The evolving landscape of expanded carrier screening: challenges and opportunities

Reproductive genetic carrier screening in pregnancy: improving health outcomes and expanding access

Reproductive genetic carrier screening (RGCS) serves to screen couples for their risk of having children affected by monogenic conditions. The included conditions are mostly autosomal recessive or X-linked with infantile or early-childhood onset. Cystic fibrosis, spinal muscular atrophy, and hemoglobinopathies are now recommended by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) for universal screening. Recommendations for further RGCS remain ethnicity based. The American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the National Society of Genetic Counselors in recent years have recommended universal expanded-panel RGCS and moving towards a more equitable approach. ACOG guidelines state that offering RGCS is an acceptable option, however it has not provided clear guidance on standard of care. Positive results on RGCS can significantly impact reproductive plans for couples, including pursuing in vitro fertilization with preimplantation genetic testing, prenatal genetic testing, specific fetal or neonatal treatment, or adoption. RGCS is a superior approach compared to ethnicity-based carrier screening and moves away from single race-based medical practice. We urge the obstetrics and gynecology societies to adopt the guidelines for RGCS put forward by multiple societies and help reduce systemic inequalities in medicine in our new genetic age. Having national societies such as ACOG and the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine officially recommend and endorse RGCS would bolster insurance coverage and financial support by employers for RGCS. The future of comprehensive reproductive care in the age of genomic medicine entails expanding access so patients and families can make the reproductive options that best fit their needs.

Cystic fibrosis foundation position paper: Redefining the cystic fibrosis care team

Interdisciplinary teams care for people with cystic fibrosis (pwCF) at specialized treatment centers. These teams have laid the foundation for the cystic fibrosis (CF) care model responsible for gains in health outcomes and quality of life within the CF community. However, the landscape of CF care is transforming, invigorated by new technologies, accessibility of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) therapies, and increased utilization of telemedicine. In light of these advances, it is appropriate to re-evaluate the CF care team structure. This position paper offers guidance for the structure of a CF care center designed to meet the evolving needs of the CF community. Fundamental to the proposed center structure is recognition of pwCF and their families as integral members of their care teams, underpinning the necessity for shared decision making, awareness of social determinants of health, and active partnership between all healthcare professionals involved in the care of pwCF.

Women's preferences for genetic screening in routine care: A qualitative study

OBJECTIVE

Examine decision-making regarding when women would prefer to receive reproductive carrier and cancer predisposition screening and from what clinician.

METHODS

20 women completed in-depth interviews via Zoom exploring their views on the provision of reproductive carrier and cancer predisposition screening. Our analysis identified themes related to what informs women's preferences for when they would like to receive a genetic screening offer and by which clinician.

RESULTS

Participants' responses to questions about when they would be interested in receiving genetic screening were best understood through the lens of the Extended Parallel Process Model. Specifically, personal utility of the information, a woman's family health history and cost were key factors in decision-making. Women considered their clinician's knowledge and their trust in and relationship with the clinician when deciding from whom they would prefer to receive an offer of genetic screening.

CONCLUSION

OB/GYN clinic patients may accept an offer of genetic screening from a knowledgeable and trusted clinician for carrier and cancer predisposition screening preconceptionally or prenatally.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Integrating genetic reproductive and cancer predisposition screening into the care provided to reproductive age OB/GYN patients may be acceptable to this population.

[CFTR gene variant screening in gamete donation candidates in France: Which indications? How to screen? Why?]

OBJECTIVES

According to French recommendations, only the caryotype is carried out as a first line in candidates for gamete donation. The prescription of additional genetic tests for variants responsible for serious monogenic diseases is only recommended in the case of call points. However, cystic fibrosis remains the most common genetic disease with serious consequences in childhood. The purpose is to assess the different screening strategies in the Centres d'Études et de Conservation des Œufs et du Sperme humain (CECOS) regarding abnormalities of the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane conductance Regulator gene (CFTR).

METHOD

Our study is based on the analysis of data collected using a questionnaire. Private centres authorised to donate have been excluded from this work.

RESULTS

Twenty-six centres participated out of the 33 interviewees. Two centres carry out systematic screening in all their sperm donation candidates while only one centre practises it in its oocyte donation candidates. For the other 23 centres, research is carried out in case of strong clinical suspicions according to personal or family history and when one of the two members of the recipient couple has a known variant. Regarding the molecular analysis technique used, 56.5% of centres use PCR with commercial kits, whereas the other centers use next-generation sequencing.

CONCLUSION

Targeted screening therefore remains widely practiced in France unlike other countries. Moving to expanded systematic screening raises ethical, financial and organisational issues.

Impact of prenatal genomics on clinical genetics practice

Genetic testing for prenatal diagnosis in the pre-genomic era primarily focused on detecting common fetal aneuploidies, using methods that combine maternal factors and imaging findings. The genomic era, ushered in by the emergence of new technologies like chromosomal microarray analysis and next-generation sequencing, has transformed prenatal diagnosis. These new tools enable screening and testing for a broad spectrum of genetic conditions, from chromosomal to monogenic disorders, and significantly enhance diagnostic precision and efficacy. This chapter reviews the transition from traditional karyotyping to comprehensive sequencing-based genomic analyses. We discuss both the clinical utility and the challenges of integrating prenatal exome and genome sequencing into prenatal care and underscore the need for ethical frameworks, improved prenatal phenotypic characterization, and global collaboration to further advance the field.

Antenatal reproductive screening for pregnant people including preconception: Provides the best reproductive opportunity for informed consent, quality, and safety

INTRODUCTION

This antenatal screening review will include reproductive screening evidence and approaches for pre-conception and post-conception, using first to third trimester screening opportunities.

METHODS

Focused antenatal screening peer-reviewed publications were evaluated and summarized.

RESULTS

Evidenced-based reproductive antenatal screening elements should be offered and discussed, with the pregnancy planning or pregnant person, during Preconception (genetic carrier screening for reproductive partners, personal and family (including reproductive partner) history review for increased genetic and pregnancy morbidity risks); First Trimester (fetal dating with ultrasound; fetal aneuploidy screening plus consideration for expanded fetal morbidity criteria, if appropriate; pregnant person preeclampsia screening; early fetal anatomy screening; early fetal cardiac screening); Second Trimester for standard fetal anatomy screening (18-22 weeks) including cardiac; pregnant person placental and cord pathology screening; pregnant person preterm birth screening with cervical length measurement); Third Trimester (fetal growth surveillance; continued preterm birth risk surveillance).

CONCLUSION

Antenatal reproductive screening has multiple elements, is complex, is time-consuming, and requires the use of pre- and post-testing counselling for most screening elements. The use of preconception and trimesters 'one to three' requires clear patient understanding and buy-in. Informed consent and knowledge transfer is a main goal for antenatal reproductive screening approaches.

Primary care professionals' views on population-based expanded carrier screening: an online focus group study

BACKGROUND

Population-based expanded carrier screening (ECS) involves screening for multiple recessive diseases offered to all couples considering a pregnancy or during pregnancy. Previous research indicates that in some countries primary care professionals are perceived as suitable providers for ECS. However, little is known about their perspectives. We therefore aimed to explore primary care professionals' views on population-based ECS.

METHODS

Four online focus groups with 14 general practitioners (GPs) and 16 community midwives were conducted in the Netherlands.

RESULTS

Our findings highlight various perspectives on the desirability of population-based ECS. Participants agreed that ECS could enhance reproductive autonomy and thereby prevent suffering of the child and/or parents. However, they also raised several ethical, societal, and psychological concerns, including a tendency towards a perfect society, stigmatization, unequal access to screening and negative psychosocial consequences. Participants believed that provision of population-based ECS would be feasible if prerequisites regarding training and reimbursement for providers would be fulfilled. most GPs considered themselves less suitable or capable of providing ECS, in contrast to midwives who did consider themselves suitable. Nevertheless, participants believed that, if implemented, ECS should be offered in primary care or by public health services rather than as hospital-based specialized care, because they believed a primary care ECS offer increases access in terms of time and location.

CONCLUSIONS

While participants believed that an ECS offer would be feasible, they questioned its desirability and priority. Studies on the desirability and feasibility of population-based ECS offered in primary care or public health settings are needed.

An ESHG-ESHRE survey on the current practice of expanded carrier screening in medically assisted reproduction

STUDY QUESTION

What is the current practice and views on (expanded) carrier screening ((E)CS) among healthcare professionals in medically assisted reproductive (MAR) practices in Europe?

SUMMARY ANSWER

The findings show a limited support for ECS with less than half of the respondents affiliated to centres offering ECS, and substantial variation in practice between centres in Europe.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

The availability of next-generation sequencing, which enables testing for large groups of genes simultaneously, has facilitated the introduction and expansion of ECS strategies, currently offered particularly in the private sector in the context of assisted reproduction.

STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION

A cross-sectional survey evaluating practice and current views among professionals working in MAR practice in different European countries was designed using the online SurveyMonkey tool. The web-based questionnaire included questions on general information regarding the current practice of (E)CS in MAR and questions on what is offered, to whom the test is offered, and how it is offered. It consisted mostly of multiple-choice questions with comment boxes, but also included open questions on the respondents' attitudes/concerns relevant to (E)CS practice, and room to upload requested files (e.g. guidelines and gene panels). In total, 338 responses were collected from 8 February 2022 to 11 April 2022.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS

The online survey was launched with an invitation email from the ESHRE central office (n = 4889 emails delivered) and the European Society of Human Genetics (ESHG) central office (n = 1790 emails delivered) sent to the ESHRE and ESHG members, and by social media posts. The survey was addressed to European MAR centres or gamete banks and to centres located in non-European countries participating in the European IVF-monitoring Consortium. Two reminder emails were sent. After exclusion of 39 incomplete responses received (e.g. only background information), 299 respondents from 40 different countries were included for analyses.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

Overall, 42.5% (127/299) of respondents were affiliated to centres offering ECS. The perceived responsibility to enable prospective parents to make informed reproductive decisions and preventing suffering/burden for parents were the main reasons to offer ECS. A single ECS panel is offered by nearly 45% (39/87 received answers) of the centres offering ECS, 25.3% (22/87) of those centres offer a selection of ECS panels, and 29.9% (26/87) offer whole exome sequencing and a large in silico panel. Different ranges of panel sizes and conditions were included in the ECS panel(s) offered. Most of the respondents (81.8%; 72/88 received answers) indicated that the panels they offer are universal and target the entire population. Pathogenic variants (89.7%; 70/78 received answers), and to a lesser extent, likely pathogenic variants (64.1%%; 50/78 received answers), were included in the ECS report for individuals and couples undergoing MAR with their own gametes. According to 87.9% (80/91 received answers) of the respondents, patients have to pay to undergo an ECS test. Most respondents (76.2%; 61/80 received answers) reported that counselling is provided before and after the ECS test. Preimplantation genetic testing, the use of donor gametes, and prenatal diagnostic testing were the three main reproductive options discussed with identified carrier couples. The main reason, according to the respondents, for not offering ECS in their centre, was the lack of professional recommendations supporting ECS (52.5%; 73/139 received answers) and the high cost for couples or reimbursement not being available (49.6%; 69/139). The challenges and moral dilemmas encountered by the respondents revolved mainly around the content of the offer, including the variants classification and the heterogeneity of the panels, the counselling, and the cost of the test.

LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION

Although the total number of respondents was acceptable, the completion rate of the survey was suboptimal. In addition, the heterogeneity of answers to open-ended questions and the ambiguity of some of the answers, along with incomplete responses, posed a challenge in interpreting survey results. It is also plausible that some questions were not easily understood by the respondents. For this reason, response and non-response bias are acknowledged as further limitations of the survey.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

The results of this survey could aid in identifying potential challenges or areas for improvement in the current practice of ECS in the MAR field and contribute to the discussion on how to address them. The results underline the need to stimulate a more knowledge-based debate on the complexity and the pros and cons of a possible implementation of ECS in MAR.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)

All costs relating to the development process were covered from European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology and European Society of Human Genetics funds. There was no external funding of the development process or manuscript production. A.C. is full-time employee of Juno Genetics. L.H. declared receiving a research grant during the past 36 months from the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development. She has also participated in a Health Council report of the Netherlands on preconception carrier screening and collaborated with the VSOP Dutch Genetic Alliance (patient umbrella organization on rare and genetic disorders). L.H. and C.v.E. are affiliated with Amsterdam University Medical Centre, a hospital that offers ECS in a non-commercial setting. R.V. received honoraria for presentations from Merck Academy and is unpaid board member of the executive committee of the Spanish Fertility Society. The other authors had nothing to disclose.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

N/A.

Policy Guidance for Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing Services: Framework Development Study

BACKGROUND

The online offer of commercial genetic tests, also called direct-to-consumer genetic tests (DTC-GTs), enables citizens to gain insight into their health and disease risk based on their genetic profiles. DTC-GT offers often consist of a combination of services or aspects, including advertisements, information, DNA analysis, and medical or lifestyle advice. The risks and benefits of DTC-GT services have been debated and studied extensively, but instruments that assess DTC-GT services and aid policy are lacking. This leads to uncertainty among policy makers, law enforcers, and regulators on how to ensure and balance both public safety and autonomy and about the responsibilities these 3 parties have toward the public.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to develop a framework that outlines aspects of DTC-GTs that lead to policy issues and to help provide policy guidance regarding DTC-GT services.

METHODS

We performed 3 steps: (1) an integrative literature review to identify risks and benefits of DTC-GT services for consumers and society in Embase and Medline (January 2014-June 2022), (2) structuring benefits and risks in different steps of the consumer journey, and (3) development of a checklist for policy guidance.

RESULTS

Potential risks and benefits of DTC-GT services were mapped from 134 papers and structured into 6 phases. In summary, these phases were called the consumer journey: (1) exposure, (2) pretest information, (3) DNA analysis, (4) data management, (5) posttest information, and (6) individual and societal impact. The checklist for evaluation of DTC-GT services consisted of 8 themes, covering 38 items that may raise policy issues in DTC-GT services. The themes included the following aspects: general service content, validity and quality assurance, potential data and privacy risks, scientific evidence and robustness, and quality of the provided information.

CONCLUSIONS

Both the consumer journey and the checklist break the DTC-GT offer down into key aspects that may impact and compromise individual and public health, safety, and autonomy. This framework helps policy makers, regulators, and law enforcers develop methods to interpret, assess, and act in the DTC-GT service market.

Perceptions of reproductive healthcare providers regarding their involvement in offering expanded carrier screening in fertility clinics: a qualitative study

RESEARCH QUESTION

What are the main arguments of reproductive healthcare providers in favour or against their involvement in offering expanded carrier screening (ECS) for recessive disorders at fertility clinics in the Netherlands?

DESIGN

Semi-structured interview study with 20 reproductive healthcare providers between May 2020 and January 2021. Participants included 11 gynaecologists, seven fertility doctors, one nurse practitioner and one clinical embryologist, recruited from academic medical centres (n = 13), peripheral facilities associated with academic centres (n = 4), and independent fertility treatment centres (n = 3) in the Netherlands. An interview guide was developed, and thematic content analysis was performed using ATLAS.ti software.

RESULTS

Arguments of reproductive healthcare providers in favour of their potential involvement in offering ECS included: (i) opportunities offered by the setting; (ii) motivation to assist in reproduction and prevent suffering; and (iii) to counter unwanted commercialization offers. Arguments against involvement included: (i) lack of knowledge and familiarity with offering ECS; (ii) insufficient staff and resources, and potential high costs for clinics and/or couples; (iii) the emotional impact it may have on couples; (iv) perceived complexity of counselling and expected elongation of waiting lists; and (v) expected low impact on reducing the burden of diseases. Participants felt that more evidence and research on the costs-benefits, implications and demand are needed prior to their involvement.

CONCLUSION

While agreeing that the field of medically assisted reproduction provides a unique opportunity to offer ECS, reproductive healthcare workers feel a lack of capability and limited motivation to offer ECS to all or a selection of couples at their fertility clinics.

Pregnant couples' attitude toward extended pre-conceptional genomic screening

AIM

To determine the attitudes of pregnant couples toward carrier screening genomic tests.

METHODS

A validated 22-item questionnaire was offered in person by medical staff to pregnant women ≥32 weeks' gestation and their partners attending prenatal classes from May to July 2014. The questionnaire inquired about demographic data, interest in various forms of genetic carrier screening tests, and genetic literacy.

RESULTS

Of 497 respondents, 69% expressed strong interest in carrier screening. The interested respondents exhibited substantial support for screening for common (82%) or all known genetic diseases (79%), as well as for treatable (79%) and untreatable diseases (85%). The majority of respondents believed that genetic test results could provide them with a sense of security but also provoke anxiety and fear. They were aware that these results could affect their perspective on life, work, and the atmosphere within their family, and acknowledged the potential effect on their relationship with their partner. However, none of these concerns diminished their desire to learn about their carrier status. Respondents with higher genetic literacy exhibited greater interest in screening tests (P=0.006). More non-religious respondents compared with practicing religious respondents (P=0.002), and more respondents with higher education compared with those with lower education, expressed interest in screening (P=0.003).

CONCLUSION

Most respondents expressed considerable interest in receiving information about their carrier status through genetic tests.

Aspiring toward equitable benefits from genomic advances to individuals of ancestrally diverse backgrounds

Advancements in genomic technologies have shown remarkable promise for improving health trajectories. The Human Genome Project has catalyzed the integration of genomic tools into clinical practice, such as disease risk assessment, prenatal testing and reproductive genomics, cancer diagnostics and prognostication, and therapeutic decision making. Despite the promise of genomic technologies, their full potential remains untapped without including individuals of diverse ancestries and integrating social determinants of health (SDOHs). The NHGRI launched the 2020 Strategic Vision with ten bold predictions by 2030, including "individuals from ancestrally diverse backgrounds will benefit equitably from advances in human genomics." Meeting this goal requires a holistic approach that brings together genomic advancements with careful consideration to healthcare access as well as SDOHs to ensure that translation of genetics research is inclusive, affordable, and accessible and ultimately narrows rather than widens health disparities. With this prediction in mind, this review delves into the two paramount applications of genetic testing-reproductive genomics and precision oncology. When discussing these applications of genomic advancements, we evaluate current accessibility limitations, highlight challenges in achieving representativeness, and propose paths forward to realize the ultimate goal of their equitable applications.

Ethnically unique disease burden and limitations of current expanded carrier screening panels

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of the study is to identify the recessive diseases currently affecting real-world pediatric patients in Taiwan, and whether current extended carrier screening panels have the coverage and detective power to identify the pathogenic variants in the carrier parents.

METHODS

A total of 132 trio-samples were collected from May 2017 to March 2022. The participants were parents of pediatric intensive care unit patients who were critically ill or infants with abnormal newborn screening results. A retrospective carrier screening scheme was applied to analyze only the carrier status of pathogenic or likely pathogenic recessive variants resulting in diseases in their children. The recessive disorders diagnosed in our cohort were compared with the gene content in commercial panels.

RESULTS

Mutations in COQ4, PEX1, OTC, and IKBKG were the most frequently identified. In the parents of 44 children with confirmed diagnoses of recessive diseases, 47 (53.40%) screened positive for being the carriers of the same recessive disorders diagnosed in their children. The commercial panels covered 35.13% to 54.05% of the disorders diagnosed in this cohort.

CONCLUSION

Clinicians and genetic counselors should be aware of the limitations of current extended carrier screening and interpret negative screening results with caution. Future panels should also consider genes with ethnically unique mutations such as pathogenic variants of the COQ4 gene in the East Asian population.

Investigation of interest in and timing preference for cancer predisposition testing and expanded carrier screening among women of reproductive age

Objective

To examine cognitive, relational, and social predictors of interest in and timing preference for cancer predisposition testing (CPT) and expanded carrier screening (ECS) offered in routine gynecologic care for women of reproductive age.

Methods

Women between 20 and 35 years old who were currently pregnant or had a prior pregnancy (N = 351) completed an online survey. Bivariate and multivariable analyses were used to identify significant predictors of women's interest in and timing preference for CPT and ECS.

Results

Most respondents reported high interest in CPT and ECS and preferred to have them when planning for a pregnancy. Perceived importance of genetic information and negative attitude towards uncertainty predicted interest in CPT and ECS in multivariable models. Genetic knowledge predicted preference for CPT or ECS when planning for a pregnancy.

Conclusion

Educational and decision support tools should be developed to enhance women's knowledge and awareness of CPT and ECS and to provide them with strategies to manage uncertainty.

Innovation

We examined women's timing preference for CPT and ECS and the impact of partner support and trust with gynecologist. A context-specific attitudes toward uncertainty scale was used to investigate women's particular perceptions of uncertainty in genetic testing.

Benefits and concerns of expanded carrier screening: what do pregnant Latina women in Texas think?

The American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) recommends carrier screening for all pregnant women regardless of race or ethnicity. In recent years, the ACMG broadened the guidelines to include expanded carrier screening (ECS) which can screen for 112 conditions. This study seeks to explore the perceptions of pregnant Latina women about the benefits and concerns related to ECS use. Partnering with prenatal clinics in Texas, we conducted semi-structured qualitative interviews with 32 pregnant Latina women in their second or third trimester of pregnancy. NVivo 8 was used to conduct content analysis and emergent coding of the data. Participants reported the benefits of ECS as helping them prepare for the baby's arrival, informing them of the baby's risk for genetic conditions, ensuring the health of their baby, and preventing diseases before birth. The ECS-related concerns expressed by the participants included worries surrounding potential positive ECS results, insufficient knowledge about the genetic diseases screened for by ECS, the accuracy of the ECS, the potential harm ECS may cause the baby, and the affordability of ECS. After weighing both their perceived benefits and concerns, nearly all the participants believed that ECS should be offered to all pregnant women. This study contributes to an understudied research area in the genetic/genomic field. Our findings can help increase the awareness of obstetricians, genetic professionals, and other healthcare providers regarding pregnant Latina women's views on ECS and inform the design of culturally appropriate care as ECS is adopted into routine clinical practice.

Using a theory informed approach to design, execute, and evaluate implementation strategies to support offering reproductive genetic carrier screening in Australia

BACKGROUND

Health care professionals play a central role in offering reproductive genetic carrier screening but face challenges when integrating the offer into practice. The aim of this study was to design, execute, and evaluate theory-informed implementation strategies to support health care professionals in offering carrier screening.

METHODS

An exploratory multi-method approach was systematically employed based on the Theoretical Domain Framework (TDF). Implementation strategies were designed by aligning TDF barriers reported by health care professionals involved in a large carrier screening study, to behaviour change techniques combined with study genetic counsellors' experiential knowledge. The strategies were trialled with a subset of health care professionals and evaluated against controls, using findings from questionnaires and interviews with healthcare professionals. The primary outcome measure was the number of couples who initiated enrolment.

RESULTS

Health care professionals (n = 151) reported barriers in the TDF Domains of skills, e.g., lack of practice in offering screening, and challenges of environmental context and resources, e.g., lack of time, which informed the design of a skills video and a waiting room poster using the TDF-behaviour change technique linking tool. Following implementation, (Skills video n = 29 vs control n = 31 and Poster n = 46 vs control n = 34) TDF barrier scores decreased across all groups and little change was observed in the primary outcome measure. The skills video, though welcomed by health care professionals, was reportedly too long at seven minutes. The waiting room poster was seen as easily implementable.

CONCLUSIONS

As carrier screening moves towards mainstream healthcare, health care professionals report barriers to offering screening. To meet their needs, developing and testing experiential and theory-informed strategies that acknowledge contextual factors are essential.

Implementing preconception expanded carrier screening in a universal health care system: A model-based cost-effectiveness analysis

PURPOSE

The limited evidence available on the cost-effectiveness (CE) of expanded carrier screening (ECS) prevents its widespread use in most countries, including Italy. Herein, we aimed to estimate the CE of 3 ECS panels (ie, American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics [ACMG] Tier 1 screening, "Focused Screening," testing 15 severe, highly penetrant conditions, and ACMG Tier 3 screening) compared with no screening, the health care model currently adopted in Italy.

METHODS

The reference population consisted of Italian couples seeking pregnancy with no increased personal/familial genetic risk. The CE model was developed from the perspective of the Italian universal health care system and was based on the following assumptions: 100% sensitivity of investigated screening strategies, 77% intervention rate of at-risk couples (ARCs), and no risk to conceive an affected child by risk-averse couples opting for medical interventions.

RESULTS

The incremental CE ratios generated by comparing each genetic screening panel with no screening were: -14,875 ± 1,208 €/life years gained (LYG) for ACMG1S, -106,863 ± 2,379 €/LYG for Focused Screening, and -47,277 ± 1,430 €/LYG for ACMG3S. ACMG1S and Focused Screening were dominated by ACMG3S. The parameter uncertainty did not significantly affect the outcome of the analyses.

CONCLUSION

From a universal health care system perspective, all the 3 ECS panels considered in the study would be more cost-effective than no screening.

Current State of Dor Yeshorim, Expanded Carrier, and Newborn Screening: Benefits and Limitations

ABSTRACT

Availability and accessibility of preconception and prenatal genetic carrier and newborn biochemical and genetic screening have grown exponentially over the past 2 decades and as such, it is challenging for clinicians to keep pace. Although genetic counseling or genetic consultation should be offered to all expectant and new parents for prenatal screening decisions and positive results, benefits and limitations of these tests and results must be known and familiar to perinatal and pediatric clinicians. A brief historical overview of Dor Yeshorim, preconception and prenatal expanded carrier, and newborn screening is presented, followed by discussion about the conditions screened and considerations surrounding the benefits and limitations of these tests in the practice setting.

The Potential Usefulness of the Expanded Carrier Screening to Identify Hereditary Genetic Diseases: A Case Report from Real-World Data

Expanded carrier screening (ECS) means a comprehensive genetic analysis to evaluate an individual's carrier status. ECS is becoming more frequently used, thanks to the availability of techniques such as next generation sequencing (NGS) and array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH), allowing for extensive genome-scale analyses. Here, we report the case of a couple who underwent ECS for a case of autism spectrum disorder in the male partner family. aCGH and whole-exome sequencing (WES) were performed in the couple. aCGH analysis identified in the female partner two deletions involving genes associated to behavioral and neurodevelopment disorders. No clinically relevant alterations were identified in the husband. Interestingly, WES analysis identified in the male partner a pathogenic variant in the LPL gene that is emerging as a novel candidate gene for autism. This case shows that ECS may be useful in clinical contexts, especially when both the partners are analyzed before conception, thus allowing the estimation of their risk to transmit an inherited condition. On the other side, there are several concerns related to possible incidental findings and difficult-to-interpret results. Once these limits are defined by the establishment of specific guidelines, ECS may have a greater diffusion.

Carrier Screening Programs for Cystic Fibrosis, Fragile X Syndrome, Hemoglobinopathies and Thalassemia, and Spinal Muscular Atrophy: A Health Technology Assessment

Background

We conducted a health technology assessment to evaluate the safety, effectiveness, and cost-effectiveness of carrier screening programs for cystic fibrosis (CF), fragile X syndrome (FXS), hemoglobinopathies and thalassemia, and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) in people who are considering a pregnancy or who are pregnant. We also evaluated the budget impact of publicly funding carrier screening programs, and patient preferences and values.

Methods

We performed a systematic literature search of the clinical evidence. We assessed the risk of bias of each included study using the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool and the Risk of Bias Assessment tool for Non-randomized Studies (RoBANS), and the quality of the body of evidence according to the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) Working Group criteria. We performed a systematic economic literature search and conducted cost-effectiveness analyses comparing preconception or prenatal carrier screening programs to no screening. We considered four carrier screening strategies: 1) universal screening with standard panels; 2) universal screening with a hypothetical expanded panel; 3) risk-based screening with standard panels; and 4) risk-based screening with a hypothetical expanded panel. We also estimated the 5-year budget impact of publicly funding preconception or prenatal carrier screening programs for the given conditions in Ontario. To contextualize the potential value of carrier screening, we spoke with 22 people who had sought out carrier screening.

Results

We included 107 studies in the clinical evidence review. Carrier screening for CF, hemoglobinopathies and thalassemia, FXS, and SMA likely results in the identification of couples with an increased chance of having an affected pregnancy (GRADE: Moderate). Screening likely impacts reproductive decision-making (GRADE: Moderate) and may result in lower anxiety among pregnant people, although the evidence is uncertain (GRADE: Very low).We included 21 studies in the economic evidence review, but none of the study findings were directly applicable to the Ontario context. Our cost-effectiveness analyses showed that in the short term, preconception or prenatal carrier screening programs identified more at-risk pregnancies (i.e., couples that tested positive) and provided more reproductive choice options compared with no screening, but were associated with higher costs. While all screening strategies had similar values for health outcomes, when comparing all strategies together, universal screening with standard panels was the most cost-effective strategy for both preconception and prenatal periods. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) of universal screening with standard panels compared with no screening in the preconception period were $29,106 per additional at-risk pregnancy detected and $367,731 per affected birth averted; the corresponding ICERs in the prenatal period were about $29,759 per additional at-risk pregnancy detected and $431,807 per affected birth averted.We estimated that publicly funding a universal carrier screening program in the preconception period over the next 5 years would require between $208 million and $491 million. Publicly funding a risk-based screening program in the preconception period over the next 5 years would require between $1.3 million and $2.7 million. Publicly funding a universal carrier screening program in the prenatal period over the next 5 years would require between $128 million and $305 million. Publicly funding a risk-based screening program in the prenatal period over the next 5 years would require between $0.8 million and $1.7 million. Accounting for treatment costs of the screened health conditions resulted in a decrease in the budget impact of universally provided carrier screening programs or cost savings for risk-based programs.Participants value the perceived potential positive impact of carrier screening programs such as medical benefits from early detection and treatment, information for reproductive decision-making, and the social benefit of awareness and preparation. There was a strong preference expressed for thorough, timely, unbiased information to allow for informed reproductive decision-making.

Conclusions

Carrier screening for CF, FXS, hemoglobinopathies and thalassemia, and SMA is effective at identifying at-risk couples, and test results may impact preconception and reproductive decision-making.The cost-effectiveness and budget impact of carrier screening programs are uncertain for Ontario. Over the short term, carrier screening programs are associated with higher costs, and also higher chances of detecting at-risk pregnancies compared with no screening. The 5-year budget impact of publicly funding universal carrier screening programs is larger than that of risk-based programs. However, accounting for treatment costs of the screened health conditions results in a decrease in the total additional costs for universal carrier screening programs or in cost savings for risk-based programs.The people we spoke with who had sought out carrier screening valued the potential medical benefits of early detection and treatment, particularly the support and preparation for having a child with a potential genetic condition.

A model for the return and referral of all clinically significant secondary findings of genomic sequencing

Secondary findings (SFs) identified through genomic sequencing (GS) can offer a wide range of health benefits to patients. Resource and capacity constraints pose a challenge to their clinical management; therefore, clinical workflows are needed to optimise the health benefits of SFs. In this paper, we describe a model we created for the return and referral of all clinically significant SFs, beyond medically actionable results, from GS. As part of a randomised controlled trial evaluating the outcomes and costs of disclosing all clinically significant SFs from GS, we consulted genetics and primary care experts to determine a feasible workflow to manage SFs. Consensus was sought to determine appropriate clinical recommendations for each category of SF and which clinician specialist would provide follow-up care. We developed a communication and referral plan for each category of SFs. This involved referrals to specialised clinics, such as an Adult Genetics clinic, for highly penetrant medically actionable findings. Common and non-urgent SFs, such as pharmacogenomics and carrier status results for non-family planning participants, were directed back to the family physician (FP). SF results and recommendations were communicated directly to participants to respect autonomy and to their FPs to support follow-up of SFs. We describe a model for the return and referral of all clinically significant SFs to facilitate the utility of GS and promote the health benefits of SFs. This may serve as a model for others returning GS results transitioning participants from research to clinical settings.

Scaling-up and future sustainability of a national reproductive genetic carrier screening program

An understanding of factors influencing implementation is essential to realise the benefits of population-based reproductive genetic carrier screening programs. The aim of this study was to synthesise data collected during the Australian Reproductive Genetic Carrier Screening Project (Mackenzie's Mission) to track how priorities shifted over time and identify important factors during scaling-up and for sustainment. We used a multi-method qualitative approach to integrate longitudinal project data collected from 10 project committees with 16 semi-structured interviews conducted with study team members. Both datasets were analysed using the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR) to identify constructs of interest within early, mid-point, and future implementation phases. Several CFIR constructs were present across implementation. The complexity of implementation presented challenges that were overcome through a quality-designed and packaged product, formal and informal networks and communication, and access to knowledge and information. Addressing the diverse consumer needs through resources and increasing community and non-genetic speciality engagement remained a priority throughout and for future sustainment. Going forward, further addressing program complexities and securing funding were emphasised. By applying an implementation framework, findings from this study may be useful for future effort towards building and/or sustaining reproductive genetic carrier screening programs.

Are We Ready for Whole Population Genomic Sequencing of Asymptomatic Newborns?

The introduction of genomic sequencing technologies into routine newborn screening programs in some form is not only inevitable but also already occurring in some settings. The question is therefore not "if" but "when and how" genomic newborn screening (GNBS) should be implemented. In April 2022, the Centre for Ethics of Paediatric Genomics held a one-day symposium exploring ethical issues relating to the use of genomic sequencing in a range of clinical settings. This review article synthesises the panel discussion and presents both the potential benefits of wide-scale implementation of genomic newborn screening, as well as its practical and ethical issues, including obtaining appropriate consent, and health system implications. A more in-depth understanding of the barriers associated with implementing genomic newborn screening is critical to the success of GNBS programs, both from a practical perspective and also in order to maintain public trust in an important public health initiative.

Preconception Expanded Carrier Screening: A Discourse Analysis of Dutch Webpages

Preconception expanded carrier screening (PECS) informs prospective parents about the risk of conceiving a child with a heritable genetic condition. PECS will also, for many, become an important screening test, and websites will likely play a vital role in providing information on this practice. The aim of this article is to examine rationalities in the information on PECS on Dutch websites. The method used is multimodal critical discourse analysis. This method allows an examination of norms and assumptions in the descriptions, as well as of the positions that are discursively made available. The data consist of publicly available material on websites from two genetics departments in the Netherlands. In the results, we present the three main discourses and subject positions that were identified: risk and the couple as possible mediators of severe conditions; the focus on scientific facts and rational conceivers; and severity of the conditions and the responsible couple. In this study, we highlight the importance of acknowledging the interrelation between epistemology and ethics in the discourse on PECS. Finally, it is claimed that the focus on scientific facts in information on PECS risks making existential and ethical dilemmas and choices invisible.

Addressing the ethical and societal challenges posed by genome-wide association studies of behavioral and brain-related traits

Genome-wide association studies have led to the identification of robust statistical associations of genetic variants with numerous brain-related traits, including neurological and psychiatric conditions, and psychological and behavioral measures. These results may provide insight into the biology underlying these traits and may facilitate clinically useful predictions. However, these results also carry the risk of harm, including possible negative effects of inaccurate predictions, violations of privacy, stigma and genomic discrimination, raising serious ethical and legal implications. Here, we discuss ethical concerns surrounding the results of genome-wide association studies for individuals, society and researchers. Given the success of genome-wide association studies and the increasing availability of nonclinical genomic prediction technologies, better laws and guidelines are urgently needed to regulate the storage, processing and responsible use of genetic data. Also, researchers should be aware of possible misuse of their results, and we provide guidance to help avoid such negative impacts on individuals and society.

Exome sequencing for structurally normal fetuses-yields and ethical issues

The yield of chromosomal microarray analysis (CMA) is well established in structurally normal fetuses (0.4-1.4%). We aimed to determine the incremental yield of exome sequencing (ES) in this population. From February 2017 to April 2022, 1,526 fetuses were subjected to ES; 482 of them were structurally normal (31.6%). Only pathogenic and likely pathogenic (P/LP) variants, per the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) classification, were reported. Additionally, ACMG secondary findings relevant to childhood were reported. Four fetuses (4/482; 0.8%) had P/LP variants indicating a moderate to severe disease in ATP7B, NR2E3, SPRED1 and FGFR3, causing Wilson disease, Enhanced S-cone syndrome, Legius and Muenke syndromes, respectively. Two fetuses had secondary findings, in RET and DSP. Our data suggest that offering only CMA for structurally normal fetuses may provide false reassurance. Prenatal ES mandates restrictive analysis and careful management combined with pre and post-test genetic counseling.

Societal implications of expanded universal carrier screening: a scoping review

Carrier screening aims to identify couples at risk of conceiving children with a recessive condition. Until recently, carrier screening was primarily offered ancestry-based. Technological advances now facilitate expanded universal carrier screening (EUCS). This scoping review aimed to map EUCS's potential societal implications based on both theoretical studies and empirical evidence. To this aim, we performed a CoCites search to find relevant articles, including articles describing carrier screening for at-risk populations, based on five selected query articles. Forty articles were included. Three main potential societal implications were identified: (1) unwanted medicalization, (2) stigmatization and discrimination of carriers and people affected with the conditions screened and (3) challenges in achieving equitable access. Within these themes, potential positive implications are reduction of ethnic stigmatization in ancestry-based offers and increased equity. Potential negative implications are reinforcement of disability-based stigmatization, less possibility for developing expertise in healthcare and societal pressure to partake in screening. Empirical evidence on all these implications is however scarce. In conclusion, both positive and negative potential societal implications of implementing EUCS, primarily theoretical, were identified, even in at-risk groups where evidence is mostly lacking. Empirical research in EUCS pilots is needed to identify which societal implications are likely to occur and therefore should be overcome when implementing EUCS.

How does the genomic naive public perceive whole genomic testing for health purposes? A scoping review

The benefits of genomic testing are primarily reported in rare disease, cancer diagnosis and disease management. However, as research into its application in common, more complex conditions grows, as well as the increased prevalence of carrier screening programs, the genomic naive public is more likely to be offered testing in future. To promote social acceptability and ethical application of this technology, it is essential that public perceptions of genomics are considered. Previous studies, however, have primarily focussed on the views of those with genetic conditions or those undergoing genetic testing. The aim of this scoping review is to investigate the genomic naive public's perceptions of clinical genomics and clinical genomic testing. Embase, MEDLINE and PubMed databases were searched, with a total of 3460 articles identified. Data analysis was organised according to the nonadoption, abandonment, scale-up, spread, and sustainability (NASSS) framework. Sixteen full-text articles were included in the final analysis. Most of the studies used questionnaires to determine attitudes of the public toward clinical genomics (n = 12). Public perceptions were found to underpin technology (Domain 2), value proposition (Domain 3), the adopter system (Domain 4) and the wider context (Domain 6) of the NASSS framework, highlighting its importance when considering implementation of an innovative technology such as genomic testing. Our study shows public perceptions are diverse, and highlights the need for more studies on the views of underrepresented groups and the impact of cultural contexts on perceptions.

Challenges for the implementation of next generation sequencing-based expanded carrier screening: Lessons learned from the ciliopathies

Next generation sequencing (NGS) can detect carrier status for rare recessive disorders, informing couples about their reproductive risk. The recent ACMG recommendations support offering NGS-based carrier screening (NGS-CS) in an ethnic and population-neutral manner for all genes that have a carrier frequency >1/200 (based on GnomAD). To evaluate current challenges for NGS-CS, we focused on the ciliopathies, a well-studied group of rare recessive disorders. We analyzed 118 ciliopathy genes by whole exome sequencing in ~400 healthy local individuals and ~1000 individuals from the UK1958-birth cohort. We found 20% of healthy individuals (1% of couples) to be carriers of reportable variants in a ciliopathy gene, while 50% (4% of couples) carry variants of uncertain significance (VUS). This large proportion of VUS is partly explained by the limited utility of the ACMG/AMP variant-interpretation criteria in healthy individuals, where phenotypic match or segregation criteria cannot be used. Most missense variants are thus classified as VUS and not reported, which reduces the negative predictive value of the screening test. We show how gene-specific variation patterns and structural protein information can help prioritize variants most likely to be disease-causing, for (future) functional assays. Even when considering only strictly pathogenic variants, the observed carrier frequency is substantially higher than expected based on estimated disease prevalence, challenging the 1/200 carrier frequency cut-off proposed for choice of genes to screen. Given the challenges linked to variant interpretation in healthy individuals and the uncertainties about true carrier frequencies, genetic counseling must clearly disclose these limitations of NGS-CS.

Use of expanded carrier screening for retrospective diagnosis of two deceased siblings with Van Maldergem syndrome 2: case report

Van Maldergem syndrome (VMLDS) is a recessive disease which affects multiple organs including the face, ear, and limb extremities. It can be caused by pathogenic variants in either the gene DCHS1 or FAT4. Diagnosis of VMLDS is complicated, especially regarding its similarity of symptoms to Hennekam syndrome, another disorder caused by FAT4 variants. Reported patients are two infantile siblings with multiple congenital anomalies, who deceased without clinical diagnosis. Whole exome sequencing was exploited for expanded carrier screening (ECS) of their parents, which revealed a novel splicing variant in the gene FAT4, NM_024582.6: c.7018+1G>A. In silico analysis of the variant indicates loss of canonical donor splice site of intron 6. This variant is classified as pathogenic based on ACMG criteria. Reverse phenotyping of patients resulted in likely diagnosis of VMLDS2. This study reaffirms the possibility of using ECS, leading to the genetic diagnosis of a rare disease with complicated clinical features.

The Australian Reproductive Genetic Carrier Screening Project (Mackenzie's Mission): Design and Implementation

Reproductive genetic carrier screening (RGCS) provides people with information about their chance of having children with autosomal recessive or X-linked genetic conditions, enabling informed reproductive decision-making. RGCS is recommended to be offered to all couples during preconception or in early pregnancy. However, cost and a lack of awareness may prevent access. To address this, the Australian Government funded Mackenzie’s Mission—the Australian Reproductive Genetic Carrier Screening Project. Mackenzie’s Mission aims to assess the acceptability and feasibility of an easily accessible RGCS program, provided free of charge to the participant. In study Phase 1, implementation needs were mapped, and key study elements were developed. In Phase 2, RGCS is being offered by healthcare providers educated by the study team. Reproductive couples who provide consent are screened for over 1200 genes associated with >750 serious, childhood-onset genetic conditions. Those with an increased chance result are provided comprehensive genetic counseling support. Reproductive couples, recruiting healthcare providers, and study team members are also invited to complete surveys and/or interviews. In Phase 3, a mixed-methods analysis will be undertaken to assess the program outcomes, psychosocial implications and implementation considerations alongside an ongoing bioethical analysis and a health economic evaluation. Findings will inform the implementation of an ethically robust RGCS program.

Carrier screening: An update

Genetic carrier screening (CS) for reproductive decision making was introduced 50 years ago. Technological advances and improvements in knowledge of the human genome makes multi-disease, pan-ethnic CS possible. Such screening will identify most individuals as carriers of at least one autosomal recessive or X-linked recessive disorder. Past experiences and best practices have provided a framework for CS. Although its clinical utilization is increasing, some challenges remain. In this study, several aspects of CS panel implementation have been addressed including how to evaluate the quantitative gene inclusion criteria, how to classify the severity of genetic conditions, how to understand clinical validity at the level of gene-disease association and variant classification, and how to minimize residual risks.

Challenges for precision public health communication in the era of genomic medicine

Although still in the early stages of development, the advent of fast, high-output, and cost-effective next-generation DNA sequencing technology is moving precision medicine into public health. Before this shift toward next-generation sequencing in public health settings, individual patients met geneticists after showing symptoms and through limited family screening. In the new era of precision public health, everyone is a possible participant in genetic sequencing, simply by being born (newborn screening), by donating blood (biobanking), or through population screening. These initiatives are increasingly offered to individuals throughout their life and more individuals are encountering opportunities to use DNA sequencing. This article raises awareness of these growing areas and calls for different models of public engagement and communication about genomics, including screening asymptomatic populations, obtaining consent for unspecified and unforeseen future uses of genomic data, and managing variants of uncertain significance. Given that such communication challenges loom large, established norms of practice in genomic medicine and research should be reconsidered.

Attitudes and interest in incorporating BRCA1/2 cancer susceptibility testing into reproductive carrier screening for Ashkenazi Jewish men and women

Pathogenic variants in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 (BRCA1/2) genes are associated with elevated cancer risks in men and women. Due to a founder effect, Ashkenazi Jewish individuals are at higher risk for carrying three specific BRCA1/2 pathogenic variants. There have been recent calls for population screening in this population because many carriers do not have family histories suggestive of hereditary cancer. One approach could be to integrate optional BRCA1/2 testing into routinely offered reproductive carrier screening for recessive and X-linked disorders. However, the differing goals of these types of testing (i.e., personal health risks versus family planning) raise questions about the implications for patient education and informed consent. To this end, we aimed to determine interest, attitudes, and preferences regarding integrating such testing by electronically surveying 331 Ashkenazi Jewish participants in JScreen - a national, not-for-profit, at-home carrier screening program focused on genetic risks in Jewish communities. We found that while 41% of participants had plans to pursue BRCA1/2 testing, 93% would have opted for such testing if offered as an add-on to reproductive carrier screening. This was particularly true of those with higher perceived cancer risk and more positive attitudes toward genetic testing. With respect to preferences about delivery of this service, more than 85% of participants preferred remote (telephone, print, or web-based) genetic education rather than traditional genetic counseling. These results suggest that offering optional BRCA1/2 testing within the context of reproductive carrier screening might provide opportunities for cancer prevention without overburdening scarce genetic counseling resources.

Long-Read Sequencing Revealed Extragenic and Intragenic Duplications of Exons 56-61 in DMD in an Asymptomatic Male and a DMD Patient

Expanded carrier screening (ECS) has become an increasingly common technique to assess the genetic risks of individuals in the prenatal or preconception period. Unexpected variants unrelated to referral are being increasingly detected in asymptomatic individuals through ECS. In this study, we reported an asymptomatic male with duplication of exons 56-61 in the DMD gene through ECS using whole-exome sequencing (WES), which was also detected in a male patient diagnosed with typical Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). Breakpoint analysis was then performed to explore the potential mechanisms of phenotypic differences using long-read sequencing (LRS), PacBio single-molecule real-time (PacBio SMRT) target sequencing, and Sanger sequencing. Complex structural variations (SVs) on chromosome X were identified in the asymptomatic male, which revealed that the duplication occurred outside the DMD gene; whereas, the duplication in the patient with DMD was a tandem repeat. The phenotypic differences between the two men could be explained by the different breakpoint junctions. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a breakpoint analysis of DMD duplication in two men with different phenotypes. Breakpoint analysis is necessary when the clinical phenotypes are inconsistent with genotypes, and it applies to prenatal testing.

Video education about genetic privacy and patient perspectives about sharing prenatal genetic data: a randomized trial

BACKGROUND

Laboratories offering cell-free DNA often reserve the right to share prenatal genetic data for research or even commercial purposes, and obtain this permission on the patient consent form. Although it is known that nonpregnant patients are often reluctant to share their genetic data for research, pregnant patients' knowledge of, and opinions about, genetic data privacy are unknown.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated whether pregnant patients who had already undergone cell-free DNA screening were aware that genetic data derived from cell-free DNA may be shared for research. Furthermore, we examined whether pregnant patients exposed to video education about the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act-a federal law that mandates workplace and health insurance protections against genetic discrimination-were more willing to share cell-free DNA-related genetic data for research than pregnant patients who were unexposed.

STUDY DESIGN

In this randomized controlled trial (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04420858), English-speaking patients with singleton pregnancies who underwent cell-free DNA and subsequently presented at 17 0/7 to 23 6/7 weeks of gestation for a detailed anatomy scan were randomized 1:1 to a control or intervention group. Both groups viewed an infographic about cell-free DNA. In addition, the intervention group viewed an educational video about the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act. The primary outcomes were knowledge about, and willingness to share, prenatal genetic data from cell-free DNA by commercial laboratories for nonclinical purposes, such as research. The secondary outcomes included knowledge about existing genetic privacy laws, knowledge about the potential for reidentification of anonymized genetic data, and acceptability of various use and sharing scenarios for prenatal genetic data. Eighty-one participants per group were required for 80% power to detect an increase in willingness to share data from 60% to 80% (α=0.05).

RESULTS

A total of 747 pregnant patients were screened, and 213 patients were deemed eligible and approached for potential study participation. Of these patients, 163 (76.5%) consented and were randomized; one participant discontinued the intervention, and two participants were excluded from analysis after the intervention when it was discovered that they did not fulfill all eligibility criteria. Overall, 160 (75.1%) of those approached were included in the final analysis. Most patients in the control group (72 [90.0%]) and intervention (76 [97.4%]) group were either unsure about or incorrectly thought that cell-free DNA companies could not share prenatal genetic data for research. Participants in the intervention group were more likely to incorrectly believe that their prenatal genetic data would not be shared for nonclinical purposes than participants in the control group (28.8% in the control group vs 46.2% in the intervention; P=.03). However, video education did not increase participant willingness to share genetic data in multiple scenarios. Non-White participants were less willing than White participants to allow sharing of genetic data specifically for academic research (P<.001).

CONCLUSION

Most participants were unaware that their prenatal genetic data may be used for nonclinical purposes. Pregnant patients who were educated about the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act were not more willing to share genetic data than those who did not receive this education. Surprisingly, video education about the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act led patients to falsely believe that their data would not be shared for research, and participants who identified as racial minorities were less willing to share genetic data. New strategies are needed to improve pregnant patients' understanding of genetic privacy.

Current Updates on Expanded Carrier Screening: New Insights in the Omics Era

Genetic carrier screening has been successfully used over the last decades to identify individuals at risk of transmitting specific DNA variants to their newborns, thus having an affected child. Traditional testing has been offered based on familial and/or ethnic backgrounds. The development of high-throughput technologies, such as next-generations sequencing, able to allow the study of large genomic regions in a time and cost-affordable way, has moved carrier screening toward a more comprehensive and extensive approach, i.e., expanded carrier screening (ECS). ECS simultaneously analyses several disease-related genes and better estimates individuals’ carrier status. Indeed, it is not influenced by ethnicity and is not limited to a subset of mutations that may arise from poor information in some populations. Moreover, if couples carry out ECS before conceiving a baby, it allows them to obtain a complete estimation of their genetic risk and the possibility to make an informed decision regarding their reproductive life. Despite these advantages, some weakness still exists regarding, for example, the number of genes and the kind of diseases to be analyzed and the interpretation and communication of the obtained results. Once these points are fixed, it is expectable that ECS will become an ever more frequent practice in clinical settings.

Personalized genetic counseling for Stargardt disease: Offspring risk estimates based on variant severity

Recurrence risk calculations in autosomal recessive diseases are complicated when the effect of genetic variants and their population frequencies and penetrances are unknown. An example of this is Stargardt disease (STGD1), a frequent recessive retinal disease caused by bi-allelic pathogenic variants in ABCA4. In this cross-sectional study, 1,619 ABCA4 variants from 5,579 individuals with STGD1 were collected and categorized by (1) severity based on statistical comparisons of their frequencies in STGD1-affected individuals versus the general population, (2) their observed versus expected homozygous occurrence in STGD1-affected individuals, (3) their occurrence in combination with established mild alleles in STGD1-affected individuals, and (4) previous functional and clinical studies. We used the sum allele frequencies of these severity categories to estimate recurrence risks for offspring of STGD1-affected individuals and carriers of pathogenic ABCA4 variants. The risk for offspring of an STGD1-affected individual with the "severe|severe" genotype or a "severe|mild with complete penetrance" genotype to develop STGD1 at some moment in life was estimated at 2.8%-3.1% (1 in 36-32 individuals) and 1.6%-1.8% (1 in 62-57 individuals), respectively. The risk to develop STGD1 in childhood was estimated to be 2- to 4-fold lower: 0.68%-0.79% (1 in 148-126) and 0.34%-0.39% (1 in 296-252), respectively. In conclusion, we established personalized recurrence risk calculations for STGD1-affected individuals with different combinations of variants. We thus propose an expanded genotype-based personalized counseling to appreciate the variable recurrence risks for STGD1-affected individuals. This represents a conceptual breakthrough because risk calculations for STGD1 may be exemplary for many other inherited diseases.

Exome sequencing and RNA analysis identify two novel CPLANE1 variants causing Joubert syndrome

BACKGROUND

Joubert syndrome (JS) is a genetically heterogeneous disorder; its genetic etiology involves more than 35 genes, and a limited number of studies have investigated the pathogenic mechanism of variants in patients with JS. RNA splicing analysis is critical to determine the functional significance for noncanonical splicing variants.

METHODS

Whole exome sequencing was performed to screen the causative gene variants in a JS family. Sanger sequencing was used to verify the variants. cDNA PCR products were analyzed and functional experiments were performed to determine the pathogenicity of the variants.

RESULTS

The clinical phenotypes and CPLANE1 variants in the JS patient were analyzed and proved consistent. We identified two novel heterozygous variants of CPLANE1 in the proband first, including c.4459del (frameshift variant) and c.7534-14G > A (intronic variant). We analyzed the pathogenic consequences of the 2 variants and classified the c.4459del as likely pathogenic according to the ACMG/AMP guidelines; however, the pathogenic significance of c.7534-14G > A was uncertain. Furthermore, we performed RNA splicing analysis and revealed that the noncanonical splicing variant (c.7534-14G > A) caused aberrant exon 37 skipping. It produced an aberrant transcript that was predicted to encode a C-terminal truncated protein.

CONCLUSIONS

The genetic variation spectrum of JS caused by CPLANE1 was updated. Two novel variants further deepened our insight into the disease's molecular mechanism and confirmed the significance of diagnostic whole-exome sequencing.

A capillary electrophoresis-based multiplex PCR assay for expanded carrier screening in the eastern Han Chinese population

Expanded carrier screening, a type of reproductive genetic testing for couples, has gained tremendous popularity for assessing the risk of passing on certain genetic conditions to offspring. Here, a carrier screening assay for 448 pathogenic variants was developed using capillary electrophoresis-based multiplex PCR technology. The capillary electrophoresis-based multiplex PCR assay achieved a sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of 97.4%, 100%, and 99.6%, respectively, in detecting the specific variants. Among the 1915 couples (3830 individuals), 708 individuals (18.5%) were identified as carriers for at least one condition. Of the 708 carriers, 633 (89.4%) were heterozygous for one condition, 71 (10.0%) for two disorders, 3 (0.4%) for three disorders, and 1 (0.1%) for four disorders. Meanwhile, 30 (1.57%) couples were identified as at‐risk couples. This study describes an inexpensive and effective method for expanded carrier screening. The simplicity and accuracy of this approach will facilitate the clinical implementation of expanded carrier screening.

Qualitative study of GPs' views and experiences of population-based preconception expanded carrier screening in the Netherlands: bioethical perspectives

OBJECTIVE

Between 2016 and 2017, a population-based preconception expanded carrier screening (PECS) test was developed in the Netherlands during a pilot study. It was subsequently made possible in mid-2018 for couples to ask to have such a PECS test from specially trained general practitioners (GPs). Research has described GPs as crucial in offering PECS tests, but little is known about the GPs' views on PECS and their experiences of providing this test. This article presents a thematic analysis of the PECS practice from the perspective of GPs and a bioethical discussion of the empirical results.

DESIGN

Empirical bioethics. A thematic analysis of qualitative semi-structured interviews was conducted, and is combined with an ethical/philosophical discussion.

SETTING

The Netherlands.

PARTICIPANTS

7 Dutch GPs in the Netherlands, interviewed in 2019-2020.

RESULTS

Two themes were identified in the thematic analysis: 'Choice and its complexity' and 'PECS as prompting existential concerns'. The empirical bioethics discussion showed that the first theme highlights that several areas coshape the complexity of choice on PECS, and the need for shared relational autonomous decision-making on these areas within the couple. The second theme highlights that it is not possible to analyse the existential issues raised by PECS solely on the level of the couple or family. A societal level must be included, since these levels affect each other. We refer to this as 'entangled existential genetics'.

CONCLUSION

The empirical bioethical analysis leads us to present two practical implications. These are: (1) training of GPs who are to offer PECS should cover shared relational autonomous decision-making within the couple and (2) more attention should be given to existential issues evoked by genetic considerations, also during the education of GPs and in bioethical discussions around PECS.

Decision-making for prenatal genetic screening: how will pregnant women navigate a growing number of aneuploidy and carrier screening options?

BACKGROUND

Prenatal genetic screens, including carrier screening (CS) and aneuploidy screening (AS), comprise an important component of reproductive healthcare delivery. Clinical practice guidelines emphasize the importance of informed decision-making and patient's preferences regarding the use of these screens. Yet, it is unclear how to achieve this ideal as prenatal genetic screening options rapidly become more complex and increasingly available to patients. With increased complexity and availability of reproductive testing options, decision-support strategies are critical to prepare patients to consider AS and/or CS.

METHODS

A self-administered survey evaluated knowledge and decision-making preferences for expanded carrier (CS) and aneuploidy (AS) prenatal screening. The survey was administered to participants before their first prenatal visit to assess baseline decision-making needs and preference at the initiation of prenatal care. Analysis was approached as a descriptive process.

RESULTS

Participants had similar familiarity with the concepts associated with AS compared to CS; mean knowledge scores for CS was 0.59 [possible range 0.00 to 1.00] and 0.55 for AS. Participants reported preferences to learn about a range of conditions, including those with severe or mild impact, childhood-onset, and adult-onset. Decision-making preference with respect to learning about the associated disease phenotypes for the contained on AS and CS panel shifted with the complexity of the panel, with a greater preference to learn about conditions post-test compared pre-test education as panels increased from 5 to 100 conditions.

CONCLUSION

Patients' baseline knowledge of prenatal genetic screens coupled with evolving decision-making preferences presents challenges for the delivery of prenatal genetic screens. This calls for the development and implementation of innovative approaches to support pregnant patients' decision-making commensurate with advances in prenatal genomics.

Evaluating the model of offering expanded genetic carrier screening to high school students within the Sydney Jewish community

Programs offering reproductive genetic carrier screening (RGCS) to high school students within the Ashkenazi Jewish community in several countries including Canada and Australia have demonstrated high uptake and retention of educational messages over time. This study was undertaken to evaluate whether testing for an expanded number of conditions in a high school setting would impact the effectiveness of education. In this questionnaire-based study, genetic carrier testing for nine conditions was offered to 322 year 11 students from five high schools, with students attending a compulsory 1-h education session prior to voluntary testing. Comparison of pre- and post-education measures demonstrated a significant increase in knowledge, positive attitudes, and reduced concern immediately after the education session. Retention of knowledge, measures of positive attitude, and low concern over a 12-month period were significantly higher than baseline, although there was some reduction over time. In total, 77% of students exhibited informed choice regarding their intention to test. A significant increase in baseline knowledge scores and positive attitude was also demonstrated between our original 1995 evaluation (with testing for only one condition) and 2014 (testing for nine conditions) suggesting community awareness and attitudes to RGCS have increased. These findings validate the implementation of effective education programs as a key component of RGCS and are relevant as gene panels expand with the introduction of genomic technologies.

A guidelines-consistent carrier screening panel that supports equity across diverse populations

PURPOSE

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) suggest carrier screening panel design criteria intended to ensure meaningful results. This study used a data-driven approach to interpret the criteria to identify guidelines-consistent panels.

METHODS

Carrier frequencies in >460,000 individuals across 11 races/ethnicities were used to assess carrier frequency. Other criteria were interpreted on the basis of published data. A total of 176 conditions were then evaluated. Stringency thresholds were set as suggested by ACOG and/or ACMG or by evaluating conditions already recommended by ACOG and ACMG.

RESULTS

Forty and 75 conditions had carrier frequencies of ≥1 in 100 and ≥1 in 200, respectively; 175 had a well-defined phenotype; and 165 met at least 1 severity criterion and had an onset early in life. Thirty-seven conditions met conservative thresholds, including a carrier frequency of ≥1 in 100, and 74 conditions met permissive thresholds, including a carrier frequency of ≥1 in 200; thus, both were identified as guidelines-consistent panels.

CONCLUSION

Clear panel design criteria are needed to ensure quality and consistency among carrier screening panels. Evidence-based analyses of criteria resulted in the identification of guidelines-consistent panels of 37 and 74 conditions.

Economic evaluation of reproductive carrier screening for recessive genetic conditions: a systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Autosomal recessive (AR) and x-linked (XL) conditions are rare but collectively common which impact millions of people globally on morbidity, mortality and costs. Advanced medical technologies allow prospective parents to make informed reproductive decisions to avoid having affected children. Economic evaluations targeting on reproductive carrier screening (RCS) for AR and/or XL conditions have been conducted, but there has not been a systematic review in this area.

AREAS COVERED

A systematic search of economic evaluations for RCS was undertaken using the following databases - EMBASE, MEDLINE and SCOPUS. The search strategy was designed to capture full economic evaluations related to RCS since 1990. This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) strategy. The included 23 studies adopted various types of methodologies to conduct economic evaluations. The majority of studies examined a single condition. The various clinical strategies and screened conditions caused the different cost-effectiveness conclusions in the published studies.

EXPERT OPINION

Establishing a validated and practical clinical strategy of RCS and investigating the cost-effectiveness of multiple conditions in one economic evaluation are critical for implementing RCS in the future. Further economic evaluations are essential to provide evidence-based practice for decision-makers.

Legal challenges in reproductive genetics

Recent advancements in reproductive genetics have resulted in the availability of an extraordinary amount of new and detailed information for patients and providers. Whereas this information can inform many who are facing difficult clinical decisions, it can also introduce complex and uncertain choices. Expanded carrier screening and preimplantation genetic diagnosis for aneuploidy are important examples of new genetic techniques that are now widely used in reproductive medicine. This paper will explore these techniques through a medical-legal prism to better understand the opportunities and obligations incumbent on both patients and providers in this new age of genetic diagnosis.