has biochemical properties consistent with that of an integral membrane protein. ORF7b localizes to the Golgi compartment and is incorporated into SARS-CoV particles. We therefore conclude that the ORF7b protein is not only an accessory protein but a structural component of the SARS-CoV virion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott R Schaecher
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, Campus Box 8230, 660 S. Euclid Ave., St. Louis, MO 63110-1093, USA
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Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is caused by a coronavirus (CoV), SARSCoV. SARS-CoV belongs to the family Coronaviridae, which are enveloped RNA viruses in the order Nidovirales. Global research efforts are continuing to increase the understanding of the virus, the pathogenesis of the disease it causes (SARS), and the “heterogeneity of individual infectiousness” as well as shedding light on how to prepare for other emerging viral diseases. Promising drugs and vaccines have been identified. The milestones achieved have resulted from a truly international effort. Molecular studies dissected the adaptation of this virus as it jumped from an intermediary animal, the civet, to humans, thus providing valuable insights into processes of molecular emergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommy R Tong
- Department of Pathology, Princess Margaret Hospital, Laichikok, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
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38
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Kanzawa N, Nishigaki K, Hayashi T, Ishii Y, Furukawa S, Niiro A, Yasui F, Kohara M, Morita K, Matsushima K, Le MQ, Masuda T, Kannagi M. Augmentation of chemokine production by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 3a/X1 and 7a/X4 proteins through NF-kappaB activation. FEBS Lett 2006; 580:6807-12. [PMID: 17141229 PMCID: PMC7094718 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2006.11.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2006] [Revised: 11/06/2006] [Accepted: 11/16/2006] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is characterized by rapidly progressing respiratory failure resembling acute/adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) associated with uncontrolled inflammatory responses. Here, we demonstrated that, among five accessory proteins of SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) tested, 3a/X1 and 7a/X4 were capable of activating nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and significantly enhanced interleukin 8 (IL-8) promoter activity. Furthermore, 3a/X1 and 7a/X4 expression in A549 cells enhanced production of inflammatory chemokines that were known to be up-regulated in SARS-CoV infection. Our results suggest potential involvement of 3a/X1 and 7a/X4 proteins in the pathological inflammatory responses in SARS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriyuki Kanzawa
- Department of Immunotherapeutics, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Graduate School, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
| | - Kazuo Nishigaki
- Department of Immunotherapeutics, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Graduate School, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
| | - Takaya Hayashi
- Department of Immunotherapeutics, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Graduate School, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
| | - Yuichi Ishii
- Department of Immunotherapeutics, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Graduate School, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
| | - Souichi Furukawa
- Department of Immunotherapeutics, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Graduate School, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
| | - Ayako Niiro
- Department of Immunotherapeutics, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Graduate School, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
| | - Fumihiko Yasui
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, The Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo 113-8613, Japan
| | - Michinori Kohara
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, The Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo 113-8613, Japan
| | - Kouichi Morita
- Department of Virology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan
| | - Kouji Matsushima
- Department of Molecular Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Mai Quynh Le
- Department of Virology, National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology (NIHE), Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Takao Masuda
- Department of Immunotherapeutics, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Graduate School, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
| | - Mari Kannagi
- Department of Immunotherapeutics, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Graduate School, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
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Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus open reading frame (ORF) 3b, ORF 6, and nucleocapsid proteins function as interferon antagonists. J Virol 2006. [PMID: 17108024 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01782‐06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) is highly pathogenic in humans, with a death rate near 10%. This high pathogenicity suggests that SARS-CoV has developed mechanisms to overcome the host innate immune response. It has now been determined that SARS-CoV open reading frame (ORF) 3b, ORF 6, and N proteins antagonize interferon, a key component of the innate immune response. All three proteins inhibit the expression of beta interferon (IFN-beta), and further examination revealed that these SARS-CoV proteins inhibit a key protein necessary for the expression of IFN-beta, IRF-3. N protein dramatically inhibited expression from an NF-kappaB-responsive promoter. All three proteins were able to inhibit expression from an interferon-stimulated response element (ISRE) promoter after infection with Sendai virus, while only ORF 3b and ORF 6 proteins were able to inhibit expression from the ISRE promoter after treatment with interferon. This indicates that N protein inhibits only the synthesis of interferon, while ORF 3b and ORF 6 proteins inhibit both interferon synthesis and signaling. ORF 6 protein, but not ORF 3b or N protein, inhibited nuclear translocation but not phosphorylation of STAT1. Thus, it appears that these three interferon antagonists of SARS-CoV inhibit the interferon response by different mechanisms.
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40
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Tangudu C, Olivares H, Netland J, Perlman S, Gallagher T. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus protein 6 accelerates murine coronavirus infections. J Virol 2006; 81:1220-9. [PMID: 17108045 PMCID: PMC1797517 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01515-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
One or more of the unique 3'-proximal open reading frames (ORFs) of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus may encode determinants of virus virulence. A prime candidate is ORF6, which encodes a 63-amino-acid membrane-associated peptide that can dramatically increase the lethality of an otherwise attenuated JHM strain of murine coronavirus (L. Pewe, H. Zhou, J. Netland, C. Tangudu, H. Olivares, L. Shi, D. Look, T. Gallagher, and S. Perlman, J. Virol. 79:11335-11342, 2005). To discern virulence mechanisms, we compared the in vitro growth properties of rJ.6, a recombinant JHM expressing the SARS peptide, with isogenic rJ.6-KO, which has an inactive ORF containing a mutated initiation codon and a termination codon at internal position 27. The rJ.6 infections proceeded rapidly, secreting progeny about 1.5 h earlier than rJ.6-KO infections did. The rJ.6 infections were also set apart by early viral protein accumulation and by robust expansion via syncytia, a characteristic feature of JHM virus dissemination. We found no evidence for protein 6 operating at the virus entry or assembly stage, as virions from either infection were indistinguishable. Rather, protein 6 appeared to operate by fostering viral RNA and protein synthesis, as RNA quantifications by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR revealed viral RNA levels in the rJ.6 cultures that were five to eight times higher than those lacking protein 6. Furthermore, protein 6 coimmunoprecipitated with viral RNAs and colocalized on cytoplasmic vesicles with replicating viral RNAs. The SARS coronavirus encodes a novel membrane protein 6 that can accelerate replication of a related mouse virus, a property that may explain its ability to increase in vivo virus virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandra Tangudu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Medical Center, 2160 South First Avenue, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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41
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Kopecky-Bromberg SA, Martínez-Sobrido L, Frieman M, Baric RA, Palese P. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus open reading frame (ORF) 3b, ORF 6, and nucleocapsid proteins function as interferon antagonists. J Virol 2006; 81:548-57. [PMID: 17108024 PMCID: PMC1797484 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01782-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 526] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) is highly pathogenic in humans, with a death rate near 10%. This high pathogenicity suggests that SARS-CoV has developed mechanisms to overcome the host innate immune response. It has now been determined that SARS-CoV open reading frame (ORF) 3b, ORF 6, and N proteins antagonize interferon, a key component of the innate immune response. All three proteins inhibit the expression of beta interferon (IFN-beta), and further examination revealed that these SARS-CoV proteins inhibit a key protein necessary for the expression of IFN-beta, IRF-3. N protein dramatically inhibited expression from an NF-kappaB-responsive promoter. All three proteins were able to inhibit expression from an interferon-stimulated response element (ISRE) promoter after infection with Sendai virus, while only ORF 3b and ORF 6 proteins were able to inhibit expression from the ISRE promoter after treatment with interferon. This indicates that N protein inhibits only the synthesis of interferon, while ORF 3b and ORF 6 proteins inhibit both interferon synthesis and signaling. ORF 6 protein, but not ORF 3b or N protein, inhibited nuclear translocation but not phosphorylation of STAT1. Thus, it appears that these three interferon antagonists of SARS-CoV inhibit the interferon response by different mechanisms.
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Åkerström S, Mirazimi A, Tan YJ. Inhibition of SARS-CoV replication cycle by small interference RNAs silencing specific SARS proteins, 7a/7b, 3a/3b and S. Antiviral Res 2006; 73:219-27. [PMID: 17112601 PMCID: PMC7114101 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2006.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2006] [Revised: 10/09/2006] [Accepted: 10/17/2006] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS CoV) genome has 14 potential open reading frames (ORFs). The first ORF is translated from the full-length genomic mRNA while the remaining ORFs are translated from eight subgeomic RNAs (sgRNAs). In this study, we designed small interference RNAs (siRNAs) targeting sgRNA 2, 3 and 7 and tested their efficiency and specificity in silencing the protein translated from the targeted sgRNA. Our results demonstrated that siRNA 7 could inhibit sgRNA 7, which showed 19/19 nucleotides (nt) matching, and sgRNA 8, which showed 18/19 nt matching; but, it did not inhibit the full-length genomic mRNA which showed 17/19 nt matching. Overall, each of the siRNAs can inhibit the targeted sgRNA without affecting the full-length genomic mRNA or the other sgRNAs that showed mismatch of two or more nt. Thus, siRNA could be designed so as to knockdown the expression of viral protein(s) from a targeted sgRNA during viral infection, thereby allowing the contribution of individual viral proteins to viral infection to be delineated. When Vero E6 cells expressing siRNA 2, 3 or 7 were infected with SARS-CoV, a significant reduction in the yield of progeny virus was observed. Indirect immunofluorescence assays showed that in the infected cells expressing each of the siRNAs, there was aspecific silencing of S, 3a and 7a, respectively, but the expression of nucleocapsid protein was not affected. Thus, our data suggests that the accessory proteins, i.e. 3a and 7a, could play an important role during the replication cycle of the SARS-CoV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Åkerström
- Center for Microbiological Preparedness, Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, SE-171 82 Solna, Sweden
| | - Ali Mirazimi
- Center for Microbiological Preparedness, Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, SE-171 82 Solna, Sweden
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 8 457 25 73; fax: +46 8 30 79 57.
| | - Yee-Joo Tan
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 61 Biopolis Drive, 138673 Singapore, Singapore
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The ORF7b protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) is expressed in virus-infected cells and incorporated into SARS-CoV particles. J Virol 2006. [PMID: 17079322 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01691‐06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Coronavirus replication is facilitated by a number of highly conserved viral proteins. The viruses also encode accessory genes, which are virus group specific and believed to play roles in virus replication and pathogenesis in vivo. Of the eight putative accessory proteins encoded by the severe acute respiratory distress syndrome associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV), only two-open reading frame 3a (ORF3a) and ORF7a-have been identified in virus-infected cells to date. The ORF7b protein is a putative viral accessory protein encoded on subgenomic (sg) RNA 7. The ORF7b initiation codon overlaps the ORF7a stop codon in a -1 shifted ORF. We demonstrate that the ORF7b protein is expressed in virus-infected cell lysates and from a cDNA encoding the gene 7 coding region, indicating that the sgRNA7 is bicistronic. The translation of ORF7b appears to be mediated by ribosome leaky scanning, and the protein has biochemical properties consistent with that of an integral membrane protein. ORF7b localizes to the Golgi compartment and is incorporated into SARS-CoV particles. We therefore conclude that the ORF7b protein is not only an accessory protein but a structural component of the SARS-CoV virion.
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Khan S, Fielding BC, Tan TH, Chou CF, Shen S, Lim SG, Hong W, Tan YJ. Over-expression of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 3b protein induces both apoptosis and necrosis in Vero E6 cells. Virus Res 2006; 122:20-7. [PMID: 16965829 PMCID: PMC7114230 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2006.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2006] [Revised: 05/24/2006] [Accepted: 06/07/2006] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The genome of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus encodes for eight accessory viral proteins with no known homologues in other coronaviruses. One of these is the 3b protein, which is encoded by the second open reading frame in subgenomic RNA 3 and contains 154 amino acids. Here, a detailed time-course study was performed to compare the apoptosis and necrosis profiles induced by full-length 3b, a 3b mutant that was deleted by 30 amino acids from the C terminus (3bΔ124-154) and the classical apoptosis inducer, Bax. Our results showed that Vero E6 cells transfected with a construct for expressing 3b underwent necrosis as early as 6 h after transfection and underwent simultaneous necrosis and apoptosis at later time-points. At all the time-points analysed, the apoptosis induced by the expression of 3b was less than the level induced by Bax but the level of necrosis was comparable. The 3bΔ124-154 mutant behaves in a similar manner indicating that the localization of the 3b protein does not seems to be important for the cell-death pathways since full-length 3b is localized predominantly to the nucleolus, while the mutant is found to be concentrated in the peri-nuclear regions. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the induction of necrosis by a SARS-CoV protein.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Yee-Joo Tan
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +65 65869625; fax: +65 67791117.
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Åkerström S, Tan YJ, Mirazimi A. Amino acids 15-28 in the ectodomain of SARS coronavirus 3a protein induces neutralizing antibodies. FEBS Lett 2006; 580:3799-803. [PMID: 16781713 PMCID: PMC7094653 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2006.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2006] [Revised: 05/29/2006] [Accepted: 06/01/2006] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A synthetic peptide corresponding to amino acids (aa) 15–28 of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS‐CoV) 3a protein was used to raise polyclonal antibodies in rabbits. This anti‐3a N‐terminal antibody could detect 3a protein in infected cells, as did an anti‐3a C‐terminal antibody previously described. The latter targeted the C‐terminal cytoplasmic domain of 3a (aa 134–274). The anti‐3a N‐terminal antibody could detect intracellular 3a as well as 3a expressed on the cell surface. Interestingly, only the anti‐3a N‐terminal antibody can inhibit SARS‐CoV propagation in Vero E6 culture although the binding affinity of the anti‐3a N‐terminal antibody was lower than the anti‐3a C‐terminal antibody.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Åkerström
- Center for Microbiological Preparedness, Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, SE-171 82 Solna, Sweden
| | - Yee-Joo Tan
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, CAVR, 61 Biopolis Drive, Singapore 138673, Singapore
| | - Ali Mirazimi
- Center for Microbiological Preparedness, Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, SE-171 82 Solna, Sweden
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46
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Tan YJ, Lim SG, Hong W. Understanding the accessory viral proteins unique to the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus. Antiviral Res 2006; 72:78-88. [PMID: 16820226 PMCID: PMC7114237 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2006.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2006] [Revised: 04/29/2006] [Accepted: 05/15/2006] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A novel coronavirus, termed the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), infected humans in Guangdong, China, in November 2002 and the subsequent efficient human-to-human transmissions of this virus caused profound disturbances in over 30 countries worldwide in 2003. Eventually, this epidemic was controlled by isolation and there has been no human infection reported since January 2004. However, research on different aspects of the SARS-CoV is not waning, as it is not known if this virus will re-emerge, especially since its origins and potential reservoir(s) are unresolved. The SARS-CoV genome is nearly 30 kb in length and contains 14 potential open reading frames (ORFs). Some of these ORFs encode for genes that are homologous to proteins found in all known coronaviruses, namely the replicase genes (ORFs 1a and 1b) and the four structural proteins: nucleocapsid, spike, membrane and envelope, and these proteins are expected to be essential for the replication of the virus. The remaining eight ORFs encodes for accessory proteins, varying in length from 39 to 274 amino acids, which are unique to SARS-CoV. This review will summarize the expeditious research on these accessory viral proteins in three major areas: (i) the detection of antibodies against accessory proteins in the serum of infected patients, (ii) the expression, processing and cellular localization of the accessory proteins, and (iii) the effects of the accessory proteins on cellular functions. These in-depth molecular and biochemical characterizations of the SARS-CoV accessory proteins, which have no homologues in other coronaviruses, may offer clues as to why the SARS-CoV causes such a severe and rapid attack in humans, while other coronaviruses that infect humans seem to be more forgiving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yee-Joo Tan
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 61 Biopolis Drive, Proteos, Singapore 138673, Singapore.
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47
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Perlman S, Dandekar AA. Glucocorticoid contribution to lymphopaenia and immunpathology in patients with SARS. Nat Rev Immunol 2006. [PMCID: PMC7096955 DOI: 10.1038/nri1835-c2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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48
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Fielding BC, Gunalan V, Tan THP, Chou CF, Shen S, Khan S, Lim SG, Hong W, Tan YJ. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus protein 7a interacts with hSGT. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006; 343:1201-8. [PMID: 16580632 PMCID: PMC7092935 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.03.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2006] [Accepted: 03/15/2006] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) 7a is an accessory protein with no known homologues. In this study, we report the interaction of a SARS-CoV 7a and small glutamine-rich tetratricopeptide repeat-containing protein (SGT). SARS-CoV 7a and human SGT interaction was identified using a two-hybrid system screen and confirmed with interaction screens in cell culture and cellular co-localization studies. The SGT domain of interaction was mapped by deletion mutant analysis and results indicated that tetratricopeptide repeat 2 (aa 125-158) was essential for interaction. We also showed that 7a interacted with SARS-CoV structural proteins M (membrane) and E (envelope), which have been shown to be essential for virus-like particle formation. Taken together, our results coupled with data from studies of the interaction between SGT and HIV-1 vpu indicated that SGT could be involved in the life-cycle, possibly assembly of SARS-CoV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Burtram C Fielding
- Collaborative Anti-Viral Research Group, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 61 Biopolis Drive, Proteos Building, Singapore 138673, Singapore.
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Abstract
The previous epidemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) has ended. However, many questions concerning how the aetiological agent, the novel SARS coronavirus (CoV), causes illness in humans remain unanswered. The pathology of fatal cases of SARS is dominated by diffuse alveolar damage. Specific histological changes are not detected in other organs. These contrast remarkably with the clinical picture, in which there are apparent manifestations in multiple organs. Both pathogen and host factors are important in the pathogenesis of SARS. The choice of specific receptors and the unique genome of the SARS‐CoV are important elements in understanding the biology of the pathogen. For the host cells, the outcome of SARS‐CoV infection, whether there are cytopathic effects or not, depends on the cell types that are infected. At the whole‐body level, immune‐mediated damage, due to activation of cytokines and/or chemokines and, perhaps, autoimmunity, may play key roles in the clinical and pathological features of SARS. Continued research is still required to determine the pathogenetic mechanisms involved and to combat this new emerging human infectious disease. Copyright © 2006 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony WI Lo
- Department of Anatomical and Cellular Pathology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Nelson LS Tang
- Department of Chemical Pathology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Center of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Ka‐Fai To
- Department of Anatomical and Cellular Pathology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
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Yang Y, Xiong Z, Zhang S, Yan Y, Nguyen J, Ng B, Lu H, Brendese J, Yang F, Wang H, Yang XF. Bcl-xL inhibits T-cell apoptosis induced by expression of SARS coronavirus E protein in the absence of growth factors. Biochem J 2006; 392:135-43. [PMID: 16048439 PMCID: PMC1317672 DOI: 10.1042/bj20050698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
One of the hallmark findings in patients suffering from SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) is lymphopenia, which is the result of massive lymphocyte death. SARS-CoV (SARS coronavirus), a novel coronavirus that has been etiologically associated with SARS cases, is homologous with MHV (murine hepatitis coronavirus), and MHV small envelope E protein is capable of inducing apoptosis. We hypothesized that SARS-CoV encodes a small envelope E protein that is homologous with MHV E protein, thus inducing T-cell apoptosis. To test this hypothesis, a cDNA encoding SARS-CoV E protein was created using whole gene synthesis. Our results showed that SARS-CoV E protein induced apoptosis in the transfected Jurkat T-cells, which was amplified to higher apoptosis rates in the absence of growth factors. However, apoptosis was inhibited by overexpressed antiapoptotic protein Bcl-xL. Moreover, we found that SARS-CoV E protein interacted with Bcl-xL in vitro and endogenous Bcl-xL in vivo and that Bcl-xL interaction with SARS-CoV E protein was mediated by BH3 (Bcl-2 homology domain 3) of Bcl-xL. Finally, we identified a novel BH3-like region located in the C-terminal cytosolic domain of SARS-CoV E protein, which mediates its binding to Bcl-xL. These results demonstrate, for the first time, a novel molecular mechanism of T-cell apoptosis that contributes to the SARS-CoV-induced lymphopenia observed in most SARS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Yang
- *Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Immunopathology, Biology of Inflammation Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
| | - Zeyu Xiong
- *Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Immunopathology, Biology of Inflammation Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
| | - Sheng Zhang
- *Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Immunopathology, Biology of Inflammation Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
| | - Yan Yan
- *Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Immunopathology, Biology of Inflammation Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
| | - Justin Nguyen
- *Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Immunopathology, Biology of Inflammation Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
| | - Bernard Ng
- *Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Immunopathology, Biology of Inflammation Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
| | - Huifang Lu
- *Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Immunopathology, Biology of Inflammation Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
| | - John Brendese
- *Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Immunopathology, Biology of Inflammation Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
| | - Fan Yang
- *Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Immunopathology, Biology of Inflammation Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
| | - Hong Wang
- *Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Immunopathology, Biology of Inflammation Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
- †Section of Atherosclerosis and Lipoprotein Research, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
| | - Xiao-Feng Yang
- *Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Immunopathology, Biology of Inflammation Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
- ‡Department of Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
- To whom correspondence should be addressed, at Department of Medicine, Biology of Inflammation Center, Baylor College of Medicine (email )
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