Psychobiotic interventions for anxiety in young people: a systematic review and meta-analysis, with youth consultation

The Effect of the Combination of Two Postbiotics on Anxiety-like Behavior in Animal Models

With increasing evidence showing the connections between the microbiome, neurophysiology, and behavior, our research endeavors to investigate whether the consumption of a combination of two postbiotics with antioxidant effects can affect behavior regulation in model species. Here, we worked with a combination (1:1 ratio) of heat-treated Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum ES1 (CECT7347) and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus BPL15 (CECT8361) as a dietary supplement. To examine the potential benefit of using this formulation to alleviate anxiety-like behavior, we employed two model species, Caenorhabditis elegans and adult Danio rerio. In C. elegans, the postbiotic supplementation reduced the anxiety-related behavior analyzed by means of the octanol avoidance test. In zebrafish, the novel tank test indicated a different swimming pattern 2 and 4 months after the animals were fed with the postbiotic combination. While fish did not exhibit any variance in their locomotion parameters such as pace and speed, they showed a statistically significant preference to spend more time in the upper zone of the water tank, a behavior that is correlated with a lower anxiety-like behavior in these species. Our aim with this study is to present evidence that can be used to develop whole-cell postbiotic-based novel and innovative dietary supplements for anxiety-related conditions.

Effect of dietary fibre on cognitive function and mental health in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective: The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of dietary fibre on the mental health and cognitive function of children and adolescents. Methods: All interventional and observational studies that contained information on the relevant population (children and adolescents), intervention/exposures (high dietary fibre consumption) and outcomes (mental and cognitive parameters) were eligible. Eight electronic databases (Embase, Medline, Pubmed, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library and ClinicalTrials.gov) were searched up to December 11, 2023. Results: A total of 15 studies (n = 4628) met inclusion criteria, consisting of 9 intervention trials and 6 observational studies. According to observational studies, higher dietary fibre consumption was associated with a 49% reduction in the odds of depression compared to lower intake (P < 0.0001; OR = 0.51; 95% CI: 0.38, 0.69; I2 = 0%). Furthermore, no significant correlations were found between dietary fibre consumption and intelligence or anxiety. Among intervention studies, no significant difference was observed between fibre supplementation and placebo in terms of anxiety (standardized mean difference (SMD): -0.23; 95% CI: -0.72, 0.27), stress (SMD: 0.03; 95% CI: -0.21, 0.28), memory (SMD: 0.46; 95% CI: -0.79, 1.71), or attention (SMD: -2.72; 95% CI: -6.30, 0.86). Conclusion: Evidence from observation studies demonstrated that higher dietary fibre consumption is associated with a decreased odds of depression symptoms, both in childhood and adolescence. However, the causal relationship between dietary fibre intake and mental and cognitive function in children and adolescents still requires further clarification through high-quality intervention studies in the future.

The Microbiome in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

Recent research has increasingly emphasized the function of the microbiome in human health. The gut microbiome is essential for digesting food and seems to play a vital role in mental health as well. This review briefly overviews the gut microbiome and its interplay with the central nervous system. We then summarize some of the latest findings on the possible role of the microbiome in psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents. In particular, we focus on autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, anorexia nervosa, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder. Although the role of microbiota in mental development and health still needs to be researched intensively, it has become increasingly apparent that the impact of microbiota must be considered to better understand psychiatric disorders.

Tiger nut/coconut dietary intervention as antidotal nutritional remediation strategy against neurobehavioural deficits following organophosphate-induced gut-brain axis dysregulation in mice

Organophosphate poisoning remains a global health crisis without efficacious treatments to prevent neurotoxicity. We examined whether antidotal tiger nut and coconut dietary intervention could ameliorate neurobehavioral deficits from organophosphate dichlorvos-induced gut-brain axis dysregulation in a mouse model. Mice were divided into groups given control diet, dichlorvos-contaminated diets, or dichlorvos plus nut-enriched diets. They were exposed to a DDVP-contaminated diet for 4 weeks before exposure to the treatment diets for another 8 weeks. This was followed by behavioural assessments for cognitive, motor, anxiety-, and depressive-like behaviours. Faecal samples (pre- and post-treatment), as well as blood, brain, and gut tissues, were collected for biochemical assessments following euthanasia. Dichlorvos-exposed mice displayed impairments in cognition, motor function, and mood along with disrupted inflammatory and antioxidant responses, neurotrophic factor levels, and acetylcholinesterase activity in brain and intestinal tissues. Weight loss and altered short-chain fatty acid levels additionally indicated gut dysfunction. However, intervention with tiger nut and/or coconut- enriched diet after dichlorvos exposure attenuated these neurobehavioral, and biochemical alterations. Our findings demonstrate organophosphate-induced communication disruptions between the gut and brain pathways that manifest in neuropsychiatric disturbances. Overall, incorporating fibre-rich nuts may represent an antidotal dietary strategy to reduce neurotoxicity and prevent brain disorders associated with organophosphate poisoning.

Diet quality and anxiety: a critical overview with focus on the gut microbiome

Anxiety disorders disproportionally affect females and are frequently comorbid with eating disorders. With the emerging field of nutritional psychiatry, focus has been put on the impact of diet quality in anxiety pathophysiology and gut microbiome underlying mechanisms. While the relationship between diet and anxiety is bidirectional, improving dietary habits could better facilitate the actions of pharmacological and psychological therapies, or prevent their use. A better understanding of how gut bacteria mediate and moderate such relationship could further contribute to develop personalized programs and inform probiotics and prebiotics manufacturing. To date, studies that look simultaneously at diet, the gut microbiome, and anxiety are missing as only pairwise relationships among them have been investigated. Therefore, this study aims at summarizing and integrating the existing knowledge on the dietary effects on anxiety with focus on gut microbiome. Findings on the effects of diet on anxiety are critically summarized and reinterpreted in relation to findings on (i) the effects of diet on the gut microbiome composition, and (ii) the associations between the abundance of certain gut bacteria and anxiety. This novel interpretation suggests a theoretical model where the relationship between diet and anxiety is mediated and/or modulated by the gut microbiome through multiple mechanisms. In parallel, this study critically evaluates methodologies employed in the nutritional field to investigate the effects of diet on anxiety highlighting a lack of systematic operationalization and assessment strategies. Therefore, it ultimately proposes a novel evidence-based approach that can enhance studies validity, reliability, systematicity, and translation to clinical and community settings.

Adolescence, the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis, and the Emergence of Psychiatric Disorders

Second only to early life, adolescence is a period of dramatic change and growth. For the developing young adult, this occurs against a backdrop of distinct environmental challenges and stressors. A significant body of work has identified an important role for the microbiota-gut-brain (MGB) axis in the development and function of the brain. Given that the MGB axis is both highly plastic during the teenage years and vulnerable to environmental stressors, more attention needs to be drawn to its potential role in the emergence of psychiatric illnesses, many of which first manifest during adolescence. Here, we review the current literature surrounding the developing microbiome, enteric nervous system, vagus nerve, and brain during the adolescent period. We also examine preclinical and clinical research involving the MGB axis during this dynamic developmental window and argue that more research is needed to further understand the role of the MGB in the pathogenesis of brain disorders. Greater understanding of the adolescent MGB axis will open up the exciting potential for new microbial-based therapeutics for the treatment of these often-refractory psychiatric illnesses.

Confounder or Confederate? The Interactions Between Drugs and the Gut Microbiome in Psychiatric and Neurological Diseases

The gut microbiome is emerging as an important factor in signaling along the gut-brain axis. The intimate physiological connection between the gut and the brain allows perturbations in the microbiome to be directly transmitted to the central nervous system and thereby contribute to psychiatric and neurological diseases. Common microbiome perturbations result from the ingestion of xenobiotic compounds including pharmaceuticals such as psychotropic drugs. In recent years, a variety of interactions between these drug classes and the gut microbiome have been reported, ranging from direct inhibitory effects on gut bacteria to microbiome-mediated drug degradation or sequestration. Consequently, the microbiome may play a critical role in influencing the intensity, duration, and onset of therapeutic effects, as well as in influencing the side effects that patients may experience. Furthermore, because the composition of the microbiome varies from person to person, the microbiome may contribute to the frequently observed interpersonal differences in the response to these drugs. In this review, we first summarize the known interactions between xenobiotics and the gut microbiome. Then, for psychopharmaceuticals, we address the question of whether these interactions with gut bacteria are irrelevant for the host (i.e., merely confounding factors in metagenomic analyses) or whether they may even have therapeutic or adverse effects.

BDNF/CREB signaling pathway contribution in depression pathogenesis: A survey on the non-pharmacological therapeutic opportunities for gut microbiota dysbiosis

Emerging evidence supports the gut microbiota and the brain communication in general health. This axis may affect behavior through modulating neurotransmission, and thereby involve in the pathogenesis and/or progression of different neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and cAMP response element-binding protein known as CREB/BDNF pathway plays have critical functions in the pathogenesis of depression as the same of mechanisms related to antidepressants. However, the putative causal significance of the CREB/BDNF signaling cascade in the gut-brain axis in depression remains unknown. Also interventions such as probiotics supplementation and exercise can influence microbiome also improve bidirectional communication of gut and brain. In this review we aim to explain the BDNF/CREB signaling pathway and gut microbiota dysfunction and then evaluate the potential role of probiotics, prebiotics, and exercise as a therapeutic target in the gut microbiota dysfunction induced depression. The current narrative review will specifically focus on the impact of exercise and diet on the intestinal microbiota component, as well as the effect that these therapies may have on the microbiota to alleviate depressive symptoms. Finally, we look at how BDNF/CREB signaling pathway may exert distinct effects on depression and gut microbiota dysfunction.

Effectiveness of probiotic/prebiotic/synbiotic treatments on anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Anxiety can adversely affect human well-being. This meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effects of interventions that alter the gut microbes (including probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics) on anxiety.

METHODS

A systematic meta-analysis of the effects of probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics on anxiety was conducted by searching randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in 13 databases. The primary outcomes were the pre- and post-intervention anxiety scores in the intervention and placebo groups. Anxiety scores were extracted as standard mean differences (SMDs) and pooled based on a random effects model. Subgroup analyses of anxiety scales, health status, gastrointestinal symptoms, flora strains, treatment type, probiotic dose, region, and treatment duration were also performed.

RESULTS

29 RCTs (2035 participants) were included, revealing that both probiotics and synbiotics significantly reduced anxiety scores. Additionally, anxiety scores did not significantly reduce when comparing prebiotics and placebos.

LIMITATIONS

Owing to the small combined effect size of probiotic/prebiotic/synbiotic treatments and the relatively few studies on prebiotics and synbiotics included in the analysis, the findings of probiotic/prebiotic/synbiotic treatments are preliminary.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study indicated that probiotics and synbiotics can reduce anxiety scores; however, it might be premature to conclude their clinical efficacy in alleviating anxiety due to the small effect size. There is no consensus regarding the optimal dose, treatment duration, treatment type, or probiotic strain to improve anxiety. Moreover, the mechanisms by which probiotics and synbiotics improve anxiety remain unclear. More RCTs are needed to determine the mechanisms of action and to identify appropriate markers to clarify their effects.

The Crosstalk between Gut Microbiota and Nervous System: A Bidirectional Interaction between Microorganisms and Metabolome

Several studies have shown that the gut microbiota influences behavior and, in turn, changes in the immune system associated with symptoms of depression or anxiety disorder may be mirrored by corresponding changes in the gut microbiota. Although the composition/function of the intestinal microbiota appears to affect the central nervous system (CNS) activities through multiple mechanisms, accurate epidemiological evidence that clearly explains the connection between the CNS pathology and the intestinal dysbiosis is not yet available. The enteric nervous system (ENS) is a separate branch of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the largest part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). It is composed of a vast and complex network of neurons which communicate via several neuromodulators and neurotransmitters, like those found in the CNS. Interestingly, despite its tight connections to both the PNS and ANS, the ENS is also capable of some independent activities. This concept, together with the suggested role played by intestinal microorganisms and the metabolome in the onset and progression of CNS neurological (neurodegenerative, autoimmune) and psychopathological (depression, anxiety disorders, autism) diseases, explains the large number of investigations exploring the functional role and the physiopathological implications of the gut microbiota/brain axis.

Deciphering psychobiotics' mechanism of action: bacterial extracellular vesicles in the spotlight

The intake of psychobiotic bacteria appears to be a promising adjunct to neuropsychiatric treatment, and their consumption may even be beneficial for healthy people in terms of mental functioning. The psychobiotics' mechanism of action is largely outlined by the gut-brain axis; however, it is not fully understood. Based on very recent studies, we provide compelling evidence to suggest a novel understanding of this mechanism: bacterial extracellular vesicles appear to mediate many known effects that psychobiotic bacteria exert on the brain. In this mini-review paper, we characterize the extracellular vesicles derived from psychobiotic bacteria to demonstrate that they can be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, penetrate to the brain, and carry the intracellular content to exert beneficial multidirectional action. Specifically, by regulating epigenetic factors, extracellular vesicles from psychobiotics appear to enhance expression of neurotrophic molecules, improve serotonergic neurotransmission, and likely supply astrocytes with glycolytic enzymes to favor neuroprotective mechanisms. As a result, some data suggest an antidepressant action of extracellular vesicles that originate even from taxonomically remote psychobiotic bacteria. As such, these extracellular vesicles may be regarded as postbiotics of potentially therapeutic application. The mini-review is enriched with illustrations to better introduce the complex nature of brain signaling mediated by bacterial extracellular vesicles and indicates knowledge gaps that require scientific exploration before further progress is made. In conclusion, bacterial extracellular vesicles appear to represent the missing piece of the puzzle in the mechanism of action of psychobiotics.

Gut Microbiome-Brain Alliance: A Landscape View into Mental and Gastrointestinal Health and Disorders

Gut microbiota includes a vast collection of microorganisms residing within the gastrointestinal tract. It is broadly recognized that the gut and brain are in constant bidirectional communication, of which gut microbiota and its metabolic production are a major component, and form the so-called gut microbiome-brain axis. Disturbances of microbiota homeostasis caused by imbalance in their functional composition and metabolic activities, known as dysbiosis, cause dysregulation of these pathways and trigger changes in the blood-brain barrier permeability, thereby causing pathological malfunctions, including neurological and functional gastrointestinal disorders. In turn, the brain can affect the structure and function of gut microbiota through the autonomic nervous system by regulating gut motility, intestinal transit and secretion, and gut permeability. Here, we examine data from the CAS Content Collection, the largest collection of published scientific information, and analyze the publication landscape of recent research. We review the advances in knowledge related to the human gut microbiome, its complexity and functionality, its communication with the central nervous system, and the effect of the gut microbiome-brain axis on mental and gut health. We discuss correlations between gut microbiota composition and various diseases, specifically gastrointestinal and mental disorders. We also explore gut microbiota metabolites with regard to their impact on the brain and gut function and associated diseases. Finally, we assess clinical applications of gut-microbiota-related substances and metabolites with their development pipelines. We hope this review can serve as a useful resource in understanding the current knowledge on this emerging field in an effort to further solving of the remaining challenges and fulfilling its potential.

Therapeutic Implications of the Microbial Hypothesis of Mental Illness

There is increasingly compelling evidence that microorganisms may play an etiological role in the emergence of mental illness in a subset of the population. Historically, most work has focused on the neurotrophic herpesviruses, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) as well as the protozoan, Toxoplasma gondii. In this chapter, we provide an umbrella review of this literature and additionally highlight prospective studies that allow more mechanistic conclusions to be drawn. Next, we focus on clinical trials of anti-microbial medications for the treatment of psychiatric disorders. We critically evaluate six trials that tested the impact of anti-herpes medications on inflammatory outcomes in the context of a medical disorder, nine clinical trials utilizing anti-herpetic medications for the treatment of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) or schizophrenia, and four clinical trials utilizing anti-parasitic medications for the treatment of schizophrenia. We then turn our attention to evidence for a gut dysbiosis and altered microbiome in psychiatric disorders, and the potential therapeutic effects of probiotics, including an analysis of more than 10 randomized controlled trials of probiotics in the context of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder (BD), and major depressive disorder (MDD).

Psychobiotics and Elderly Health

While aging with physiological dimensions refers to the changes seen with chronological age, on the other hand, aging with psychological dimensions refers to the change of humans’ capacity to adaptively. Such as learning, psychomotor, problem-solving and personality traits. With the improvement of life quality in recent years, the average life expectancy and therefore the incidence of neurodegenerative diseases among the elderly have also increased. Although the aging process is universal, progressive, gradual and unstoppable, human gut microbiota-targeted aging management is a new approach to health and anti-aging. Nutrition plays a big factor in the elderly population with providing adequate cognitive and physical functions and when taking the right nutrition it also reduces the risk of chronic diseases. When adding functional foods into the diet, it can play a significant role to reduce the risk of diet-related diseases. Such as probiotics and prebiotics. In recent years, a new subclass of probiotics called ‘psychobiotics’ has emerged. These psychobiotics are defined as probiotics that, when taken in appropriate amounts, it creates positive psychiatric effects in human psychopathology. Examination of this new class of probiotics provides a glimmer of hope for the effective management of neurodegenerative diseases and various psychiatric disorders, especially with increasing life expectancy. Also, recommending the use of probiotics in old age will contribute to the treatment of some health problems related to aging.

Brain-gut axis and psychiatric disorders: A perspective from bibliometric and visual analysis

BACKGROUND

The Brain-Gut Axis, a bidirectional signaling pathway that connects the intestinal and central nervous systems, plays an important role in the development of psychiatric disorders. However, the overall research trends in this field are unclear. This study explored the patterns of research on the brain-gut axis and psychiatric disorders from a bibliometric perspective.

METHODS

Relevant data were retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection, with search terms on psychiatric disorders and the brain-gut axis. R (version 4.2.0), VOSviewer (version 1.6.17), CiteSpace software, and the online bibliometric platform were used in the data analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 2,298 articles published between 1993 and 2022 were identified, showing an increasing trend over time. China (1,859; 20.70%) was the country that contributed the most publications. The journal Nutrients (95; 4.13%) published the most publications. Cryan JF (153; H-index=73) and University College Cork (559; 22.54%) were the most influential author and the most productive institution, respectively. The high-frequency keywords were clustered into six themes, including neurodegenerative diseases, stress-related diseases, immune, brain behavior, depression, and probiotic-related topics; of which, depression (880; 2019), anxiety (207; 2018) and autism (191; 2019) were the most studied psychiatric disorders in the past 5 years. "Depressive symptom" (2019-2020) and "probiotic treatment" (2019-2020) were the main areas addressed in recent years.

CONCLUSION

Research on the brain-gut axis and psychiatric disorders has attracted increasing attention in the past decade, with most publications originating from high-income level countries. This study provides a useful perspective on understanding the research trends, key hot topics, and research gaps in this expanding field.

The Intestinal Microbiota May Be a Potential Theranostic Tool for Personalized Medicine

The human intestine is colonized by a huge number of microorganisms from the moment of birth. This set of microorganisms found throughout the human body, is called the microbiota; the microbiome indicates the totality of genes that the microbiota can express, i.e., its genetic heritage. Thus, microbiota participates in and influences the proper functioning of the organism. The microbiota is unique for each person; it differs in the types of microorganisms it contains, the number of each microorganism, and the ratio between them, but mainly it changes over time and under the influence of many factors. Therefore, the correct functioning of the human body depends not only on the expression of its genes but also on the expression of the genes of the microorganisms it coexists with. This fact makes clear the enormous interest of community science in studying the relationship of the human microbiota with human health and the incidence of disease. The microbiota is like a unique personalized "mold" for each person; it differs quantitatively and qualitatively for the microorganisms it contains together with the relationship between them, and it changes over time and under the influence of many factors. We are attempting to modulate the microbial components in the human intestinal microbiota over time to provide positive feedback on the health of the host, from intestinal diseases to cancer. These interventions to modulate the intestinal microbiota as well as to identify the relative microbiome (genetic analysis) can range from dietary (with adjuvant prebiotics or probiotics) to fecal transplantation. This article researches the recent advances in these strategies by exploring their advantages and limitations. Furthermore, we aim to understand the relationship between intestinal dysbiosis and pathologies, through the research of resident microbiota, that would allow the personalization of the therapeutic antibiotic strategy.

Who Benefits from Fermented Food Consumption? A Comparative Analysis between Psychiatrically Ill and Psychiatrically Healthy Medical Students

Probiotic therapies and fermented food diets hold promise for improving mental health. Although in this regard psychiatric patients appear to benefit more than healthy individuals, no research has been performed to directly evaluate this hypothesis. The present study examined a cohort of medical students facing a stressful event, and some of the students reported suffering from chronic psychiatric diseases. The amount of fermented food consumption was calculated with the use of seven-day dietary records, while depressive and anxiety symptoms were assessed with the use of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 and Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7, respectively. In psychiatrically healthy medical students under psychological stress (n = 372), higher fermented food consumption was associated with more depressive and anxiety symptoms. In contrast, psychiatrically ill medical students (n = 25, 6.3% of all the participants) were found to present a negative association between the amount of fermented food consumed and the severity of depressive symptoms (adjusted β -0.52, 95% CI -0.85 to -0.19, p = 0.0042); however, this relationship was insignificant for anxiety symptoms (adjusted β -0.22, 95% CI -0.59 to 0.15, p = 0.22). A significant interaction was found between the consumption of fermented food and psychiatric diagnosis in predicting depressive symptoms (p = 0.0001), and a borderline significant interaction for anxiety symptoms (p = 0.053). In conclusion, psychiatrically ill people, but not healthy ones, may benefit from fermented food consumption in terms of alleviation of depressive symptoms. Our findings require cautious interpretation and further investigation.

Association Between Consumption of Fermented Food and Food-Derived Prebiotics With Cognitive Performance, Depressive, and Anxiety Symptoms in Psychiatrically Healthy Medical Students Under Psychological Stress: A Prospective Cohort Study

Background

Gut microbiota-based therapeutic strategies, such as probiotic and prebiotic preparations, may benefit mental health. However, commonly consumed fermented and prebiotic-containing foods have not been well-tested. The aim of the present study was to determine whether consumption of fermented food and food-derived prebiotics is associated with cognitive performance, depressive, and anxiety symptoms in psychiatrically healthy medical students under psychological stress.

Methods

The study protocol with data analysis plan was prospectively registered. Food consumption was evaluated with a 7-day dietary record. Cognitive performance was modeled with academic examination performance in relation to subject knowledge. Pre-exam depressive and anxiety symptoms were assessed with the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 and Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7, respectively.

Results

In total, 372 medical students (22.7 ± 1.1 years of age, 66% female) completed the study. No relationship was observed between cognitive performance under stress and either fermented food (adjusted β 0.02, 95% CI −0.07–0.11, p = 0.63) or food-derived prebiotics consumption (adjusted β −0.00, 95% CI −0.09–0.09, p = 0.99). High intake of fermented food was associated with more severe depressive (adjusted β 0.11, 95% CI 0.01–0.20, p = 0.032) and anxiety symptoms under stress (adjusted β 0.13, 95% CI 0.04–0.22, p = 0.0065); however, no such link was observed for food-derived prebiotics (adjusted β 0.03, 95% CI −0.07–0.13, p = 0.50 and −0.01, 95% CI −0.11–0.08, p = 0.83, for depression and anxiety, respectively).

Conclusions

Under psychological stress in medical students, consumption of fermented food and food-derived prebiotics appears to be not associated with cognitive performance. High intake of fermented food, but not food-derived prebiotics, may be associated with severity of depressive and anxiety symptoms. The safety of fermented food in this regard therefore requires further clarification.

A Systematic Review of Psychobiotic Interventions in Children and Adolescents to Enhance Cognitive Functioning and Emotional Behavior

This systematic review brings together human psychobiotic interventions in children and adolescents (aged 6-25 years) to evaluate the efficacy of pre- and probiotic supplements on stress, anxiety, and cognitive outcomes. Psychobiotic interventions in animal studies highlighted sensitivity to effects during development and maturation in multiple domains from emotion to cognitive processing. Several translational psychobiotic interventions in humans have been carried out to assess effects on emotion and cognition during childhood and into adulthood. The findings illustrate that there are limited consistent psychobiotic effects in developing human populations, and this is proposed to be due to heterogeneity in the trials conducted. Consequentially, it is recommended that three specific factors are considered in future psychobiotic trials: (1) Specificity of population studied (e.g., patients, developmental age), (2) specificity of intervention, and (3) homogeneity in outcome measures.

Impact of Contaminants on Microbiota: Linking the Gut-Brain Axis with Neurotoxicity

Over the last years, research has focused on microbiota to establish a missing link between neuronal health and intestine imbalance. Many studies have considered microbiota as critical regulators of the gut–brain axis. The crosstalk between microbiota and the central nervous system is mainly explained through three different pathways: the neural, endocrine, and immune pathways, intricately interconnected with each other. In day-to-day life, human beings are exposed to a wide variety of contaminants that affect our intestinal microbiota and alter the bidirectional communication between the gut and brain, causing neuronal disorders. The interplay between xenobiotics, microbiota and neurotoxicity is still not fully explored, especially for susceptible populations such as pregnant women, neonates, and developing children. Precisely, early exposure to contaminants can trigger neurodevelopmental toxicity and long-term diseases. There is growing but limited research on the specific mechanisms of the microbiota–gut–brain axis (MGBA), making it challenging to understand the effect of environmental pollutants. In this review, we discuss the biological interplay between microbiota–gut–brain and analyse the role of endocrine-disrupting chemicals: Bisphenol A (BPA), Chlorpyrifos (CPF), Diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), and Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in MGBA perturbations and subsequent neurotoxicity. The complexity of the MGBA and the changing nature of the gut microbiota pose significant challenges for future research. However, emerging in-silico models able to analyse and interpret meta-omics data are a promising option for understanding the processes in this axis and can help prevent neurotoxicity.

The microbiota-gut-brain axis: pathways to better brain health. Perspectives on what we know, what we need to investigate and how to put knowledge into practice

The gut and brain link via various metabolic and signalling pathways, each with the potential to influence mental, brain and cognitive health. Over the past decade, the involvement of the gut microbiota in gut-brain communication has become the focus of increased scientific interest, establishing the microbiota-gut-brain axis as a field of research. There is a growing number of association studies exploring the gut microbiota's possible role in memory, learning, anxiety, stress, neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders. Consequently, attention is now turning to how the microbiota can become the target of nutritional and therapeutic strategies for improved brain health and well-being. However, while such strategies that target the gut microbiota to influence brain health and function are currently under development with varying levels of success, still very little is yet known about the triggers and mechanisms underlying the gut microbiota's apparent influence on cognitive or brain function and most evidence comes from pre-clinical studies rather than well controlled clinical trials/investigations. Filling the knowledge gaps requires establishing a standardised methodology for human studies, including strong guidance for specific focus areas of the microbiota-gut-brain axis, the need for more extensive biological sample analyses, and identification of relevant biomarkers. Other urgent requirements are new advanced models for in vitro and in vivo studies of relevant mechanisms, and a greater focus on omics technologies with supporting bioinformatics resources (training, tools) to efficiently translate study findings, as well as the identification of relevant targets in study populations. The key to building a validated evidence base rely on increasing knowledge sharing and multi-disciplinary collaborations, along with continued public-private funding support. This will allow microbiota-gut-brain axis research to move to its next phase so we can identify realistic opportunities to modulate the microbiota for better brain health.

Mechanisms of Cognitive Impairment in Depression. May Probiotics Help?

Depression is the major cause of disability globally. Apart from lowered mood and accompanying symptoms, it leads to cognitive impairment that altogether predicts disadvantaged social functioning. Reduced cognitive function in depression appears a bit neglected in the field of clinical and molecular psychiatry, while it is estimated to occur in two-thirds of depressed patients and persist in at least one third of remitted patients. This problem, therefore, requires elucidation at the biomolecular and system levels and calls for improvement in therapeutic approach. In this review study, we address the above-mentioned issues by discussing putative mechanisms of cognitive decline in depression: (1) increased oxidative stress and (2) inflammation, (3) disturbed hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenals axis, and (4) reduced monoamines functionality. Moreover, we acknowledge additional underpinnings of cognitive impairment in depressed elderly: (5) vascular-originated brain ischemia and (6) amyloid-beta plaque accumulation. Additionally, by reviewing molecular, pre-clinical and clinical evidence, we propose gut microbiota-targeted strategies as potential adjuvant therapeutics. The study provides a consolidated source of knowledge regarding mechanisms of cognitive impairment in depression and may path the way toward improved treatment options.

Nutrient Intake and Gut Microbial Genera Changes after a 4-Week Placebo Controlled Galacto-Oligosaccharides Intervention in Young Females

Recent interest in the gut-brain-axis has highlighted the potential of prebiotics to impact wellbeing, and to affect behavioral change in humans. In this clinical trial, we examined the impact of four-weeks daily supplementation of galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) on self-reported nutrient intake and relationships on gut microbiota in a four-week two-armed parallel double-blind placebo controlled GOS supplement trial in young adult females. Food diaries and stool samples were collected prior to and following 28 days of supplement consumption. It was found that four weeks of GOS supplementation influenced macronutrient intake, as evident by reduced carbohydrate and sugars and increased fats intake. Further analysis showed that the reduction in carbohydrates was predicted by increasing abundances of Bifidobacterium in the GOS group in comparison to the placebo group. This suggests that Bifidobacterium increase via GOS supplementation may help improve the gut microbiota composition by altering the desire for specific types of carbohydrates and boosting Bifidobacterium availability when fiber intake is below recommended levels, without compromising appetite for fiber from food.

Randomized Controlled Trial of Probiotic PS128 in Children with Tourette Syndrome

Tourette syndrome results from a complex interaction between social–environmental factors, multiple genetic abnormalities, and neurotransmitter disturbances. This study is a double-blinded, randomized controlled trial using probiotics Lactobacillus plantarum PS128 as an intervention to examine if probiotics improve symptoms of children with Tourette syndrome. This study enrolled children aged 5 to 18 years old who fulfilled DSM-V diagnostic criteria for Tourette syndrome. Patients were assessed before initiating the trial, at one month, and at two months after randomization. The primary outcome was evaluated by Yale Global Tic Severity Scale (YGTSS), and the secondary outcome studied the possible comorbidities in these children. The results revealed no significant difference in improvement in YGTSS between the control group and the PS128 group. As for secondary endpoints, an analysis of Conners’ Continuous Performance Test (CPT) showed improvement in commission and detectability in the PS128 group. In conclusion, although probiotics may not have tic-reducing effects in children with Tourette syndrome, it may have benefits on comorbidities such as attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Further studies are needed to clarify the effects of probiotics on the comorbidities of Tourette syndrome children.