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Lebowitz ER, Marin CE, Orbach M, Salmaso N, Vaccarino FM, Silverman WK. Maternal FGF2 levels associated with child anxiety and depression symptoms through child FGF2 levels. J Affect Disord 2023; 326:193-197. [PMID: 36717031 PMCID: PMC10104478 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2023.01.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent research implicates fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) in anxiety and depressive symptoms of childhood. This study is the first to examine an intergenerational pathway linking FGF2 levels in mothers to FGF2 levels in children, and to the children's anxiety and depressive symptoms. METHODS We assayed serum FGF2 in 259 mothers and their children, with a range of anxiety and depressive symptoms: 194 were mothers of clinic-referred anxious and depressed children; 65 were mothers of non-referred children. We examined associations between FGF2 levels in mothers and children, and anxiety and depression symptoms. We used structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine associations between maternal and child FGF2 levels, and between maternal and child FGF2 levels and symptoms of anxiety and depression in and children. RESULTS FGF2 levels in mothers and children were significantly positively correlated. Children's FGF2 levels were significantly negatively correlated with their ratings of anxiety and depression. Results of the SEM model showed that increases in maternal FGF2 levels were significantly associated with increases in child FGF2, which in turn was associated with decreases in child anxiety and child depression, controlling for maternal anxiety and depression. LIMITATIONS We relied on self-reported ratings of anxiety and depression, and on a single measurement of FGF2 levels for each participant. CONCLUSIONS Our results point to a role for FGF2 in the intergenerational transmission of risk for, and resilience to, anxiety and depression in youth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eli R Lebowitz
- Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Anxiety and Mood Disorders Program, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
| | - Carla E Marin
- Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Anxiety and Mood Disorders Program, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Meital Orbach
- Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Anxiety and Mood Disorders Program, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Natalina Salmaso
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Flora M Vaccarino
- Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Program in Neurodevelopment and Regeneration, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Wendy K Silverman
- Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Anxiety and Mood Disorders Program, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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2
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Guma E, Bordignon PDC, Devenyi GA, Gallino D, Anastassiadis C, Cvetkovska V, Barry AD, Snook E, Germann J, Greenwood CMT, Misic B, Bagot RC, Chakravarty MM. Early or Late Gestational Exposure to Maternal Immune Activation Alters Neurodevelopmental Trajectories in Mice: An Integrated Neuroimaging, Behavioral, and Transcriptional Study. Biol Psychiatry 2021; 90:328-341. [PMID: 34053674 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to maternal immune activation (MIA) in utero is a risk factor for neurodevelopmental disorders later in life. The impact of the gestational timing of MIA exposure on downstream development remains unclear. METHODS We characterized neurodevelopmental trajectories of mice exposed to the viral mimetic poly I:C (polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid) either on gestational day 9 (early) or on day 17 (late) using longitudinal structural magnetic resonance imaging from weaning to adulthood. Using multivariate methods, we related neuroimaging and behavioral variables for the time of greatest alteration (adolescence/early adulthood) and identified regions for further investigation using RNA sequencing. RESULTS Early MIA exposure was associated with accelerated brain volume increases in adolescence/early adulthood that normalized in later adulthood in the striatum, hippocampus, and cingulate cortex. Similarly, alterations in anxiety-like, stereotypic, and sensorimotor gating behaviors observed in adolescence normalized in adulthood. MIA exposure in late gestation had less impact on anatomical and behavioral profiles. Multivariate maps associated anxiety-like, social, and sensorimotor gating deficits with volume of the dorsal and ventral hippocampus and anterior cingulate cortex, among others. The most transcriptional changes were observed in the dorsal hippocampus, with genes enriched for fibroblast growth factor regulation, autistic behaviors, inflammatory pathways, and microRNA regulation. CONCLUSIONS Leveraging an integrated hypothesis- and data-driven approach linking brain-behavior alterations to the transcriptome, we found that MIA timing differentially affects offspring development. Exposure in late gestation leads to subthreshold deficits, whereas exposure in early gestation perturbs brain development mechanisms implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Guma
- Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Computational Brain Imaging Lab, Cerebral Imaging Center, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
| | - Pedro do Couto Bordignon
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Ludmer Center for Neuroinformatics and Mental Health, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Gabriel A Devenyi
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Computational Brain Imaging Lab, Cerebral Imaging Center, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Daniel Gallino
- Computational Brain Imaging Lab, Cerebral Imaging Center, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Chloe Anastassiadis
- Computational Brain Imaging Lab, Cerebral Imaging Center, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Institute of Medical Science & Collaborative Program in Neuroscience, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Amadou D Barry
- Departments of Human Genetics and Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Ludmer Center for Neuroinformatics and Mental Health, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Emily Snook
- Computational Brain Imaging Lab, Cerebral Imaging Center, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jurgen Germann
- Computational Brain Imaging Lab, Cerebral Imaging Center, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Celia M T Greenwood
- Gerald Bronfman Department of Oncology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Departments of Human Genetics and Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Ludmer Center for Neuroinformatics and Mental Health, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Bratislav Misic
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Rosemary C Bagot
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Ludmer Center for Neuroinformatics and Mental Health, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - M Mallar Chakravarty
- Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Biological and Biomedical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Computational Brain Imaging Lab, Cerebral Imaging Center, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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Kuan PF, Clouston S, Yang X, Kotov R, Bromet E, Luft BJ. Molecular linkage between post-traumatic stress disorder and cognitive impairment: a targeted proteomics study of World Trade Center responders. Transl Psychiatry 2020; 10:269. [PMID: 32753605 PMCID: PMC7403297 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-020-00958-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Existing work on proteomics has found common biomarkers that are altered in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI). The current study expands our understanding of these biomarkers by profiling 276 plasma proteins with known involvement in neurobiological processes using the Olink Proseek Multiplex Platform in individuals with both PTSD and MCI compared to either disorder alone and with unaffected controls. Participants were World Trade Center (WTC) responders recruited through the Stony Brook WTC Health Program. PTSD and MCI were measured with the PTSD Checklist (PCL) and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment, respectively. Compared with unaffected controls, we identified 16 proteins associated with comorbid PTSD-MCI at P < 0.05 (six at FDR < 0.1), 20 proteins associated with PTSD only (two at FDR < 0.1), and 24 proteins associated with MCI only (one at FDR < 0.1), for a total of 50 proteins. The multiprotein composite score achieved AUCs of 0.84, 0.77, and 0.83 for PTSD-MCI, PTSD only, and MCI only versus unaffected controls, respectively. To our knowledge, the current study is the largest to profile a large set of proteins involved in neurobiological processes. The significant associations across the three case-group analyses suggest that shared biological mechanisms may be involved in the two disorders. If findings from the multiprotein composite score are replicated in independent samples, it has the potential to add a new tool to help classify both PTSD and MCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Fen Kuan
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Sean Clouston
- Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, Stony Book University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Xiaohua Yang
- Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Roman Kotov
- Department of Psychiatry, Stony Book University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Evelyn Bromet
- Department of Psychiatry, Stony Book University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Benjamin J Luft
- Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.
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Talaei A, Farkhondeh T, Forouzanfar F. Fibroblast Growth Factor: Promising Target for Schizophrenia. Curr Drug Targets 2020; 21:1344-1353. [PMID: 32598256 DOI: 10.2174/1389450121666200628114843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is one of the most debilitating mental disorders around the world. It is characterized by neuroanatomical or biochemical changes. The role of the fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) system in schizophrenia has received considerable attention in recent years. Various changes in the gene expression and/or level of FGFs have been implicated in the etiology, symptoms and progression of schizophrenia. For example, studies have substantiated an interaction between FGFs and the signaling pathway of dopamine receptors. To understand the role of this system in schizophrenia, the databases of Open Access Journals, Web of Science, PubMed (NLM), LISTA (EBSCO), and Google Scholar with keywords including fibroblast growth factors, dopamine, schizophrenia, psychosis, along with neurotrophic were searched. In conclusion, the FGF family represent molecular candidates as new drug targets and treatment targets for schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Talaei
- Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran,Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Tahereh Farkhondeh
- Cardiovascular Diseases Research Center, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Forouzanfar
- Neuroscience Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran,Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
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Kon E, Calvo-Jiménez E, Cossard A, Na Y, Cooper JA, Jossin Y. N-cadherin-regulated FGFR ubiquitination and degradation control mammalian neocortical projection neuron migration. eLife 2019; 8:47673. [PMID: 31577229 PMCID: PMC6786859 DOI: 10.7554/elife.47673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The functions of FGF receptors (FGFRs) in early development of the cerebral cortex are well established. Their functions in the migration of neocortical projection neurons, however, are unclear. We have found that FGFRs regulate multipolar neuron orientation and the morphological change into bipolar cells necessary to enter the cortical plate. Mechanistically, our results suggest that FGFRs are activated by N-Cadherin. N-Cadherin cell-autonomously binds FGFRs and inhibits FGFR K27- and K29-linked polyubiquitination and lysosomal degradation. Accordingly, FGFRs accumulate and stimulate prolonged Erk1/2 phosphorylation. Neurons inhibited for Erk1/2 are stalled in the multipolar zone. Moreover, Reelin, a secreted protein regulating neuronal positioning, prevents FGFR degradation through N-Cadherin, causing Erk1/2 phosphorylation. These findings reveal novel functions for FGFRs in cortical projection neuron migration, suggest a physiological role for FGFR and N-Cadherin interaction in vivo and identify Reelin as an extracellular upstream regulator and Erk1/2 as downstream effectors of FGFRs during neuron migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elif Kon
- Laboratory of Mammalian Development & Cell Biology, Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Elisa Calvo-Jiménez
- Laboratory of Mammalian Development & Cell Biology, Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Alexia Cossard
- Laboratory of Mammalian Development & Cell Biology, Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Youn Na
- Division of Basic Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Jonathan A Cooper
- Division of Basic Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Yves Jossin
- Laboratory of Mammalian Development & Cell Biology, Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
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6
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Dysregulation of Fibroblast Growth Factor 10 in the Peripheral Blood of Patients with Schizophrenia. J Mol Neurosci 2019; 69:69-74. [PMID: 31256336 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-019-01331-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The fibroblast growth factor (FGF) system has been suggested to be involved in the development of schizophrenia (SCZ). However, the potential roles of all FGFs have not been well studied in the literature. Here, we investigated the concentration of peripheral blood fibroblast 10 (FGF10) in patients with SCZ to determine whether FGF10 could serve as a biomarker for SCZ. We recruited 130 SCZ patients (57 first-episode, drug-free patients and 73 chronically medicated patients) and 111 healthy controls. Our results showed that serum FGF10 levels were significantly decreased in SCZ patients when compared with controls. Sub-group analyses revealed that both first-episode, drug-free patients and chronically medicated patients had lower levels of FGF10 than controls. Moreover, both male and female SCZ patients had significantly decreased blood FGF10 levels relative to control subjects. Using a receiver operating characteristic curve, the optimal cutoff value of FGF10 level as an indicator for diagnosis of first-onset SCZ patients was projected to be 152.3 pg/ml, which yielded a sensitivity of 0.658 and specificity of 0.649, with an area under the curve of 0.665 (95% confidence interval, 0.577-0.754). Taken together, our results are the first to demonstrate an association between FGF10 and SCZ, providing further evidence for the neurotrophic factor hypothesis of SCZ.
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7
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Prata DP, Costa-Neves B, Cosme G, Vassos E. Unravelling the genetic basis of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder with GWAS: A systematic review. J Psychiatr Res 2019; 114:178-207. [PMID: 31096178 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2018] [Revised: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To systematically review findings of GWAS in schizophrenia (SZ) and in bipolar disorder (BD); and to interpret findings, with a focus on identifying independent replications. METHOD PubMed search, selection and review of all independent GWAS in SZ or BD, published since March 2011, i.e. studies using non-overlapping samples within each article, between articles, and with those of the previous review (Li et al., 2012). RESULTS From the 22 GWAS included in this review, the genetic associations surviving standard GWAS-significance were for genetic markers in the regions of ACSL3/KCNE4, ADCY2, AMBRA1, ANK3, BRP44, DTL, FBLN1, HHAT, INTS7, LOC392301, LOC645434/NMBR, LOC729457, LRRFIP1, LSM1, MDM1, MHC, MIR2113/POU3F2, NDST3, NKAPL, ODZ4, PGBD1, RENBP, TRANK1, TSPAN18, TWIST2, UGT1A1/HJURP, WHSC1L1/FGFR1 and ZKSCAN4. All genes implicated across both reviews are discussed in terms of their function and implication in neuropsychiatry. CONCLUSION Taking all GWAS to date into account, AMBRA1, ANK3, ARNTL, CDH13, EFHD1 (albeit with different alleles), MHC, PLXNA2 and UGT1A1 have been implicated in either disorder in at least two reportedly non-overlapping samples. Additionally, evidence for a SZ/BD common genetic basis is most strongly supported by the implication of ANK3, NDST3, and PLXNA2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana P Prata
- Instituto de Biofísica e Engenharia Biomédica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal; Centre for Neuroimaging Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, 16 De Crespigny Park, SE5 8AF, UK; Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), Centro de Investigação e Intervenção Social, Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Bernardo Costa-Neves
- Lisbon Medical School, University of Lisbon, Av. Professor Egas Moniz, 1649-028, Lisbon, Portugal; Centro Hospitalar Psiquiátrico de Lisboa, Av. do Brasil, 53 1749-002, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Gonçalo Cosme
- Instituto de Biofísica e Engenharia Biomédica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Evangelos Vassos
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, 16 De Crespigny Park, SE5 8AF, UK
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8
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Kroeze Y, Oti M, van Beusekom E, Cooijmans RHM, van Bokhoven H, Kolk SM, Homberg JR, Zhou H. Transcriptome Analysis Identifies Multifaceted Regulatory Mechanisms Dictating a Genetic Switch from Neuronal Network Establishment to Maintenance During Postnatal Prefrontal Cortex Development. Cereb Cortex 2019; 28:833-851. [PMID: 28108491 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhw407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is one of the latest brain regions to mature, which allows the acquisition of complex cognitive abilities through experience. To unravel the underlying gene expression changes during postnatal development, we performed RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) in the rat medial PFC (mPFC) at five developmental time points from infancy to adulthood, and analyzed the differential expression of protein-coding genes, long intergenic noncoding RNAs (lincRNAs), and alternative exons. We showed that most expression changes occur in infancy, and that the number of differentially expressed genes reduces toward adulthood. We observed 137 differentially expressed lincRNAs and 796 genes showing alternative exon usage during postnatal development. Importantly, we detected a genetic switch from neuronal network establishment in infancy to maintenance of neural networks in adulthood based on gene expression dynamics, involving changes in protein-coding and lincRNA gene expression as well as alternative exon usage. Our gene expression datasets provide insights into the multifaceted transcriptional regulation of the developing PFC. They can be used to study the basic developmental processes of the mPFC and to understand the mechanisms of neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders. Our study provides an important contribution to the ongoing efforts to complete the "brain map", and to the understanding of PFC development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvet Kroeze
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Centre for Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Centre, 6525 EZ Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Department of Human Genetics, Centre for Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Centre, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Martin Oti
- Department of Molecular Developmental Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Carlos Chagas Filho Biophysics Institute (IBCCF), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Ellen van Beusekom
- Department of Human Genetics, Centre for Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Centre, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Roel H M Cooijmans
- Department of Molecular Developmental Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Hans van Bokhoven
- Department of Human Genetics, Centre for Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Centre, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Sharon M Kolk
- Department of Molecular Animal Physiology, Centre for Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Judith R Homberg
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Centre for Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Centre, 6525 EZ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Huiqing Zhou
- Department of Human Genetics, Centre for Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Centre, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Department of Molecular Developmental Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Kasap M, Rajani V, Rajani J, Dwyer DS. Surprising conservation of schizophrenia risk genes in lower organisms reflects their essential function and the evolution of genetic liability. Schizophr Res 2018; 202:120-128. [PMID: 30017463 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2018.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a devastating psychiatric illness that affects approximately 1% of the population. Genetic variation in multiple genes causes elevated risk for the disorder, but the molecular basis is inadequately understood and it is not clear how risk genes have evolved and persisted in the genome. To address these issues, we have identified orthologs/homologs of 344 schizophrenia risk genes (from the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium dataset) in lower organisms, including C. elegans, Drosophila and zebrafish, along with phenotypes produced by genetic disruption in C. elegans. Schizophrenia risk genes were evolutionarily conserved at significantly higher rates in C. elegans (81%) and zebrafish (88%) than genes in general for these two species (40-70%). The risk-gene equivalents were highly (~3-fold) enriched for essential genes consistent with polygenic mutation threshold models, which propose that genetic susceptibility results from the inevitable expression of harmful combinations of risk variants in the population. Most notably, numerous examples of cross-species synteny revealed how blocks of risk genes geared toward a shared biological purpose coalesced into proximity during evolution. We obtained initial evidence that schizophrenia risk genes affected different stages of development, potentially allowing differential modulation by the environment. Taken together, studies of the conservation of schizophrenia risk genes in simple model organisms provided novel insights into the molecular basis for genetic susceptibility to a complex human psychiatric disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merve Kasap
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Neuroscience, LSU Health Shreveport, USA
| | - Vivek Rajani
- Department of Psychiatry, LSU Health Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71130, USA
| | - Jackie Rajani
- Department of Psychiatry, Rosalind Franklin University, Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Donard S Dwyer
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Neuroscience, LSU Health Shreveport, USA; Department of Psychiatry, LSU Health Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71130, USA.
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10
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Arranz S, Monferrer N, Jose Algora M, Cabezas A, Sole M, Vilella E, Labad J, Sanchez-Gistau V. The relationship between the level of exposure to stress factors and cannabis in recent onset psychosis. Schizophr Res 2018; 201:352-359. [PMID: 29743139 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2018.04.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2018] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a lack of studies investigating the dose-response effect of childhood trauma, recent events and cannabis use on recent psychosis. This study aims to determine the relationship between the level of exposure to stress factors and cannabis use with psychosis and to determine the combination effect among these factors in predicting a psychotic disorder. METHODS 146 recent onset psychotic (ROP) patients and 61 healthy controls were included. Childhood trauma was evaluated using the childhood trauma questionnaire (CTQ) and recent events using the Holmes-Rahe social readjustment scale. The pattern of cannabis use was assessed by a detailed interview. A hierarchical multiple regression was run in order to determine both the cumulative and independent contribution of each factor in predicting a psychotic disorder. RESULTS The highest levels of exposure to childhood trauma and cannabis were associated with psychosis while neither low nor high recent event exposure was associated. The combined effect of risk factors yielded a significant association with psychosis (×2 = 86.76, p < .001) explaining the 49% of its variation. ROP were more likely to be exposed to one, two or three environmental factors than HC. Exposed to two or all factors were 7.5-fold and 26.7-fold more likely to have a diagnosis of psychosis, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Our study provides evidence for a cumulative and a dose-response effect of environmental factors on recent psychosis. Considering that cannabis use and stress are highly prevalent in the population with psychosis, investigations of their relationships are needed to implement targeted prevention and treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Arranz
- Hospital Universitari Institut Pere Mata of Reus, IISPV, Universitat Rovira Virgili and CIBERSAM, Spain.
| | - Nuria Monferrer
- Hospital Universitari Institut Pere Mata of Reus, IISPV, Universitat Rovira Virgili and CIBERSAM, Spain.
| | - M Jose Algora
- Hospital Universitari Institut Pere Mata of Reus, IISPV, Universitat Rovira Virgili and CIBERSAM, Spain.
| | - Angel Cabezas
- Hospital Universitari Institut Pere Mata of Reus, IISPV, Universitat Rovira Virgili and CIBERSAM, Spain.
| | - Montse Sole
- Hospital Universitari Institut Pere Mata of Reus, IISPV, Universitat Rovira Virgili and CIBERSAM, Spain.
| | - E Vilella
- Hospital Universitari Institut Pere Mata of Reus, IISPV, Universitat Rovira Virgili and CIBERSAM, Spain
| | - J Labad
- Department of Mental Health, Parc Taulí Hospital Universitari, Institut d'Investigació Sanitària Parc Taulí (I3PT), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, CIBERSAM, Sabadell, Spain
| | - Vanessa Sanchez-Gistau
- Hospital Universitari Institut Pere Mata of Reus, IISPV, Universitat Rovira Virgili and CIBERSAM, Spain.
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11
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Chang H, Li L, Peng T, Grigoroiu-Serbanescu M, Bergen SE, Landén M, Hultman CM, Forstner AJ, Strohmaier J, Hecker J, Schulze TG, Müller-Myhsok B, Reif A, Mitchell PB, Martin NG, Cichon S, Nöthen MM, Jamain S, Leboyer M, Bellivier F, Etain B, Kahn JP, Henry C, Rietschel M, Xiao X, Li M. Identification of a Bipolar Disorder Vulnerable Gene CHDH at 3p21.1. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:5166-5176. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0041-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2016] [Accepted: 08/05/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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12
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Turner CA, Eren-Koçak E, Inui EG, Watson SJ, Akil H. Dysregulated fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling in neurological and psychiatric disorders. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2016; 53:136-43. [PMID: 26454097 PMCID: PMC4833700 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2015.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The role of the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) system in brain-related disorders has received considerable attention in recent years. To understand the role of this system in neurological and psychiatric disorders, it is important to identify the specific members of the FGF family that are implicated, their location and the various mechanisms they can be modulated. Each disorder appears to impact specific molecular players in unique anatomical locations, and all of these could conceivably become targets for treatment. In the last several years, the issue of how to target this system directly has become an area of increasing interest. To date, the most promising therapeutics are small molecule inhibitors and antibodies that modulate FGF receptor (FGFR) function. Beyond attempting to modify the primary players affected by a given brain disorder, it may prove useful to target molecules, such as membrane-bound or extracellular proteins that interact with FGF ligands or FGFRs to modulate signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cortney A Turner
- Molecular & Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
| | - Emine Eren-Koçak
- Institute of Neurological Sciences and Psychiatry, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | | | - Stanley J Watson
- Molecular & Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Huda Akil
- Molecular & Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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13
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Abstract
Endophenotypes are quantitative, heritable traits that may help to elucidate the pathophysiologic mechanisms underlying complex disease syndromes, such as schizophrenia. They can be assessed at numerous levels of analysis; here, we review electrophysiological endophenotypes that have shown promise in helping us understand schizophrenia from a more mechanistic point of view. For each endophenotype, we describe typical experimental procedures, reliability, heritability, and reported gene and neurobiological associations. We discuss recent findings regarding the genetic architecture of specific electrophysiological endophenotypes, as well as converging evidence from EEG studies implicating disrupted balance of glutamatergic signaling and GABAergic inhibition in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. We conclude that refining the measurement of electrophysiological endophenotypes, expanding genetic association studies, and integrating data sets are important next steps for understanding the mechanisms that connect identified genetic risk loci for schizophrenia to the disease phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Owens
- Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Peter Bachman
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - David C Glahn
- Olin Neuropsychiatric Research Center, Institute of Living, Hartford, CT,Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Carrie E Bearden
- Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA
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14
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Convergent Lines of Evidence Support LRP8 as a Susceptibility Gene for Psychosis. Mol Neurobiol 2015; 53:6608-6619. [PMID: 26637325 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-015-9559-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Reelin (RELN) is identified as a risk gene for major psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia (SCZ) and bipolar disorder (BPD). However, the role of its downstream signaling molecule, the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 8 (LRP8) in these illnesses is still unclear. To detect whether LRP8 is a susceptibility gene for SCZ and BPD, we analyzed the associations of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in LRP8 in a total of 47,187 subjects (including 9379 SCZ patients; 6990 BPD patients; and 12,556 controls in a screening sample, and 1397 SCZ families, 3947 BPD patients, and 8387 controls in independent replications), and identified a non-synonymous SNP rs5174 in LRP8 significantly associated with SCZ and BPD as well as the combined psychosis phenotype (P meta = 1.99 × 10-5, odds ratio (OR) = 1.066, 95 % confidence interval (CI) = 1.035-1.098). The risk SNP rs5174 was also associated with LRP8 messenger RNA (mRNA) expression in multiple brain tissues across independent samples (lowest P = 0.00005). Further exploratory analysis revealed that LRP8 was preferentially expressed in fetal brain tissues. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis demonstrated that LRP8 significantly participated in a highly interconnected PPI network build by top risk genes for SCZ and BPD (P = 7.0 × 10-4). Collectively, we confirmed that LRP8 is a risk gene for psychosis, and our results provide useful information toward a better understanding of genetic mechanism involving LRP8 underlying risk of complex psychiatric disorders.
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15
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Molecular underpinnings of prefrontal cortex development in rodents provide insights into the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders. Mol Psychiatry 2015; 20:795-809. [PMID: 25450230 PMCID: PMC4486649 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2014.147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2014] [Revised: 09/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex (PFC), seat of the highest-order cognitive functions, constitutes a conglomerate of highly specialized brain areas and has been implicated to have a role in the onset and installation of various neurodevelopmental disorders. The development of a properly functioning PFC is directed by transcription factors, guidance cues and other regulatory molecules and requires the intricate and temporal orchestration of a number of developmental processes. Disturbance or failure of any of these processes causing neurodevelopmental abnormalities within the PFC may contribute to several of the cognitive deficits seen in patients with neurodevelopmental disorders. In this review, we elaborate on the specific processes underlying prefrontal development, such as induction and patterning of the prefrontal area, proliferation, migration and axonal guidance of medial prefrontal progenitors, and their eventual efferent and afferent connections. We furthermore integrate for the first time the available knowledge from genome-wide studies that have revealed genes linked to neurodevelopmental disorders with experimental molecular evidence in rodents. The integrated data suggest that the pathogenic variants in the neurodevelopmental disorder-associated genes induce prefrontal cytoarchitectonical impairments. This enhances our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of prefrontal (mis)development underlying the four major neurodevelopmental disorders in humans, that is, intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and schizophrenia, and may thus provide clues for the development of novel therapies.
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16
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Dabrowski A, Terauchi A, Strong C, Umemori H. Distinct sets of FGF receptors sculpt excitatory and inhibitory synaptogenesis. Development 2015; 142:1818-30. [PMID: 25926357 PMCID: PMC4440923 DOI: 10.1242/dev.115568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2014] [Accepted: 03/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Neurons in the brain must establish a balanced network of excitatory and inhibitory synapses during development for the brain to function properly. An imbalance between these synapses underlies various neurological and psychiatric disorders. The formation of excitatory and inhibitory synapses requires precise molecular control. In the hippocampus, the structure crucial for learning and memory, fibroblast growth factor 22 (FGF22) and FGF7 specifically promote excitatory or inhibitory synapse formation, respectively. Knockout of either Fgf gene leads to excitatory-inhibitory imbalance in the mouse hippocampus and manifests in an altered susceptibility to epileptic seizures, underscoring the importance of FGF-dependent synapse formation. However, the receptors and signaling mechanisms by which FGF22 and FGF7 induce excitatory and inhibitory synapse differentiation are unknown. Here, we show that distinct sets of overlapping FGF receptors (FGFRs), FGFR2b and FGFR1b, mediate excitatory or inhibitory presynaptic differentiation in response to FGF22 and FGF7. Excitatory presynaptic differentiation is impaired in Fgfr2b and Fgfr1b mutant mice; however, inhibitory presynaptic defects are only found in Fgfr2b mutants. FGFR2b and FGFR1b are required for an excitatory presynaptic response to FGF22, whereas only FGFR2b is required for an inhibitory presynaptic response to FGF7. We further find that FGFRs are required in the presynaptic neuron to respond to FGF22, and that FRS2 and PI3K, but not PLCγ, mediate FGF22-dependent presynaptic differentiation. Our results reveal the specific receptors and signaling pathways that mediate FGF-dependent presynaptic differentiation, and thereby provide a mechanistic understanding of precise excitatory and inhibitory synapse formation in the mammalian brain.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Differentiation/genetics
- Cell Differentiation/physiology
- Cells, Cultured
- Fibroblast Growth Factors/genetics
- Fibroblast Growth Factors/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Neurogenesis/genetics
- Neurogenesis/physiology
- Neurons/cytology
- Neurons/metabolism
- Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 1/genetics
- Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 1/metabolism
- Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 2/genetics
- Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 2/metabolism
- Receptors, Fibroblast Growth Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Fibroblast Growth Factor/metabolism
- Synapses/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Ania Dabrowski
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, USA Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, USA Molecular & Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, USA
| | - Akiko Terauchi
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA Molecular & Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, USA
| | - Cameron Strong
- Molecular & Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, USA
| | - Hisashi Umemori
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, USA Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, USA Molecular & Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, USA Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, USA
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17
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Finch PW, Mark Cross LJ, McAuley DF, Farrell CL. Palifermin for the protection and regeneration of epithelial tissues following injury: new findings in basic research and pre-clinical models. J Cell Mol Med 2014; 17:1065-87. [PMID: 24151975 PMCID: PMC4118166 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.12091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2013] [Revised: 05/06/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) is a paracrine-acting epithelial mitogen produced by cells of mesenchymal origin, that plays an important role in protecting and repairing epithelial tissues. Pre-clinical data initially demonstrated that a recombinant truncated KGF (palifermin) could reduce gastrointestinal injury and mortality resulting from a variety of toxic exposures. Furthermore, the use of palifermin in patients with hematological malignancies reduced the incidence and duration of severe oral mucositis experienced after intensive chemoradiotherapy. Based upon these findings, as well as the observation that KGF receptors are expressed in many, if not all, epithelial tissues, pre-clinical studies have been conducted to determine the efficacy of palifermin in protecting different epithelial tissues from toxic injury in an attempt to model various clinical situations in which it might prove to be of benefit in limiting tissue damage. In this article, we review these studies to provide the pre-clinical background for clinical trials that are described in the accompanying article and the rationale for additional clinical applications of palifermin.
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18
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Li M, Luo XJ, Rietschel M, Lewis CM, Mattheisen M, Müller-Myhsok B, Jamain S, Leboyer M, Landén M, Thompson PM, Cichon S, Nöthen MM, Schulze TG, Sullivan PF, Bergen SE, Donohoe G, Morris DW, Hargreaves A, Gill M, Corvin A, Hultman C, Toga AW, Shi L, Lin Q, Shi H, Gan L, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Czamara D, Henry C, Etain B, Bis JC, Ikram MA, Fornage M, Debette S, Launer LJ, Seshadri S, Erk S, Walter H, Heinz A, Bellivier F, Stein JL, Medland SE, Arias Vasquez A, Hibar DP, Franke B, Martin NG, Wright MJ, Su B. Allelic differences between Europeans and Chinese for CREB1 SNPs and their implications in gene expression regulation, hippocampal structure and function, and bipolar disorder susceptibility. Mol Psychiatry 2014; 19:452-61. [PMID: 23568192 PMCID: PMC3937299 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2013.37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2012] [Revised: 01/28/2013] [Accepted: 03/06/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Bipolar disorder (BD) is a polygenic disorder that shares substantial genetic risk factors with major depressive disorder (MDD). Genetic analyses have reported numerous BD susceptibility genes, while some variants, such as single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in CACNA1C have been successfully replicated, many others have not and subsequently their effects on the intermediate phenotypes cannot be verified. Here, we studied the MDD-related gene CREB1 in a set of independent BD sample groups of European ancestry (a total of 64,888 subjects) and identified multiple SNPs significantly associated with BD (the most significant being SNP rs6785[A], P=6.32 × 10(-5), odds ratio (OR)=1.090). Risk SNPs were then subjected to further analyses in healthy Europeans for intermediate phenotypes of BD, including hippocampal volume, hippocampal function and cognitive performance. Our results showed that the risk SNPs were significantly associated with hippocampal volume and hippocampal function, with the risk alleles showing a decreased hippocampal volume and diminished activation of the left hippocampus, adding further evidence for their involvement in BD susceptibility. We also found the risk SNPs were strongly associated with CREB1 expression in lymphoblastoid cells (P<0.005) and the prefrontal cortex (P<1.0 × 10(-6)). Remarkably, population genetic analysis indicated that CREB1 displayed striking differences in allele frequencies between continental populations, and the risk alleles were completely absent in East Asian populations. We demonstrated that the regional prevalence of the CREB1 risk alleles in Europeans is likely caused by genetic hitchhiking due to natural selection acting on a nearby gene. Our results suggest that differential population histories due to natural selection on regional populations may lead to genetic heterogeneity of susceptibility to complex diseases, such as BD, and explain inconsistencies in detecting the genetic markers of these diseases among different ethnic populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Li
- 1] State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China [2] University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - X-J Luo
- University of Rochester Flaum Eye Institute, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - M Rietschel
- 1] Department of Genetic Epidemiology in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany [2] Department of Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - C M Lewis
- MRC SGDP Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
| | - M Mattheisen
- Channing Laboratory, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - S Jamain
- 1] Inserm U 955, IMRB, Psychiatrie Génétique, Créteil, France [2] Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France
| | - M Leboyer
- 1] Inserm U 955, IMRB, Psychiatrie Génétique, Créteil, France [2] Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France [3] Pôle de Psychiatrie, AP-HP, Hôpital H. Mondor-A. Chenevier, Créteil, France [4] Faculté de Médecine, Université Paris Est, Créteil, France
| | - M Landén
- 1] Section of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden [2] Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - P M Thompson
- Imaging Genetics Center, Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - S Cichon
- 1] Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Center Juelich, Juelich, Germany [2] Department of Genomics, Life and Brain Center and Institute of Human Genetics, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - M M Nöthen
- 1] Department of Genomics, Life and Brain Center and Institute of Human Genetics, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany [2] German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany
| | - T G Schulze
- 1] Department of Genetic Epidemiology in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany [2] Section on Psychiatric Genetics, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - P F Sullivan
- Departments of Genetics, Psychiatry and Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - S E Bergen
- 1] Psychiatric and Neurodevelopmental Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA [2] Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - G Donohoe
- Neuropsychiatric Genetics Group and Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, St James Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - D W Morris
- Neuropsychiatric Genetics Group and Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, St James Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - A Hargreaves
- Neuropsychiatric Genetics Group and Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, St James Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - M Gill
- Neuropsychiatric Genetics Group and Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, St James Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - A Corvin
- Neuropsychiatric Genetics Group and Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, St James Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - C Hultman
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - A W Toga
- Imaging Genetics Center, Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - L Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Q Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - H Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - L Gan
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - A Meyer-Lindenberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - D Czamara
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - C Henry
- 1] Inserm U 955, IMRB, Psychiatrie Génétique, Créteil, France [2] Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France [3] Pôle de Psychiatrie, AP-HP, Hôpital H. Mondor-A. Chenevier, Créteil, France [4] Faculté de Médecine, Université Paris Est, Créteil, France
| | - B Etain
- 1] Inserm U 955, IMRB, Psychiatrie Génétique, Créteil, France [2] Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France [3] Pôle de Psychiatrie, AP-HP, Hôpital H. Mondor-A. Chenevier, Créteil, France
| | - J C Bis
- Cardiovascular Health Research Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - M A Ikram
- 1] Department of Radiology and Epidemiology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands [2] The Netherlands Consortium of Healthy Aging, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - M Fornage
- Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine and Human Genetics Center School of Public Health, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - S Debette
- 1] Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA [2] Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), U708, Neuroepidemiology, Paris, France [3] Department of Epidemiology, University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, Paris, France
| | - L J Launer
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Aging, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - S Seshadri
- 1] Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA [2] The National, Heart, Lung and Blood Institute's Framingham Heart Study, Framingham, MA, USA
| | - S Erk
- 1] Department of Psychiatry, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany [2] Division of Mind and Brain Research, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - H Walter
- 1] Department of Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany [2] Department of Psychiatry, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany [3] Division of Mind and Brain Research, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - A Heinz
- Department of Psychiatry, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - F Bellivier
- 1] Inserm U 955, IMRB, Psychiatrie Génétique, Créteil, France [2] Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France [3] AP-HP, Hôpital St-Louis-Lariboisière-F Widal, Service Universitaire de Psychiatrie, Paris, France [4] Faculté de Médecine, Université Denis Diderot, Paris, France
| | - J L Stein
- 1] Imaging Genetics Center, Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA [2] Neurogenetics Program, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - S E Medland
- 1] Genetic Epidemiology Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, QLD, Australia [2] Quantitative Genetics Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, QLD, Australia [3] Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Boston, MA, USA
| | - A Arias Vasquez
- 1] Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands [2] Department of Psychiatry, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - D P Hibar
- Imaging Genetics Center, Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - B Franke
- 1] Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands [2] Department of Psychiatry, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - N G Martin
- Genetic Epidemiology Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - M J Wright
- Genetic Epidemiology Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - B Su
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
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19
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Bramon E, Pirinen M, Strange A, Lin K, Freeman C, Bellenguez C, Su Z, Band G, Pearson R, Vukcevic D, Langford C, Deloukas P, Hunt S, Gray E, Dronov S, Potter SC, Tashakkori-Ghanbaria A, Edkins S, Bumpstead SJ, Arranz MJ, Bakker S, Bender S, Bruggeman R, Cahn W, Chandler D, Collier DA, Crespo-Facorro B, Dazzan P, de Haan L, Di Forti M, Dragović M, Giegling I, Hall J, Iyegbe C, Jablensky A, Kahn RS, Kalaydjieva L, Kravariti E, Lawrie S, Linszen DH, Mata I, McDonald C, McIntosh A, Myin-Germeys I, Ophoff RA, Pariante CM, Paunio T, Picchioni M, Ripke S, Rujescu D, Sauer H, Shaikh M, Sussmann J, Suvisaari J, Tosato S, Toulopoulou T, Van Os J, Walshe M, Weisbrod M, Whalley H, Wiersma D, Blackwell JM, Brown MA, Casas JP, Corvin A, Duncanson A, Jankowski JAZ, Markus HS, Mathew CG, Palmer CNA, Plomin R, Rautanen A, Sawcer SJ, Trembath RC, Wood NW, Barroso I, Peltonen L, Lewis CM, Murray RM, Donnelly P, Powell J, Spencer CCA. A genome-wide association analysis of a broad psychosis phenotype identifies three loci for further investigation. Biol Psychiatry 2014; 75:386-97. [PMID: 23871474 PMCID: PMC3923972 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2012] [Revised: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified several loci associated with schizophrenia and/or bipolar disorder. We performed a GWAS of psychosis as a broad syndrome rather than within specific diagnostic categories. METHODS 1239 cases with schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, or psychotic bipolar disorder; 857 of their unaffected relatives, and 2739 healthy controls were genotyped with the Affymetrix 6.0 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array. Analyses of 695,193 SNPs were conducted using UNPHASED, which combines information across families and unrelated individuals. We attempted to replicate signals found in 23 genomic regions using existing data on nonoverlapping samples from the Psychiatric GWAS Consortium and Schizophrenia-GENE-plus cohorts (10,352 schizophrenia patients and 24,474 controls). RESULTS No individual SNP showed compelling evidence for association with psychosis in our data. However, we observed a trend for association with same risk alleles at loci previously associated with schizophrenia (one-sided p = .003). A polygenic score analysis found that the Psychiatric GWAS Consortium's panel of SNPs associated with schizophrenia significantly predicted disease status in our sample (p = 5 × 10(-14)) and explained approximately 2% of the phenotypic variance. CONCLUSIONS Although narrowly defined phenotypes have their advantages, we believe new loci may also be discovered through meta-analysis across broad phenotypes. The novel statistical methodology we introduced to model effect size heterogeneity between studies should help future GWAS that combine association evidence from related phenotypes. Applying these approaches, we highlight three loci that warrant further investigation. We found that SNPs conveying risk for schizophrenia are also predictive of disease status in our data.
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20
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Kukshal P, Kodavali VC, Srivastava V, Wood J, McClain L, Bhatia T, Bhagwat AM, Deshpande SN, Nimgaonkar VL, Thelma BK. Dopaminergic gene polymorphisms and cognitive function in a north Indian schizophrenia cohort. J Psychiatr Res 2013; 47:1615-22. [PMID: 23932573 PMCID: PMC3831060 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2013] [Revised: 05/10/2013] [Accepted: 07/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Associations of polymorphisms from dopaminergic neurotransmitter pathway genes have mostly been reported in Caucasian ancestry schizophrenia (SZ) samples. As studies investigating single SNPs with SZ have been inconsistent, more detailed analyses utilizing multiple SNPs with the diagnostic phenotype as well as cognitive function may be more informative. Therefore, these analyses were conducted in a north Indian sample. METHODS Indian SZ case-parent trios (n = 601 families); unscreened controls (n = 468) and an independent set of 118 trio families were analyzed. Representative SNPs in the Dopamine D3 receptor (DRD3), dopamine transporter (SLC6A3), vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (SLC18A2), catechol-o-methyltransferase (COMT) and dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH) were genotyped using SNaPshot/SNPlex assays (n = 59 SNPs). The Trail Making Test (TMT) was administered to a subset of the sample (n = 260 cases and n = 302 parents). RESULTS Eight SNPs were nominally associated with SZ in either case-control or family based analyses (p < 0.05, rs7631540 and rs2046496 in DRD3; rs363399 and rs10082463 in SLC18A2; rs4680, rs4646315 and rs9332377 in COMT). rs6271 at DBH was associated in both analyses. Haplotypes of DRD3 SNPs incorporating rs7631540-rs2134655-rs3773678-rs324030-rs6280-rs905568 showed suggestive associations in both case-parent and trio samples. At SLC18A2, rs10082463 was nominally associated with psychomotor performance and rs363285 with executive functions using the TMT but did not withstand multiple corrections. CONCLUSIONS Suggestive associations with dopaminergic genes were detected in this study, but convincing links between dopaminergic polymorphisms and SZ or cognitive function were not observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prachi Kukshal
- Department of Genetics, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi 110 021, India; C. B. Patel Research Centre, Vile Parle (West), Mumbai, India.
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Stingo FC, Guindani M, Vannucci M, Calhoun VD. An Integrative Bayesian Modeling Approach to Imaging Genetics. J Am Stat Assoc 2013; 108. [PMID: 24298194 DOI: 10.1080/01621459.2013.804409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
In this paper we present a Bayesian hierarchical modeling approach for imaging genetics, where the interest lies in linking brain connectivity across multiple individuals to their genetic information. We have available data from a functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) study on schizophrenia. Our goals are to identify brain regions of interest (ROIs) with discriminating activation patterns between schizophrenic patients and healthy controls, and to relate the ROIs' activations with available genetic information from single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on the subjects. For this task we develop a hierarchical mixture model that includes several innovative characteristics: it incorporates the selection of ROIs that discriminate the subjects into separate groups; it allows the mixture components to depend on selected covariates; it includes prior models that capture structural dependencies among the ROIs. Applied to the schizophrenia data set, the model leads to the simultaneous selection of a set of discriminatory ROIs and the relevant SNPs, together with the reconstruction of the correlation structure of the selected regions. To the best of our knowledge, our work represents the first attempt at a rigorous modeling strategy for imaging genetics data that incorporates all such features.
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Bramon E, Pirinen M, Strange A, Lin K, Freeman C, Bellenguez C, Su Z, Band G, Pearson R, Vukcevic D, Langford C, Deloukas P, Hunt S, Gray E, Dronov S, Potter SC, Tashakkori-Ghanbaria A, Edkins S, Bumpstead SJ, Arranz MJ, Bakker S, Bender S, Bruggeman R, Cahn W, Chandler D, Collier DA, Crespo-Facorro B, Dazzan P, de Haan L, Di Forti M, Dragović M, Giegling I, Hall J, Iyegbe C, Jablensky A, Kahn RS, Kalaydjieva L, Kravariti E, Lawrie S, Linszen DH, Mata I, McDonald C, McIntosh A, Myin-Germeys I, Ophoff RA, Pariante CM, Paunio T, Picchioni M, Ripke S, Rujescu D, Sauer H, Shaikh M, Sussmann J, Suvisaari J, Tosato S, Toulopoulou T, Van Os J, Walshe M, Weisbrod M, Whalley H, Wiersma D, Blackwell JM, Brown MA, Casas JP, Corvin A, Duncanson A, Jankowski JAZ, Markus HS, Mathew CG, Palmer CNA, Plomin R, Rautanen A, Sawcer SJ, Trembath RC, Wood NW, Barroso I, Peltonen L, Lewis CM, Murray RM, Donnelly P, Powell J, Spencer CCA. A genome-wide association analysis of a broad psychosis phenotype identifies three loci for further investigation. Biol Psychiatry 2013. [PMID: 23871474 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified several loci associated with schizophrenia and/or bipolar disorder. We performed a GWAS of psychosis as a broad syndrome rather than within specific diagnostic categories. METHODS 1239 cases with schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, or psychotic bipolar disorder; 857 of their unaffected relatives, and 2739 healthy controls were genotyped with the Affymetrix 6.0 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array. Analyses of 695,193 SNPs were conducted using UNPHASED, which combines information across families and unrelated individuals. We attempted to replicate signals found in 23 genomic regions using existing data on nonoverlapping samples from the Psychiatric GWAS Consortium and Schizophrenia-GENE-plus cohorts (10,352 schizophrenia patients and 24,474 controls). RESULTS No individual SNP showed compelling evidence for association with psychosis in our data. However, we observed a trend for association with same risk alleles at loci previously associated with schizophrenia (one-sided p = .003). A polygenic score analysis found that the Psychiatric GWAS Consortium's panel of SNPs associated with schizophrenia significantly predicted disease status in our sample (p = 5 × 10(-14)) and explained approximately 2% of the phenotypic variance. CONCLUSIONS Although narrowly defined phenotypes have their advantages, we believe new loci may also be discovered through meta-analysis across broad phenotypes. The novel statistical methodology we introduced to model effect size heterogeneity between studies should help future GWAS that combine association evidence from related phenotypes. Applying these approaches, we highlight three loci that warrant further investigation. We found that SNPs conveying risk for schizophrenia are also predictive of disease status in our data.
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Goriely A, McGrath JJ, Hultman CM, Wilkie AOM, Malaspina D. "Selfish spermatogonial selection": a novel mechanism for the association between advanced paternal age and neurodevelopmental disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2013; 170:599-608. [PMID: 23639989 PMCID: PMC4001324 DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12101352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
There is robust evidence from epidemiological studies that the offspring of older fathers have an increased risk of neurodevelopmental disorders, such as schizophrenia and autism. The authors present a novel mechanism that may contribute to this association. Because the male germ cell undergoes many more cell divisions across the reproductive age range, copy errors taking place in the paternal germline are associated with de novo mutations in the offspring of older men. Recently it has been recognized that somatic mutations in male germ cells that modify proliferation through dysregulation of the RAS protein pathway can lead to within-testis expansion of mutant clonal lines. First identified in association with rare disorders related to paternal age (e.g., Apert syndrome, achondroplasia), this process is known as "selfish spermatogonial selection." This mechanism favors propagation of germ cells carrying pathogenic mutations, increasingly skews the mutational profile of sperm as men age, and enriches de novo mutations in the offspring of older fathers that preferentially affect specific cellular signaling pathways. This mechanism not only offers a parsimonious explanation for the association between advanced paternal age and various neurodevelopmental disorders but also provides insights into the genetic architecture (role of de novo mutations), neurobiological correlates (altered cell cycle), and some epidemiological features of these disorders. The authors outline hypotheses to test this model. Given the secular changes for delayed parenthood in most societies, this hypothesis has important public health implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Goriely
- Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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Stachowiak MK, Kucinski A, Curl R, Syposs C, Yang Y, Narla S, Terranova C, Prokop D, Klejbor I, Bencherif M, Birkaya B, Corso T, Parikh A, Tzanakakis ES, Wersinger S, Stachowiak EK. Schizophrenia: a neurodevelopmental disorder--integrative genomic hypothesis and therapeutic implications from a transgenic mouse model. Schizophr Res 2013; 143:367-76. [PMID: 23231877 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2012] [Revised: 11/02/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder featuring complex aberrations in the structure, wiring, and chemistry of multiple neuronal systems. The abnormal developmental trajectory of the brain appears to be established during gestation, long before clinical symptoms of the disease appear in early adult life. Many genes are associated with schizophrenia, however, altered expression of no one gene has been shown to be present in a majority of schizophrenia patients. How does altered expression of such a variety of genes lead to the complex set of abnormalities observed in the schizophrenic brain? We hypothesize that the protein products of these genes converge on common neurodevelopmental pathways that affect the development of multiple neural circuits and neurotransmitter systems. One such neurodevelopmental pathway is Integrative Nuclear FGFR1 Signaling (INFS). INFS integrates diverse neurogenic signals that direct the postmitotic development of embryonic stem cells, neural progenitors and immature neurons, by direct gene reprogramming. Additionally, FGFR1 and its partner proteins link multiple upstream pathways in which schizophrenia-linked genes are known to function and interact directly with those genes. A th-fgfr1(tk-) transgenic mouse with impaired FGF receptor signaling establishes a number of important characteristics that mimic human schizophrenia - a neurodevelopmental origin, anatomical abnormalities at birth, a delayed onset of behavioral symptoms, deficits across multiple domains of the disorder and symptom improvement with typical and atypical antipsychotics, 5-HT antagonists, and nicotinic receptor agonists. Our research suggests that altered FGF receptor signaling plays a central role in the developmental abnormalities underlying schizophrenia and that nicotinic agonists are an effective class of compounds for the treatment of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Stachowiak
- Molecular and Structural Neurobiology & Gene Therapy Program, Department of Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, Western New York Stem Cell Culture and Analysis Center, SUNY, Buffalo, NY, USA.
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Terwisscha van Scheltinga AF, Bakker SC, Kahn RS, Kas MJH. Fibroblast growth factors in neurodevelopment and psychopathology. Neuroscientist 2013; 19:479-94. [PMID: 23343917 DOI: 10.1177/1073858412472399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In psychiatric disorders, the effect of genetic and environmental factors may converge on molecular pathways and brain circuits related to growth factor functioning. In this review, we describe how disturbances in fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) and their receptors influence behavior by affecting brain development. Recently, several studies reported associations of members of the FGF family with psychiatric disorders. FGFs are key candidates to modulate the impact of environmental factors, such as stress. Mutant mice for FGF receptor 1 show schizophrenia-like behaviors that are related to general loss of neurons and postnatal glia dysfunction. Mice lacking FGF2, a FGFR1 ligand, show similar reductions in brain volume and hyperactivity, as well as increased anxiety behaviors. FGFR2 and FGF17 are involved in the development of frontal brain regions and impairments in cognitive and social behaviors, respectively. Moreover, treatment with FGF2 was beneficial for depressive and cognitive measures in several animal studies and one human study. These findings indicate the importance of the FGF system with respect to developing novel etiology-directed treatments for psychopathology.
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An environmental analysis of genes associated with schizophrenia: hypoxia and vascular factors as interacting elements in the neurodevelopmental model. Mol Psychiatry 2012; 17:1194-205. [PMID: 22290124 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2011.183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Investigating and understanding gene-environment interaction (G × E) in a neurodevelopmentally and biologically plausible manner is a major challenge for schizophrenia research. Hypoxia during neurodevelopment is one of several environmental factors related to the risk of schizophrenia, and links between schizophrenia candidate genes and hypoxia regulation or vascular expression have been proposed. Given the availability of a wealth of complex genetic information on schizophrenia in the literature without knowledge on the connections to environmental factors, we now systematically collected genes from candidate studies (using SzGene), genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and copy number variation (CNV) analyses, and then applied four criteria to test for a (theoretical) link to ischemia-hypoxia and/or vascular factors. In all, 55% of the schizophrenia candidate genes (n=42 genes) met the criteria for a link to ischemia-hypoxia and/or vascular factors. Genes associated with schizophrenia showed a significant, threefold enrichment among genes that were derived from microarray studies of the ischemia-hypoxia response (IHR) in the brain. Thus, the finding of a considerable match between genes associated with the risk of schizophrenia and IHR and/or vascular factors is reproducible. An additional survey of genes identified by GWAS and CNV analyses suggested novel genes that match the criteria. Findings for interactions between specific variants of genes proposed to be IHR and/or vascular factors with obstetric complications in patients with schizophrenia have been reported in the literature. Therefore, the extended gene set defined here may form a reasonable and evidence-based starting point for hypothesis-based testing of G × E interactions in clinical genetic and translational neuroscience studies.
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Wang T, Zeng Z, Hu Z, Zheng L, Li T, Li Y, Liu J, Li J, Feng G, He L, Shi Y. FGFR2 is associated with bipolar disorder: a large-scale case-control study of three psychiatric disorders in the Chinese Han population. World J Biol Psychiatry 2012; 13:599-604. [PMID: 22404656 DOI: 10.3109/15622975.2011.650203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Repetitive linkage analyses have indicated 10q25-q26 as a shared risk region for schizophrenia (SCZ) and bipolar disorder (BPD). A genome-wide association study and follow-up recently identified a significant association between a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of this region (rs17101921) and SCZ. The nearest gene to this SNP is fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2). METHODS We carried out a large scale case-control study to test the association between FGFR2 and three major psychiatric disorders: SCZ, BPD and major depressive disorder (MDD) in the Chinese Han population. Eight tag SNPs were genotyped using Taqman assay in 1139 BPD patients, 1112 SCZ patients, 1119 MDD patients and 1135 shared healthy controls. RESULTS After correcting the multiple tests by permutation, one SNP (rs11199993), and a haplotype including this SNP, was found to be significantly associated with BPD. Potential population stratification in our samples was analyzed using 70 additional random SNPs dispersed on different chromosomes. No population stratification was detected, so our results could not be affected by this cofounding factor. Limitations of our study include incomplete coverage and insufficient power to detect association for relatively small odds ratio. CONCLUSIONS Association between FGFR2 and BPD is worthy of further confirmation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ti Wang
- Bio-X Institutes and Affiliated Changning Mental Health Center, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China
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Extremely low-coverage sequencing and imputation increases power for genome-wide association studies. Nat Genet 2012; 44:631-5. [PMID: 22610117 DOI: 10.1038/ng.2283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2011] [Accepted: 04/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have proven to be a powerful method to identify common genetic variants contributing to susceptibility to common diseases. Here, we show that extremely low-coverage sequencing (0.1-0.5×) captures almost as much of the common (>5%) and low-frequency (1-5%) variation across the genome as SNP arrays. As an empirical demonstration, we show that genome-wide SNP genotypes can be inferred at a mean r(2) of 0.71 using off-target data (0.24× average coverage) in a whole-exome study of 909 samples. Using both simulated and real exome-sequencing data sets, we show that association statistics obtained using extremely low-coverage sequencing data attain similar P values at known associated variants as data from genotyping arrays, without an excess of false positives. Within the context of reductions in sample preparation and sequencing costs, funds invested in extremely low-coverage sequencing can yield several times the effective sample size of GWAS based on SNP array data and a commensurate increase in statistical power.
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Paternal age effect mutations and selfish spermatogonial selection: causes and consequences for human disease. Am J Hum Genet 2012; 90:175-200. [PMID: 22325359 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2011] [Revised: 12/05/2011] [Accepted: 12/26/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Advanced paternal age has been associated with an increased risk for spontaneous congenital disorders and common complex diseases (such as some cancers, schizophrenia, and autism), but the mechanisms that mediate this effect have been poorly understood. A small group of disorders, including Apert syndrome (caused by FGFR2 mutations), achondroplasia, and thanatophoric dysplasia (FGFR3), and Costello syndrome (HRAS), which we collectively term "paternal age effect" (PAE) disorders, provides a good model to study the biological and molecular basis of this phenomenon. Recent evidence from direct quantification of PAE mutations in sperm and testes suggests that the common factor in the paternal age effect lies in the dysregulation of spermatogonial cell behavior, an effect mediated molecularly through the growth factor receptor-RAS signal transduction pathway. The data show that PAE mutations, although arising rarely, are positively selected and expand clonally in normal testes through a process akin to oncogenesis. This clonal expansion, which is likely to take place in the testes of all men, leads to the relative enrichment of mutant sperm over time-explaining the observed paternal age effect associated with these disorders-and in rare cases to the formation of testicular tumors. As regulation of RAS and other mediators of cellular proliferation and survival is important in many different biological contexts, for example during tumorigenesis, organ homeostasis and neurogenesis, the consequences of selfish mutations that hijack this process within the testis are likely to extend far beyond congenital skeletal disorders to include complex diseases, such as neurocognitive disorders and cancer predisposition.
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Association of the type 2 diabetes mellitus susceptibility gene, TCF7L2, with schizophrenia in an Arab-Israeli family sample. PLoS One 2012; 7:e29228. [PMID: 22247771 PMCID: PMC3256145 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2011] [Accepted: 11/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Many reports in different populations have demonstrated linkage of the 10q24-q26 region to schizophrenia, thus encouraging further analysis of this locus for detection of specific schizophrenia genes. Our group previously reported linkage of the 10q24-q26 region to schizophrenia in a unique, homogeneous sample of Arab-Israeli families with multiple schizophrenia-affected individuals, under a dominant model of inheritance. To further explore this candidate region and identify specific susceptibility variants within it, we performed re-analysis of the 10q24-26 genotype data, taken from our previous genome-wide association study (GWAS) (Alkelai et al, 2011). We analyzed 2089 SNPs in an extended sample of 57 Arab Israeli families (189 genotyped individuals), under the dominant model of inheritance, which best fits this locus according to previously performed MOD score analysis. We found significant association with schizophrenia of the TCF7L2 gene intronic SNP, rs12573128, (p = 7.01×10⁻⁶) and of the nearby intergenic SNP, rs1033772, (p = 6.59×10⁻⁶) which is positioned between TCF7L2 and HABP2. TCF7L2 is one of the best confirmed susceptibility genes for type 2 diabetes (T2D) among different ethnic groups, has a role in pancreatic beta cell function and may contribute to the comorbidity of schizophrenia and T2D. These preliminary results independently support previous findings regarding a possible role of TCF7L2 in susceptibility to schizophrenia, and strengthen the importance of integrating linkage analysis models of inheritance while performing association analyses in regions of interest. Further validation studies in additional populations are required.
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Vawter MP, Mamdani F, Macciardi F. An integrative functional genomics approach for discovering biomarkers in schizophrenia. Brief Funct Genomics 2011; 10:387-99. [PMID: 22155586 DOI: 10.1093/bfgp/elr036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia (SZ) is a complex disorder resulting from both genetic and environmental causes with a lifetime prevalence world-wide of 1%; however, there are no specific, sensitive and validated biomarkers for SZ. A general unifying hypothesis has been put forward that disease-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from genome-wide association study (GWAS) are more likely to be associated with gene expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL). We will describe this hypothesis and review primary methodology with refinements for testing this paradigmatic approach in SZ. We will describe biomarker studies of SZ and testing enrichment of SNPs that are associated both with eQTLs and existing GWAS of SZ. SZ-associated SNPs that overlap with eQTLs can be placed into gene-gene expression, protein-protein and protein-DNA interaction networks. Further, those networks can be tested by reducing/silencing the gene expression levels of critical nodes. We present pilot data to support these methods of investigation such as the use of eQTLs to annotate GWASs of SZ, which could be applied to the field of biomarker discovery. Those networks that have association with SNP markers, especially cis-regulated expression, might lead to a more clear understanding of important candidate genes that predispose to disease and alter expression. This method has general application to many complex disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marquis P Vawter
- Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, University of California, Irvine, USA.
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Goldberg X, Fatjó-Vilas M, Penadés R, Miret S, Muñoz MJ, Vossen H, Fañanás L. Neurodevelopmental liability to schizophrenia: the complex mediating role of age at onset and premorbid adjustment. Schizophr Res 2011; 133:143-9. [PMID: 21996266 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2011.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2011] [Revised: 09/02/2011] [Accepted: 09/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Large individual variation in the clinical presentation of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders raises key questions regarding their aetiological underpinnings. In this respect, age at onset of the disorder is a particularly interesting marker of liability, as it has been reported to be associated with other signs of developmental compromise, such as male gender, increased presence of familial history of psychosis and poor premorbid adjustment, as well as a more severe clinical outcome in terms of cognition and symptomatology. The association between these variables has encouraged a neurodevelopmental perspective of the aetiological mechanisms involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. However, the complex relationships within neurobiological liability markers, and between these markers and clinical outcome, remain to be understood. In the present study, we used a path-analytic approach to explore: i) the fit of the model to observed data; and both ii) direct and iii) indirect associations between the variables. In a sample of 106 patients with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders, we found a good fit of the model to the observed data, providing further evidence that supports a neurodevelopmental pathway to the disease in a subgroup of patients. However, the most parsimonious model showed complex relationships, where age at onset and premorbid functioning acted as mediators between gender, familial history of psychosis and clinical outcome. These findings refine earlier explanations of the neurobiological basis of schizophrenia, with potential applications in genetic studies based on more homogeneous forms of the disease. We further discuss the putative implications of our results in clinical practice and prevention policies.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Goldberg
- Departament de Biologia Animal, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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Valiente A, Lafuente A, Bernardo M. [Systematic review of the Genomewide Association Studies (GWAS) in schizophrenia]. REVISTA DE PSIQUIATRIA Y SALUD MENTAL 2011; 4:218-27. [PMID: 23446268 DOI: 10.1016/j.rpsm.2011.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2011] [Revised: 08/01/2011] [Accepted: 09/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Heritability in schizophrenia can reach up to 80% and the risk in families is 5-10 times higher than in the general population. The large contribution of genetics in this disorder has led to a growing interest in its study. OBJECTIVES To review the findings of genetic studies known as Genomewide Association Studies (GWAS) on schizophrenia. METHOD Systematic search using Pubmed with the key words GWAS and (psychosis) or (schizophrenia). The following web pages have been reviewed: http://www.szgene.org/largescale.asp and www.genome.gov/gwastudies/. RESULTS The GWAS have focused on causal biological aspects, such as the histocompatibility complex, glutamate metabolism, apoptosis and inflammatory processes, and the immune system (TNF-β, TNFR1). Also focused in the search were the genes that modulate the appearance of secondary metabolic and cardiac effects and secondary effects in subjects with schizophrenia and on anti-psychotic treatment. In neurorecognition, over-expression of the MET proto-oncogene (MET) has been associated with a low susceptibility for schizophrenia and a better cognitive performance, as well as a lower susceptibility for the incidence of cancer. Mention is also made of the different genes that mediate in cognitive functioning depending on the anti-psychotic treatment received. CONCLUSIONS The main interests of the GWAS during the last few years have been the neurobiological pathways involved in schizophrenia. The discoveries arising from these studies have been limited. This has led to an innovative approach on the aetiological study of the disorder by studying gene-environment interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Valiente
- Programa Esquizofrènia Clínic, Servei de Psiquiatria, Hospital Clínic, IDIBAPS, Universitat de Barcelona, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, España.
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Chen X, Lee G, Maher BS, Fanous AH, Chen J, Zhao Z, Guo A, van den Oord E, Sullivan PF, Shi J, Levinson DF, Gejman PV, Sanders A, Duan J, Owen MJ, Craddock NJ, O'Donovan MC, Blackman J, Lewis D, Kirov GK, Qin W, Schwab S, Wildenauer D, Chowdari K, Nimgaonkar V, Straub RE, Weinberger DR, O'Neill FA, Walsh D, Bronstein M, Darvasi A, Lencz T, Malhotra AK, Rujescu D, Giegling I, Werge T, Hansen T, Ingason A, Nöethen MM, Rietschel M, Cichon S, Djurovic S, Andreassen OA, Cantor RM, Ophoff R, Corvin A, Morris DW, Gill M, Pato CN, Pato MT, Macedo A, Gurling HMD, McQuillin A, Pimm J, Hultman C, Lichtenstein P, Sklar P, Purcell SM, Scolnick E, St Clair D, Blackwood DHR, Kendler KS. GWA study data mining and independent replication identify cardiomyopathy-associated 5 (CMYA5) as a risk gene for schizophrenia. Mol Psychiatry 2011; 16:1117-29. [PMID: 20838396 PMCID: PMC3443634 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2010.96] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2010] [Revised: 08/03/2010] [Accepted: 08/11/2010] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
We conducted data-mining analyses using the Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) and molecular genetics of schizophrenia genome-wide association study supported by the genetic association information network (MGS-GAIN) schizophrenia data sets and performed bioinformatic prioritization for all the markers with P-values ≤0.05 in both data sets. In this process, we found that in the CMYA5 gene, there were two non-synonymous markers, rs3828611 and rs10043986, showing nominal significance in both the CATIE and MGS-GAIN samples. In a combined analysis of both the CATIE and MGS-GAIN samples, rs4704591 was identified as the most significant marker in the gene. Linkage disequilibrium analyses indicated that these markers were in low LD (3 828 611-rs10043986, r(2)=0.008; rs10043986-rs4704591, r(2)=0.204). In addition, CMYA5 was reported to be physically interacting with the DTNBP1 gene, a promising candidate for schizophrenia, suggesting that CMYA5 may be involved in the same biological pathway and process. On the basis of this information, we performed replication studies for these three single-nucleotide polymorphisms. The rs3828611 was found to have conflicting results in our Irish samples and was dropped out without further investigation. The other two markers were verified in 23 other independent data sets. In a meta-analysis of all 23 replication samples (family samples, 912 families with 4160 subjects; case-control samples, 11 380 cases and 15 021 controls), we found that both markers are significantly associated with schizophrenia (rs10043986, odds ratio (OR)=1.11, 95% confidence interval (CI)=1.04-1.18, P=8.2 × 10(-4) and rs4704591, OR=1.07, 95% CI=1.03-1.11, P=3.0 × 10(-4)). The results were also significant for the 22 Caucasian replication samples (rs10043986, OR=1.11, 95% CI=1.03-1.17, P=0.0026 and rs4704591, OR=1.07, 95% CI=1.02-1.11, P=0.0015). Furthermore, haplotype conditioned analyses indicated that the association signals observed at these two markers are independent. On the basis of these results, we concluded that CMYA5 is associated with schizophrenia and further investigation of the gene is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0424, USA.
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Common variants on 8p12 and 1q24.2 confer risk of schizophrenia. Nat Genet 2011; 43:1224-7. [PMID: 22037555 DOI: 10.1038/ng.980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2011] [Accepted: 09/22/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder affecting ∼1% of the world population, with heritability of up to 80%. To identify new common genetic risk factors, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) in the Han Chinese population. The discovery sample set consisted of 3,750 individuals with schizophrenia and 6,468 healthy controls (1,578 cases and 1,592 controls from northern Han Chinese, 1,238 cases and 2,856 controls from central Han Chinese, and 934 cases and 2,020 controls from the southern Han Chinese). We further analyzed the strongest association signals in an additional independent cohort of 4,383 cases and 4,539 controls from the Han Chinese population. Meta-analysis identified common SNPs that associated with schizophrenia with genome-wide significance on 8p12 (rs16887244, P = 1.27 × 10(-10)) and 1q24.2 (rs10489202, P = 9.50 × 10(-9)). Our findings provide new insights into the pathogenesis of schizophrenia.
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Zhang F, Chen Q, Ye T, Lipska BK, Straub RE, Vakkalanka R, Rujescu D, St Clair D, Hyde TM, Bigelow L, Kleinman JE, Weinberger DR. Evidence of sex-modulated association of ZNF804A with schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2011; 69:914-7. [PMID: 21349497 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2010] [Revised: 11/29/2010] [Accepted: 01/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs1344706 in ZNF804A (2q32.1) has been associated with schizophrenia in a genome-wide association study (GWAS). A recent candidate gene study, which replicated the positive association with rs1344706, identified another positive SNP (rs7597593) in ZNF804A associated with schizophrenia. METHODS We performed an association study of rs7597593 in four GWAS cohorts of European ancestry. Postmortem human brain expression data of normal Caucasian individuals (n = 89) was also analyzed for examining the effect of rs7597593 on ZNF804A messenger RNA expression, using logistic regression and linear regression. RESULTS We found that rs7597593 was significantly associated with schizophrenia in the combined GWAS datasets (n = 5023, odds ratio [OR](combined) = 1.15, p = .0011). Analysis of stratification by sex showed that the association was driven by the female subjects (OR = 1.29, p = .0002) and was not significant in male subjects (OR = 1.08, p = .148) in the combined sample of four cohorts. A sex by genotype interaction was near significant in both the Genetic Association Information Network sample (p = .0532) and the combined sample of four cohorts (p(combined) = .0531). Gene expression analysis showed no main effects but a significant female-specific association (p(female) = .047, p(male) = .335) and sex by genotype interaction (p = .0166) for rs7597593. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest a clinical and molecular modulation by sex of the association of ZNF804A SNP rs7597593 and risk of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengyu Zhang
- Genes, Cognition and Psychosis Program and Clinical, Brain Disorders Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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Pereira TV, Patsopoulos NA, Pereira AC, Krieger JE. Strategies for genetic model specification in the screening of genome-wide meta-analysis signals for further replication. Int J Epidemiol 2010; 40:457-69. [PMID: 21149279 DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyq203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Meta-analysis is increasingly being employed as a screening procedure in large-scale association studies to select promising variants for follow-up studies. However, standard methods for meta-analysis require the assumption of an underlying genetic model, which is typically unknown a priori. This drawback can introduce model misspecifications, causing power to be suboptimal, or the evaluation of multiple genetic models, which augments the number of false-positive associations, ultimately leading to waste of resources with fruitless replication studies. We used simulated meta-analyses of large genetic association studies to investigate naïve strategies of genetic model specification to optimize screenings of genome-wide meta-analysis signals for further replication. METHODS Different methods, meta-analytical models and strategies were compared in terms of power and type-I error. Simulations were carried out for a binary trait in a wide range of true genetic models, genome-wide thresholds, minor allele frequencies (MAFs), odds ratios and between-study heterogeneity (τ²). RESULTS Among the investigated strategies, a simple Bonferroni-corrected approach that fits both multiplicative and recessive models was found to be optimal in most examined scenarios, reducing the likelihood of false discoveries and enhancing power in scenarios with small MAFs either in the presence or in absence of heterogeneity. Nonetheless, this strategy is sensitive to τ² whenever the susceptibility allele is common (MAF ≥ 30%), resulting in an increased number of false-positive associations compared with an analysis that considers only the multiplicative model. CONCLUSION Invoking a simple Bonferroni adjustment and testing for both multiplicative and recessive models is fast and an optimal strategy in large meta-analysis-based screenings. However, care must be taken when examined variants are common, where specification of a multiplicative model alone may be preferable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago V Pereira
- Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Cardiology, Heart Institute (InCor), São Paulo University Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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38
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Abstract
A large association study by O'Donovan et al recently suggested that genetic variation in fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) 2 increases the risk for developing schizophrenia. Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are part of the family of glial growth factors; they control the growth and patterning of specific brain structures and regulate the maintenance and repair of neuronal tissues. In addition, a direct interaction was recently found between FGFRs and adenosine A(2A) receptors, leading to corticostriatal plasticity and antagonizing the signaling pathway of dopamine D(2) receptors. These findings make FGFs plausible candidate genes for schizophrenia. Here, we review the role of FGFs in schizophrenia and combine evidence from studies on variations in FGF genes, RNA expression, protein levels, and FGF administration, as well as the effects of medication and environmental risk factors for schizophrenia. These data suggest that changes in the FGF system contribute to schizophrenia and possibly to a wider range of psychiatric disorders. The role of FGFs in schizophrenia and related disorders needs to be studied in more detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afke F. Terwisscha van Scheltinga
- Department of Psychiatry, Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands,To whom correspondence should be addressed; Department of Psychiatry, Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands; tel: +31-0-88-755-5555, fax: +31-0-88-7555466, e-mail:
| | - Steven C. Bakker
- Department of Psychiatry, Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - René S. Kahn
- Department of Psychiatry, Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Pedrosa E, Shah A, Tenore C, Capogna M, Villa C, Guo X, Zheng D, Lachman HM. β-catenin promoter ChIP-chip reveals potential schizophrenia and bipolar disorder gene network. J Neurogenet 2010; 24:182-93. [PMID: 20615089 DOI: 10.3109/01677063.2010.495182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Therapeutic concentrations of lithium salts inhibit glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β) and phosphoinositide (PI) signaling suggesting that abnormal activation of these pathways could be a factor in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder (BD). Involvement of these pathways is also supported by recent genome-wide association studies (GWASs). One way investigators have investigated the molecular basis of BD and the therapeutic action of lithium is by microarray expression studies, since both GSK3β- and PI-mediated signal transduction pathways are coupled to transcriptional activation and inhibition. However, expression profiling has some limitations and investigators cannot use the approach to analyze fetal brain tissue, arguably the most relevant biological structure related to the development of genetically based psychiatric disorders. To address these shortcomings, the authors have taken a novel approach using chromatin immunoprecipitation-enriched material annealed to microarrays (ChIP-chip) targeting genes in fetal brain tissue bound by β-catenin, a transcription factor that is directly regulated by GSK3β. The promoters for 640 genes were found to be bound by β-catenin, many of which are known schizophrenia (SZ), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and BD candidates, including CACNA1B, NRNG, SNAP29, FGFR1, PCDH9, and nine others identified in recently published GWASs and genome-wide searches for copy number variants (CNVs). The findings suggest that seemingly disparate candidate genes for SZ and BD can be incorporated into a common molecular network revolving around GSK3β/β-catenin signaling. In addition, the finding that a putative lithium-responsive pathway may influence a subgroup of SZ and ASD candidate genes could have therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Pedrosa
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Division of Basic Research, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, USA
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Abstract
The molecular genetic research on panic disorder (PD) has grown tremendously in the past decade. Although the data from twin and family studies suggest an involvement of genetic factors in the familial transmission of PD with the heritability estimate near 40%, the genetic substrate underlying panicogenesis is not yet understood. The linkage studies so far have suggested that chromosomal regions 13q, 14q, 22q, 4q31-q34, and probably 9q31 are associated with the transmission of PD phenotypes. To date, more than 350 candidate genes have been examined in association studies of PD, but most of these results remain inconsistent, negative, or not clearly replicated. Only Val158Met polymorphism of the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene has been implicated in susceptibility to PD by several studies in independent samples and confirmed in a recent meta-analysis. However, the specific role of this genetic variation in PD requires additional analysis considering its gender- and ethnicity-dependent effect and putative impact on cognitive functions. The recent advantages in bioinformatics and genotyping technologies, including genome-wide association and gene expression methods, provide the means for far more comprehensive discovery in PD. The progress in clinical and neurobiological concepts of PD may further guide genetic research through the current controversies to more definitive findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Maron
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.
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41
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Beecham GW, Martin ER, Gilbert JR, Haines JL, Pericak-Vance MA. APOE is not associated with Alzheimer disease: a cautionary tale of genotype imputation. Ann Hum Genet 2010; 74:189-94. [PMID: 20529013 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-1809.2010.00573.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
With the advent of publicly available genome-wide genotyping data, the use of genotype imputation methods is becoming increasingly common. These methods are of particular use in joint analyses, where data from different genotyping platforms are imputed to a reference set and combined in a single analysis. We show here that such an analysis can miss strong genetic association signals, such as that of the apolipoprotein-e gene in late-onset Alzheimer disease. This can occur in regions of weak to moderate LD; unobserved SNPs are not imputed with confidence so there is no consensus SNP set on which to perform association tests. Both IMPUTE and Mach software are tested, with similar results. Additionally, we show that a meta-analysis that properly accounts for the genotype uncertainty can recover association signals that were lost under a joint analysis. This shows that joint analyses of imputed genotypes, particularly failure to replicate strong signals, should be considered critically and examined on a case-by-case basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary W Beecham
- John P Hussman Institute for Human Genomics, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida 33136, USA.
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Potkin SG, Macciardi F, Guffanti G, Fallon JH, Wang Q, Turner JA, Lakatos A, Miles MF, Lander A, Vawter MP, Xie X. Identifying gene regulatory networks in schizophrenia. Neuroimage 2010; 53:839-47. [PMID: 20600988 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.06.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2009] [Revised: 04/07/2010] [Accepted: 06/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The imaging genetics approach to studying the genetic basis of disease leverages the individual strengths of both neuroimaging and genetic studies by visualizing and quantifying the brain activation patterns in the context of genetic background. Brain imaging as an intermediate phenotype can help clarify the functional link among genes, the molecular networks in which they participate, and brain circuitry and function. Integrating genetic data from a genome-wide association study (GWAS) with brain imaging as a quantitative trait (QT) phenotype can increase the statistical power to identify risk genes. A QT analysis using brain imaging (DLPFC activation during a working memory task) as a quantitative trait has identified unanticipated risk genes for schizophrenia. Several of these genes (RSRC1, ARHGAP18, ROBO1-ROBO2, GPC1, TNIK, and CTXN3-SLC12A2) have functions related to progenitor cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation, cytoskeleton reorganization, axonal connectivity, and development of forebrain structures. These genes, however, do not function in isolation but rather through gene regulatory networks. To obtain a deeper understanding how the GWAS-identified genes participate in larger gene regulatory networks, we measured correlations among transcript levels in the mouse and human postmortem tissue and performed a gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) that identified several microRNA associated with schizophrenia (448, 218, 137). The results of such computational approaches can be further validated in animal experiments in which the networks are experimentally studied and perturbed with specific compounds. Glypican 1 and FGF17 mouse models for example, can be used to study such gene regulatory networks. The model demonstrates epistatic interactions between FGF and glypican on brain development and may be a useful model of negative symptom schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven G Potkin
- Department of Psychiatry & Human Behavior, 5251 California Avenue, Suite 240, University of California, Irvine, CA 92617, USA.
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Pedrosa E, Kaushik S, Lachman HM. ChIP-chip analysis of neurexins and other candidate genes for addiction and neuropsychiatric disorders. J Neurogenet 2010; 24:5-17. [PMID: 19968605 DOI: 10.3109/01677060903305658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Several addiction susceptibility genes have been mapped by linkage and genomewide association. However, functional alleles associated with disease risk have not been identified, with a few possible exceptions. In addition, little is known about the cis- and trans-acting factors involved in regulating their expression. To address these issues, we used a ChIP-chip approach to identify regulatory elements in fetal-brain- targeting genes implicated in addiction and other neuropsychiatric conditions. Our data point to a number of putative regulatory elements, several of which, we show, are functionally significant. Many established or putative regulatory elements map near-disease-associated SNPs. These regions would be of interest to survey for patient-specific functional variants involved in disease susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Pedrosa
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Division of Basic Research, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, USA
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Tsunoka T, Kishi T, Kitajima T, Okochi T, Okumura T, Yamanouchi Y, Kinoshita Y, Kawashima K, Naitoh H, Inada T, Ujike H, Yamada M, Uchimura N, Sora I, Iyo M, Ozaki N, Iwata N. Association analysis of GRM2 and HTR2A with methamphetamine-induced psychosis and schizophrenia in the Japanese population. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2010; 34:639-44. [PMID: 20211215 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2009] [Revised: 02/24/2010] [Accepted: 03/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Abnormalities in glutaminergic neural transmission have been suggested to be involved in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. A recent study reported that alterations in the 5-HT2A-mGluR2 complex may be involved in neural transmission in the schizophrenic cortex. In addition, methamphetamine-induced psychosis is thought to be similar to schizophrenia. Therefore, we conducted a case-control study with Japanese samples (738 schizophrenia patients, 196 methamphetamine-induced psychosis patients, and 802 controls) to evaluate the association and interaction between GRM2, HTR2A and schizophrenia. METHODS We selected three 'tagging SNPs' in GRM2, and two biologically functional SNPs in HTR2A (T102C and A1438G), for the association analysis. RESULTS We detected a significant association between methamphetamine-induced psychosis and GRM2 in a haplotype-wise analysis, but not HTR2A. We did not detect an association between GRM2 or HTR2A and schizophrenia. In addition, no interactions of GRM2 and HTR2A were found in methamphetamine-induced psychosis or schizophrenia. We did not detect any novel polymorphisms in GRM2 when we performed a mutation search using methamphetamine-induced psychosis samples. CONCLUSION Our results suggested that GRM2 may play a role in the pathophysiology of methamphetamine-induced psychosis but not schizophrenia in the Japanese population. A replication study using larger samples or samples of other populations will be required for conclusive results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Tsunoka
- Department of Psychiatry, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan
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Strong synaptic transmission impact by copy number variations in schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:10584-9. [PMID: 20489179 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1000274107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder with onset in late adolescence and unclear etiology characterized by both positive and negative symptoms, as well as cognitive deficits. To identify copy number variations (CNVs) that increase the risk of schizophrenia, we performed a whole-genome CNV analysis on a cohort of 977 schizophrenia cases and 2,000 healthy adults of European ancestry who were genotyped with 1.7 million probes. Positive findings were evaluated in an independent cohort of 758 schizophrenia cases and 1,485 controls. The Gene Ontology synaptic transmission family of genes was notably enriched for CNVs in the cases (P = 1.5 x 10(-7)). Among these, CACNA1B and DOC2A, both calcium-signaling genes responsible for neuronal excitation, were deleted in 16 cases and duplicated in 10 cases, respectively. In addition, RET and RIT2, both ras-related genes important for neural crest development, were significantly affected by CNVs. RET deletion was exclusive to seven cases, and RIT2 deletions were overrepresented common variant CNVs in the schizophrenia cases. Our results suggest that novel variations involving the processes of synaptic transmission contribute to the genetic susceptibility of schizophrenia.
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46
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Beach SRH, Brody GH, Todorov AA, Gunter TD, Philibert RA. Methylation at SLC6A4 is linked to family history of child abuse: an examination of the Iowa Adoptee sample. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2010; 153B:710-713. [PMID: 19739105 PMCID: PMC2909112 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.31028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Steven R. H. Beach
- University of Georgia,Correspondence to Steven R. H. Beach, 510 Boyd GSRC, University of Georgia, Athens, GA. 30602 TEL 706-542-1806, FAX 706-542-6064,
| | | | | | - Tracy D. Gunter
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 522424
| | - Robert A. Philibert
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 522424,Neuroscience and Genetics Programs, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 522424
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Brown AS, Derkits EJ. Prenatal infection and schizophrenia: a review of epidemiologic and translational studies. Am J Psychiatry 2010; 167:261-80. [PMID: 20123911 PMCID: PMC3652286 DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09030361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 890] [Impact Index Per Article: 63.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
An emerging literature from epidemiologic, clinical, and preclinical investigations has provided evidence that gestational exposure to infection contributes to the etiology of schizophrenia. In recent years, these studies have moved from ecologic designs, which ascertain infection based on epidemics in populations, to investigations that have capitalized on reliable biomarkers in individual pregnancies. These studies have documented specific candidate infections that appear to be associated with an elevated risk of schizophrenia. Animal models of maternal immune activation inspired by this work have revealed intriguing findings indicating behavioral, neurochemical, and neurophysiologic abnormalities consistent with observations in schizophrenia. In parallel studies in humans and animals, investigators are working to uncover the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which in utero exposure to infection contributes to schizophrenia risk. In this review, the authors discuss and critically evaluate the epidemiologic literature on in utero exposure to infection and schizophrenia, summarize emerging animal models of maternal immune activation, and discuss putative unique and common mechanisms by which in utero exposure to infection alters neurodevelopment, potentially increasing susceptibility to schizophrenia. The promise of this work for facilitating the identification of susceptibility loci in genetic studies of schizophrenia is illustrated by examples of interaction between in utero exposure to infection and genetic variants. The authors then elaborate on possible implications of this work, including the use of preventive measures for reducing the incidence of schizophrenia. Finally, they discuss new approaches aimed at addressing current challenges in this area of research.
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Lahiry P, Torkamani A, Schork NJ, Hegele RA. Kinase mutations in human disease: interpreting genotype-phenotype relationships. Nat Rev Genet 2010; 11:60-74. [PMID: 20019687 DOI: 10.1038/nrg2707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Protein kinases are one of the largest families of evolutionarily related proteins and comprise one of the most abundant gene families in humans. Here we survey kinase gene mutations from the perspective of human disease phenotypes and further analyse the structural features of mutant kinases, including mutational hotspots. Our evaluation of the genotype-phenotype relationship across 915 human kinase mutations - that underlie 67 single-gene diseases, mainly inherited developmental and metabolic disorders and also certain cancers - enhances our understanding of the role of kinases in development, kinase dysfunction in pathogenesis and kinases as potential targets for therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piya Lahiry
- Robarts Research Institute and Departments of Medicine and Biochemistry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
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Paunio T, Arajärvi R, Terwilliger JD, Hiekkalinna T, Haimi P, Partonen T, Lönnqvist J, Peltonen L, Varilo T. Linkage analysis of schizophrenia controlling for population substructure. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2009; 150B:827-35. [PMID: 19086037 PMCID: PMC2861849 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Etiological heterogeneity and complexity has hampered attempts to identify predisposing genes for schizophrenia. We sought to minimize the number of segregating genes involved by focusing on a population isolate with elevated disease prevalence. We exploited the well-established population history, and searched for disease susceptibility loci in families from two alternative founder lineages. We studied 28 schizophrenia pedigrees (123 nuclear families) from an outlying municipality on the eastern border of Finland. We divided the families based on their genealogy and defined two routes of immigration: southern and northern. We examined the kinship coefficients and allele frequency distributions within each group, and performed a linkage analysis based on 497 microsatellite markers across the genome. A high degree of historical relatedness was demonstrated by higher sharing of alleles than predicted by the relationships we identified within the previous four generations alone, as would be expected. Between the two subpopulations, allele frequencies were significantly different, consistent with their isolated genealogies. The southern families showed some evidence of linkage in a schizophrenia locus at 4q23 (Z = 3.3) near our previous finding with quantitative variation in verbal learning and memory [Paunio et al. (2004); Hum Mol Genet 13: 1693-1702], while the northern pedigrees gave most significant evidence on 10q21 (Z = 2.53). Joint analysis of families from both lineages suggested evidence of linkage only at 3p14 (Z = 3.18). Thus the detailed genealogical information led us to identification of distinct linkage signals for schizophrenia susceptibility loci between the three analyses we performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiina Paunio
- Department of Molecular Medicine, National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Mental Health and Alcohol Research, National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ritva Arajärvi
- Department of Mental Health and Alcohol Research, National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Joseph D. Terwilliger
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, New York
- Department of Genetics and Development, Columbia University, New York, New York
- Columbia Genome Center, Columbia University, New York, New York
- Division of Medical Genetics, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tero Hiekkalinna
- Department of Molecular Medicine, National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Perttu Haimi
- Department of Molecular Medicine, National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Timo Partonen
- Department of Mental Health and Alcohol Research, National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jouko Lönnqvist
- Department of Mental Health and Alcohol Research, National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Leena Peltonen
- Department of Molecular Medicine, National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Welcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland FIMM, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Teppo Varilo
- Department of Molecular Medicine, National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland FIMM, Helsinki, Finland
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Jen YHL, Musacchio M, Lander AD. Glypican-1 controls brain size through regulation of fibroblast growth factor signaling in early neurogenesis. Neural Dev 2009; 4:33. [PMID: 19732411 PMCID: PMC2746204 DOI: 10.1186/1749-8104-4-33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2009] [Accepted: 09/04/2009] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) act as co-receptors for multiple families of growth factors that regulate animal cell proliferation, differentiation and patterning. Elimination of heparan sulfate during brain development is known to produce severe structural abnormalities. Here we investigate the developmental role played by one particular HSPG, glypican-1 (Gpc1), which is especially abundant on neuronal cell membranes, and is the major HSPG of the adult rodent brain. RESULTS Mice with a null mutation in Gpc1 were generated and found to be viable and fertile. The major phenotype associated with Gpc1 loss is a highly significant reduction in brain size, with only subtle effects on brain patterning (confined to the anterior cerebellum). The brain size difference emerges very early during neurogenesis (between embryonic days 8.5 and 9.5), and remains roughly constant throughout development and adulthood. By examining markers of different signaling pathways, and the differentiation behaviors of cells in the early embryonic brain, we infer that Gpc1(-/-) phenotypes most likely result from a transient reduction in fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling. Through the analysis of compound mutants, we provide strong evidence that Fgf17 is the FGF family member through which Gpc1 controls brain size. CONCLUSION These data add to a growing literature that implicates the glypican family of HSPGs in organ size control. They also argue that, among heparan sulfate-dependent signaling molecules, FGFs are disproportionately sensitive to loss of HSPGs. Finally, because heterozygous Gpc1 mutant mice were found to have brain sizes half-way between homozygous and wild type, the data imply that endogenous HSPG levels quantitatively control growth factor signaling, a finding that is both novel and relevant to the general question of how the activities of co-receptors are exploited during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Huei Linda Jen
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, Developmental Biology Center and Center for Complex Biological Systems, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-2300, USA.
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