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Rippee-Brooks MD, Wu W, Dong J, Pappolla M, Fang X, Bao X. Viral Infections, Are They a Trigger and Risk Factor of Alzheimer's Disease? Pathogens 2024; 13:240. [PMID: 38535583 PMCID: PMC10974111 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13030240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Revised: 03/02/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's Disease (AD), a progressive and debilitating condition, is reported to be the most common type of dementia, with at least 55 million people believed to be currently affected. Many causation hypotheses of AD exist, yet the intriguing link between viral infection and its possible contribution to the known etiology of AD has become an attractive focal point of research for the field and a challenging study task. In this review, we will explore the historical perspective and milestones that led the field to investigate the viral connection to AD. Specifically, several viruses such as Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1), Zika virus (ZIKV), and severe cute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), along with several others mentioned, include the various viruses presently considered within the field. We delve into the strong evidence implicating these viruses in the development of AD such as the lytic replication and axonal transport of HSV-1, the various mechanisms of ZIKV neurotropism through the human protein Musashi-1 (MSI1), and the spread of SARS-CoV-2 through the transfer of the virus through the BBB endothelial cells to glial cells and then to neurons via transsynaptic transfer. We will also explore beyond these mere associations by carefully analyzing the potential mechanisms by which these viruses may contribute to AD pathology. This includes but is not limited to direct neuronal infections, the dysregulation of immune responses, and the impact on protein processing (Aβ42 and hyperphosphorylated tau). Controversies and challenges of the virus-AD relationship emerge as we tease out these potential mechanisms. Looking forward, we emphasize future directions, such as distinct questions and proposed experimentations to explore, that the field should take to tackle the remaining unanswered questions and the glaring research gaps that persist. Overall, this review aims to provide a comprehensive survey of the past, present, and future of the potential link between viral infections and their association with AD development while encouraging further discussion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meagan D. Rippee-Brooks
- Microbiology and Immunology Graduate Program, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA
| | - Wenzhe Wu
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA
| | - Jianli Dong
- Department of Pathology, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA
| | - Miguel Pappolla
- Department of Neurology and Mitchell Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA
| | - Xiang Fang
- Department of Neurology and Mitchell Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA
| | - Xiaoyong Bao
- Microbiology and Immunology Graduate Program, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA
- The Institute of Translational Sciences, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA
- The Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA
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Chen J, Chen J, Lei Z, Zhang F, Zeng LH, Wu X, Li S, Tan J. Amyloid precursor protein facilitates SARS-CoV-2 virus entry into cells and enhances amyloid-β-associated pathology in APP/PS1 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Transl Psychiatry 2023; 13:396. [PMID: 38104129 PMCID: PMC10725492 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-023-02692-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Although there are indications of a trend towards less severe acute respiratory symptoms and a decline in overall lethality from the novel Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), more and more attention has been paid to the long COVID, including the increased risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in COVID-19 patients. In this study, we aim to investigate the involvement of N-terminal amyloid precursor protein (APP) in SARS-CoV-2-induced amyloid-β (Aβ) pathology. Utilizing both in vitro and in vivo methodologies, we first investigated the interaction between the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 and N-terminal APP via LSPR and CoIP assays. The in vitro impacts of APP overexpression on virus infection were further evaluated in HEK293T/ACE2 cells, SH-SY5Y cells, and Vero cells. We also analyzed the pseudovirus infection in vivo in a mouse model overexpressing human wild-type APP. Finally, we evaluated the impact of APP on pseudovirus infection within human brain organoids and assessed the chronic effects of pseudovirus infection on Aβ levels. We reported here for the first time that APP, the precursor of the Aβ of AD, interacts with the Spike protein of SARS-CoV-2. Moreover, both in vivo and in vitro data further indicated that APP promotes the cellular entry of the virus, and exacerbates Aβ-associated pathology in the APP/PS1 mouse model of AD, which can be ameliorated by N-terminal APP blockage. Our findings provide experimental evidence to interpret APP-related mechanisms underlying AD-like neuropathology in COVID-19 patients and may pave the way to help inform risk management and therapeutic strategies against diseases accordingly.
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Grants
- This study was supported by the High-level Talent Foundation of Guizhou Medical University (YJ19017, HY2020, J.T.), Anyu Biopharmaceutics, Inc., Hangzhou (06202010204, J.T.), and Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science foundation (LY19HH090013, ZW),
- Scientific Research Project of higher education Institutions in Guizhou Province [192(2022), J.C.], Science and Technology Program of Guizhou Province [ZK(2023), General 301, J.C.].
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 310058, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Novel Targets and Drug Study for Neural Repair of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, 310015, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Ministry of Education, Guizhou Medical University, 550025, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Junsheng Chen
- Key Laboratory of Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Ministry of Education, Guizhou Medical University, 550025, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Zhifeng Lei
- Key Laboratory of Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Ministry of Education, Guizhou Medical University, 550025, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Fengning Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Ministry of Education, Guizhou Medical University, 550025, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Ling-Hui Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Novel Targets and Drug Study for Neural Repair of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, 310015, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ximei Wu
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 310058, Hangzhou, China
| | - Song Li
- First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, 116021, Dalian, Liaoning, China.
| | - Jun Tan
- Key Laboratory of Novel Targets and Drug Study for Neural Repair of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, 310015, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
- Key Laboratory of Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Ministry of Education, Guizhou Medical University, 550025, Guiyang, Guizhou, China.
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Clement M. The association of microbial infection and adaptive immune cell activation in Alzheimer's disease. DISCOVERY IMMUNOLOGY 2023; 2:kyad015. [PMID: 38567070 PMCID: PMC10917186 DOI: 10.1093/discim/kyad015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder and the most common form of dementia. Early symptoms include the loss of memory and mild cognitive ability; however, as the disease progresses, these symptoms can present with increased severity manifesting as mood and behaviour changes, disorientation, and a loss of motor/body control. AD is one of the leading causes of death in the UK, and with an ever-increasing ageing society, patient numbers are predicted to rise posing a significant global health emergency. AD is a complex neurophysiological disorder where pathology is characterized by the deposition and aggregation of misfolded amyloid-beta (Aβ)-protein that in-turn promotes excessive tau-protein production which together drives neuronal cell dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration. It is widely accepted that AD is driven by a combination of both genetic and immunological processes with recent data suggesting that adaptive immune cell activity within the parenchyma occurs throughout disease. The mechanisms behind these observations remain unclear but suggest that manipulating the adaptive immune response during AD may be an effective therapeutic strategy. Using immunotherapy for AD treatment is not a new concept as the only two approved treatments for AD use antibody-based approaches to target Aβ. However, these have been shown to only temporarily ease symptoms or slow progression highlighting the urgent need for newer treatments. This review discusses the role of the adaptive immune system during AD, how microbial infections may be contributing to inflammatory immune activity and suggests how adaptive immune processes can pose as therapeutic targets for this devastating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathew Clement
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Systems Immunity University Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
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Liu C, Nikain C, Li YM. γ-Secretase fanning the fire of innate immunity. Biochem Soc Trans 2023; 51:1597-1610. [PMID: 37449907 PMCID: PMC11212119 DOI: 10.1042/bst20221445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Innate immunity is the first line of defense against pathogens, alerting the individual cell and surrounding area to respond to this potential invasion. γ-secretase is a transmembrane protease complex that plays an intricate role in nearly every stage of this innate immune response. Through regulation of pattern recognition receptors (PRR) such as TREM2 and RAGE γ-secretase can modulate pathogen recognition. γ-secretase can act on cytokine receptors such as IFNαR2 and CSF1R to dampen their signaling capacity. While γ-secretase-mediated regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP) can further moderate innate immune responses through downstream signaling pathways. Furthermore, γ-secretase has also been shown to be regulated by the innate immune system through cytokine signaling and γ-secretase modulatory proteins such as IFITM3 and Hif-1α. This review article gives an overview of how γ-secretase is implicated in innate immunity and the maintenance of its responses through potentially positive and negative feedback loops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenge Liu
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
- Programs of Pharmacology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University
| | - Cyrus Nikain
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
- Programs of Pharmacology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University
| | - Yue-Ming Li
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
- Programs of Pharmacology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University
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He S, Li X, Mittra N, Bhattacharjee A, Wang H, Zhao S, Liu F, Han X. Microglial cGAS deletion protects against amyloid-β induced Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.08.07.552300. [PMID: 37609338 PMCID: PMC10441288 DOI: 10.1101/2023.08.07.552300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
Innate immune activation plays a vital role in the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and related dementias (ADRD). Among which, the DNA sensing cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)- STING pathway has been implicated in diverse aspects of AD progression. In the current study, we showed that the cGAS-STING signaling was up-regulated in AD and this elevation was mainly contributed by the microglial population other than non-microglial cell types in the brain. By establishing an inducible, microglia-specific cGAS knockout mouse model in 5xFAD background, we found that deleting microglial cGAS at the onset of amyloid-β (Aβ) pathology significantly limited plaque formation, and protected mice from Aβ-induced cognitive impairment. Mechanistically, we found cGAS was necessary for plaque-associated microglial enrichment potentially driven by IRF8, and was indispensable for the development of disease-associated microglia (DAM) phenotype. Meanwhile, the loss of microglial cGAS reduced the levels of dystrophic neurites which led to preserved synaptic integrity and neuronal function. Our study provides new insights in understanding the effects of innate immune in AD via a cell-type specific manner, and lays the foundation for potential targeted intervention of the microglial cGAS-STING pathway toward the improvement of AD.
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Gu F, Boisjoli M, Naghavi MH. HIV-1 promotes ubiquitination of the amyloidogenic C-terminal fragment of APP to support viral replication. Nat Commun 2023; 14:4227. [PMID: 37454116 PMCID: PMC10349857 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40000-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV-1 replication in macrophages and microglia involves intracellular assembly and budding into modified subsets of multivesicular bodies (MVBs), which support both viral persistence and spread. However, the cellular factors that regulate HIV-1's vesicular replication remain poorly understood. Recently, amyloid precursor protein (APP) was identified as an inhibitor of HIV-1 replication in macrophages and microglia via an unknown mechanism. Here, we show that entry of HIV-1 Gag into MVBs is blocked by the amyloidogenic C-terminal fragment of APP, "C99", but not by the non-amyloidogenic product, "C83". To counter this, Gag promotes multi-site ubiquitination of C99 which controls both exocytic sorting of MVBs and further processing of C99 into toxic amyloids. Processing of C99, entry of Gag into MVBs and release of infectious virus could be suppressed by expressing ubiquitination-defective C99 or by γ-secretase inhibitor treatment, suggesting that APP's amyloidogenic pathway functions to sense and suppress HIV-1 replication in macrophages and microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Gu
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Marie Boisjoli
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Mojgan H Naghavi
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA.
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Chaumont H, Kaczorowski F, San-Galli A, Michel PP, Tressières B, Roze E, Quadrio I, Lannuzel A. Cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers in SARS-CoV-2 patients with acute neurological syndromes. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2023; 179:208-217. [PMID: 36610823 PMCID: PMC9708608 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurol.2022.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Mechanisms underlying acute brain injury in SARS-CoV-2 patients remain poorly understood. A better characterization of such mechanisms remains essential to preventing long-term neurological sequelae. Our present aim was to study a panel of biomarkers of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of NeuroCOVID patients. METHODS We retrospectively collected clinical and CSF biomarkers data from 24 NeuroCOVID adults seen at the University Hospital of Guadeloupe between March and June 2021. RESULTS Among 24 NeuroCOVID patients, 71% had encephalopathy and 29% meningoencephalitis. A number of these patients also experienced de novo movement disorder (33%) or stroke (21%). The CSF analysis revealed intrathecal immunoglobulin synthesis in 54% of NeuroCOVID patients (two with a type 2 pattern and 11 with a type 3) and elevated neopterin levels in 75% of them (median 9.1nM, IQR 5.6-22.1). CSF neurofilament light chain (NfL) was also increased compared to a control group of non-COVID-19 patients with psychiatric illnesses (2905ng/L, IQR 1428-7124 versus 1222ng/L, IQR 1049-1566). Total-tau was elevated in the CSF of 24% of patients, whereas protein 14-3-3, generally undetectable, reached intermediate levels in two patients. Finally, CSF Aß1-42 was reduced in 52.4% of patients (median 536ng/L, IQR 432-904) with no change in the Aß1-42/Aß1-40 ratio (0.082, IQR 0.060-0.096). CONCLUSIONS We showed an elevation of CSF biomarkers of neuroinflammation in NeuroCOVID patients and a rise of CSF NfL, evocative of neuronal damage. However, longitudinal studies are needed to determine whether NeuroCOVID could evolve into a chronic neurodegenerative condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Chaumont
- Service de neurologie, centre hospitalier universitaire de la Guadeloupe, Pointe-à-Pitre/Abymes, French West Indies, France; Faculté de médecine de l'université des Antilles, French West Indies, Pointe-à-Pitre, France; U 1127, CNRS, unité mixte de recherche (UMR) 7225, faculté de médecine de Sorbonne université, Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale, Institut du Cerveau, ICM, Paris, France.
| | - F Kaczorowski
- Laboratory of neurobiology and neurogenetics, department of biochemistry and molecular biology, Lyon university hospital, Bron, France; CNRS UMR 5292, Inserm U1028, BIORAN team, Lyon neuroscience research center, Lyon 1 university, Bron, France
| | - A San-Galli
- Service de neurologie, centre hospitalier universitaire de la Guadeloupe, Pointe-à-Pitre/Abymes, French West Indies, France
| | - P P Michel
- U 1127, CNRS, unité mixte de recherche (UMR) 7225, faculté de médecine de Sorbonne université, Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale, Institut du Cerveau, ICM, Paris, France
| | - B Tressières
- Inserm CIC 1424, centre d'investigation Clinique Antilles Guyane, CHU de la Guadeloupe, Pointe-à-Pitre, France
| | - E Roze
- U 1127, CNRS, unité mixte de recherche (UMR) 7225, faculté de médecine de Sorbonne université, Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale, Institut du Cerveau, ICM, Paris, France; Département de neurologie, hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, Paris, France
| | - I Quadrio
- Laboratory of neurobiology and neurogenetics, department of biochemistry and molecular biology, Lyon university hospital, Bron, France; CNRS UMR 5292, Inserm U1028, BIORAN team, Lyon neuroscience research center, Lyon 1 university, Bron, France
| | - A Lannuzel
- Service de neurologie, centre hospitalier universitaire de la Guadeloupe, Pointe-à-Pitre/Abymes, French West Indies, France; Faculté de médecine de l'université des Antilles, French West Indies, Pointe-à-Pitre, France; U 1127, CNRS, unité mixte de recherche (UMR) 7225, faculté de médecine de Sorbonne université, Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale, Institut du Cerveau, ICM, Paris, France; Inserm CIC 1424, centre d'investigation Clinique Antilles Guyane, CHU de la Guadeloupe, Pointe-à-Pitre, France
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Wakchoure P, Momin K, Khan AA. Pathogenesis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection as Revealed by Transcriptome and Interactome Data. OMICS : A JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE BIOLOGY 2023; 27:15-23. [PMID: 36648422 DOI: 10.1089/omi.2022.0130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) among patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a major global health burden and contributes to a high mortality rate due to HIV-mediated immunosuppression and subsequent susceptibility to TB. It is imperative to understand the pathogenesis of the association between HIV and TB for therapeutic innovation and preventive medicine. In the present study, we employed transcriptomic and bioinformatic analyses of differential gene expression data obtained from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) of the National Center for Biotechnology Information. The expression data of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected macrophages and blood samples from TB patients (GSE54992, GSE52819, and GSE19435) and blood samples from HIV patients (GSE30310) were accessed for identification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Data from 20 healthy subjects and 19 patients with TB and 16 healthy subjects and 16 patients with HIV were analyzed. We report here the DEGs shared by HIV and TB infection. Moreover, HIV and TB host-pathogen interaction data were collected from BIOGRID, v 4.4.210, for identifying significantly modulated genes' targets and their interactions with the host. Host targets, including PLSCR1 (phospholipid scramblase 1), STAT1 (signal transducer and activator of transcription-1 alpha/beta), FBXO6 (F-box only protein 6), ITGAL (integrin alpha-L), and APP (amyloid beta precursor protein), are commonly modulated in both diseases. The function of these targets was screened from and reconciled with the literature to understand their role in the pathogenesis of HIV and TB. Overall, the study results suggest that these targets may potentially be important contributors to the pathogenesis of this comorbidity. Further experimental work is needed for evaluating these new observations, with a view to future therapeutic innovation for patients with HIV and TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Wakchoure
- Division of Microbiology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune, India
| | - Khizra Momin
- Division of Microbiology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune, India
| | - Abdul Arif Khan
- Division of Microbiology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune, India
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HIV-1 gp120 Protein Activates Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 1, a Possible Link to Central Nervous System Cell Death. Viruses 2022; 14:v14122793. [PMID: 36560797 PMCID: PMC9786227 DOI: 10.3390/v14122793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1)-associated neurodegenerative disorder (HAND) is frequently reported in HIV-infected individuals. The gp120 envelope viral protein has been implicated in the pathogenesis of HAND in HIV-1-infected patients; however, its pathogenic mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we first overexpressed gp120 proteins in pc12 cells and used PI staining, a CCK8 assay, a TUNEL assay, and caspase-9/caspase-3-induced apoptosis to ascertain the mediated cell death. Subsequently, the gp120-overexpressed cells were subjected to RNA transcriptomics and mass spectrometry. The obtained results were integrated and validated using a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and the postmortem brain samples with HIV-associated dementia were analyzed against the normal control (using the GSE35864 data set on gene ontology omnibus repository). Upon the integration of the RNA transcriptomic and proteomic results, 78 upregulated genes were revealed. Fut8, Unc13c, Cdk1, Loc100359539, and Hspa2 were the top five upregulated genes. Upon the analysis of the GSE35864 data set, the results indicate that Cdk1 was upregulated in HIV-associated dementia in comparison to the normal control. Moreover, the protein expression of Cdk1 was significantly higher in the gp120 transfected group compared to the normal control and decreased significantly upon inhibition using Roscovitine (a known Cdk1 inhibitor). Taken together, our results provide a possible molecular signature of the neurological impairment secondary to HIV glycoprotein 120.
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Higher cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers of neuronal injury in HIV-associated neurocognitive impairment. J Neurovirol 2022; 28:438-445. [PMID: 35674935 PMCID: PMC9470698 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-022-01081-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We evaluated whether biomarkers of age-related neuronal injury and amyloid metabolism are associated with neurocognitive impairment (NCI) in people with and without HIV (PWH, PWoH). This was a cross-sectional study of virally suppressed PWH and PWoH. NCI was assessed using a validated test battery; global deficit scores (GDS) quantified overall performance. Biomarkers in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were quantified by immunoassay: neurofilament light (NFL), total Tau (tTau), phosphorylated Tau 181 (pTau181), amyloid beta (Aβ)42, and Aβ40. Factor analysis was used to reduce biomarker dimensionality. Participants were 256 virally suppressed PWH and 42 PWoH, 20.2% female, 17.1% Black, 7.1% Hispanic, 60.2% non-Hispanic White, and 15.6% other race/ethnicities, mean (SD) age 56.7 (6.45) years. Among PWH, the best regression model for CSF showed that higher tTau (β = 0.723, p = 3.79e-5) together with lower pTau181 (β = −0.510, p = 0.0236) best-predicted poor neurocognitive performance. In univariable analysis, only higher tTau was significantly correlated with poor neurocognitive performance (tTau r = 0.214, p = 0.0006; pTau181 r = 0.00248, p = 0.969). Among PWoH, no CSF biomarkers were significantly associated with worse NCI. Predicted residual error sum of squares (PRESS) analysis showed no evidence of overfitting. Poorer neurocognitive performance in aging PWH was associated with higher CSF tTau, a marker of age-related neuronal injury, but not with biomarkers of amyloid metabolism. The findings suggest that HIV might interact with age-related neurodegeneration to contribute to cognitive decline in PWH.
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Biotypes of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders based on viral and immune pathogenesis. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2022; 35:223-230. [PMID: 35665716 PMCID: PMC9179892 DOI: 10.1097/qco.0000000000000825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) continues to be prevalent in people living with HIV despite antiretroviral therapy. However, understanding disease mechanisms and identifying therapeutic avenues has been challenging. One of the challenges is that HAND is a heterogeneous disease and that patients identified with similar impairments phenotypically may have very different underlying disease processes. As the NeuroAIDS field is re-evaluating the approaches used to identify patients with HIV-associated neurological impairments, we propose the subtyping of patients into biotypes based on viral and immune pathogenesis. RECENT FINDINGS Here we review the evidence supporting subtyping patients with HIV-associated neurological complications into four biotypes: macrophage-mediated HIV encephalitis, CNS viral escape, T-cell-mediated HIV encephalitis, and HIV protein-associated encephalopathy. SUMMARY Subtyping patients into subgroups based on biotypes has emerged as a useful approach for studying heterogeneous diseases. Understanding biotypes of HIV-associated neurocognitive impairments may therefore enable better understanding of disease mechanisms, allow for the development of prognostic and diagnostic markers, and could ultimately guide therapeutic decisions.
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Vavougios GD, Mavridis T, Artemiadis A, Krogfelt KA, Hadjigeorgiou G. Trained immunity in viral infections, Alzheimer's disease and multiple sclerosis: A convergence in type I interferon signalling and IFNβ-1a. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2022; 1868:166430. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2022.166430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Trunfio M, Atzori C, Pasquero M, Di Stefano A, Vai D, Nigra M, Imperiale D, Bonora S, Di Perri G, Calcagno A. Patterns of Cerebrospinal Fluid Alzheimer’s Dementia Biomarkers in People Living with HIV: Cross-Sectional Study on Associated Factors According to Viral Control, Neurological Confounders and Neurocognition. Viruses 2022; 14:v14040753. [PMID: 35458483 PMCID: PMC9031633 DOI: 10.3390/v14040753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
People living with HIV (PLWH) age with an excess burden of comorbidities that may increase the incidence of age-related complications. There is controversy surrounding the hypothesis that HIV can accelerate neurodegeneration and Alzheimer’s dementia (AD). We performed a retrospective study to analyze the distribution of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) AD biomarkers (beta amyloid 1–42 fragment, tau, and phosphorylated tau) in adult PLWH (on cART with undetectable viremia, n = 136, with detectable viremia, n = 121, and with central nervous system CNS disorders regardless of viremia, n = 72) who underwent a lumbar puncture between 2008 to 2018; HIV-negative controls with AD were included (n = 84). Five subjects (1.5%) presented CSF biomarkers that were compatible with AD: one was diagnosed with AD, whereas the others showed HIV encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, cryptococcal meningitis, and neurotoxoplasmosis. Regardless of confounders, 79.6% of study participants presented normal CSF AD biomarkers. Isolated abnormalities in CSF beta amyloid 1–42 (7.9%) and tau (10.9%) were associated with age, biomarkers of intrathecal injury, and inflammation, although no HIV-specific feature was associated with abnormal CSF patterns. CSF levels of AD biomarkers very poorly overlapped between HIV-positive clinical categories and AD controls. Despite the correlations with neurocognitive performance, the inter-relationship between amyloid and tau proteins in PLWH seem to differ from that observed in AD subjects; the main driver of the isolated increase in tau seems represented by non-specific CNS inflammation, whereas the mechanisms underlying isolated amyloid consumption remain unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Trunfio
- Infectious Disease Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin at Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, 10149 Torino, Italy
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0114393884
| | | | - Marta Pasquero
- Infectious Disease Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin at Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, 10149 Torino, Italy
| | - Alessandro Di Stefano
- Infectious Disease Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin at Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, 10149 Torino, Italy
| | - Daniela Vai
- Neurology Unit, Maria Vittoria Hospital, 10144 Torino, Italy
| | - Marco Nigra
- Laboratory Medicine, Maria Vittoria Hospital, 10144 Torino, Italy
| | | | - Stefano Bonora
- Infectious Disease Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin at Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, 10149 Torino, Italy
| | - Giovanni Di Perri
- Infectious Disease Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin at Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, 10149 Torino, Italy
| | - Andrea Calcagno
- Infectious Disease Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin at Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, 10149 Torino, Italy
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14
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Ziff OJ, Ashton NJ, Mehta PR, Brown R, Athauda D, Heaney J, Heslegrave AJ, Benedet AL, Blennow K, Checkley AM, Houlihan CF, Gauthier S, Rosa‐Neto P, Fox NC, Schott JM, Zetterberg H, Benjamin LA, Paterson RW. Amyloid processing in COVID-19-associated neurological syndromes. J Neurochem 2022; 161:146-157. [PMID: 35137414 PMCID: PMC9115071 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 infection can damage the nervous system with multiple neurological manifestations described. However, there is limited understanding of the mechanisms underlying COVID-19 neurological injury. This is a cross-sectional exploratory prospective biomarker cohort study of 21 patients with COVID-19 neurological syndromes (Guillain-Barre Syndrome [GBS], encephalitis, encephalopathy, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis [ADEM], intracranial hypertension, and central pain syndrome) and 23 healthy COVID-19 negative controls. We measured cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum biomarkers of amyloid processing, neuronal injury (neurofilament light), astrocyte activation (GFAp), and neuroinflammation (tissue necrosis factor [TNF] ɑ, interleukin [IL]-6, IL-1β, IL-8). Patients with COVID-19 neurological syndromes had significantly reduced CSF soluble amyloid precursor protein (sAPP)-ɑ (p = 0.004) and sAPPβ (p = 0.03) as well as amyloid β (Aβ) 40 (p = 5.2 × 10-8 ), Aβ42 (p = 3.5 × 10-7 ), and Aβ42/Aβ40 ratio (p = 0.005) compared to controls. Patients with COVID-19 neurological syndromes showed significantly increased neurofilament light (NfL, p = 0.001) and this negatively correlated with sAPPɑ and sAPPβ. Conversely, GFAp was significantly reduced in COVID-19 neurological syndromes (p = 0.0001) and this positively correlated with sAPPɑ and sAPPβ. COVID-19 neurological patients also displayed significantly increased CSF proinflammatory cytokines and these negatively correlated with sAPPɑ and sAPPβ. A sensitivity analysis of COVID-19-associated GBS revealed a non-significant trend toward greater impairment of amyloid processing in COVID-19 central than peripheral neurological syndromes. This pilot study raises the possibility that patients with COVID-19-associated neurological syndromes exhibit impaired amyloid processing. Altered amyloid processing was linked to neuronal injury and neuroinflammation but reduced astrocyte activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver J. Ziff
- Queen Square Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondonUK
- National Hospital for Neurology and NeurosurgeryUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Queen SquareLondonUK
- Francis Crick InstituteLondonUK
| | - Nicholas J. Ashton
- Department of Psychiatry and NeurochemistryInstitute of Neuroscience & Physiology, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of GothenburgMölndalSweden
- King's College LondonInstitute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, Maurice Wohl Clinical Neuroscience InstituteLondonUK
| | - Puja R. Mehta
- Queen Square Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondonUK
- National Hospital for Neurology and NeurosurgeryUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Queen SquareLondonUK
| | - Rachel Brown
- National Hospital for Neurology and NeurosurgeryUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Queen SquareLondonUK
- Institute of Immunity and TransplantationUniversity College LondonLondonUK
| | - Dilan Athauda
- Queen Square Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondonUK
- National Hospital for Neurology and NeurosurgeryUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Queen SquareLondonUK
- Francis Crick InstituteLondonUK
| | - Judith Heaney
- National Hospital for Neurology and NeurosurgeryUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Queen SquareLondonUK
- Advanced Pathogens Diagnostic UnitUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
| | - Amanda J. Heslegrave
- Queen Square Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondonUK
- National Hospital for Neurology and NeurosurgeryUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Queen SquareLondonUK
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University College LondonLondonUK
| | - Andrea Lessa Benedet
- Department of Psychiatry and NeurochemistryInstitute of Neuroscience & Physiology, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of GothenburgMölndalSweden
| | - Kaj Blennow
- Department of Psychiatry and NeurochemistryInstitute of Neuroscience & Physiology, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of GothenburgMölndalSweden
| | - Anna M. Checkley
- National Hospital for Neurology and NeurosurgeryUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Queen SquareLondonUK
- Advanced Pathogens Diagnostic UnitUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
| | - Catherine F. Houlihan
- National Hospital for Neurology and NeurosurgeryUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Queen SquareLondonUK
- Advanced Pathogens Diagnostic UnitUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
| | - Serge Gauthier
- Translational Neuroimaging LaboratoryMcGill University Research Centre for Studies in AgingMontrealCanada
- Alzheimer's Disease Research UnitMontréalCanada
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Psychiatry and Pharmacology and TherapeuticsMcGill UniversityMontrealCanada
| | - Pedro Rosa‐Neto
- Translational Neuroimaging LaboratoryMcGill University Research Centre for Studies in AgingMontrealCanada
- Alzheimer's Disease Research UnitMontréalCanada
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Psychiatry and Pharmacology and TherapeuticsMcGill UniversityMontrealCanada
| | - Nick C. Fox
- Queen Square Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondonUK
- National Hospital for Neurology and NeurosurgeryUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Queen SquareLondonUK
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University College LondonLondonUK
| | - Jonathan M. Schott
- Queen Square Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondonUK
- National Hospital for Neurology and NeurosurgeryUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Queen SquareLondonUK
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Queen Square Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondonUK
- Department of Psychiatry and NeurochemistryInstitute of Neuroscience & Physiology, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of GothenburgMölndalSweden
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University College LondonLondonUK
| | - Laura A. Benjamin
- Queen Square Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondonUK
- National Hospital for Neurology and NeurosurgeryUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Queen SquareLondonUK
- University of LiverpoolBrain Infections GroupMerseysideLiverpoolUK
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cell BiologyUCLLondonUK
| | - Ross W. Paterson
- Queen Square Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondonUK
- National Hospital for Neurology and NeurosurgeryUniversity College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Queen SquareLondonUK
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University College LondonLondonUK
- Darent Valley HospitalKentUK
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15
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Gumbs SBH, Kübler R, Gharu L, Schipper PJ, Borst AL, Snijders GJLJ, Ormel PR, van Berlekom AB, Wensing AMJ, de Witte LD, Nijhuis M. Human microglial models to study HIV infection and neuropathogenesis: a literature overview and comparative analyses. J Neurovirol 2022; 28:64-91. [PMID: 35138593 PMCID: PMC9076745 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-021-01049-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
HIV persistence in the CNS despite antiretroviral therapy may cause neurological disorders and poses a critical challenge for HIV cure. Understanding the pathobiology of HIV-infected microglia, the main viral CNS reservoir, is imperative. Here, we provide a comprehensive comparison of human microglial culture models: cultured primary microglia (pMG), microglial cell lines, monocyte-derived microglia (MDMi), stem cell-derived microglia (iPSC-MG), and microglia grown in 3D cerebral organoids (oMG) as potential model systems to advance HIV research on microglia. Functional characterization revealed phagocytic capabilities and responsiveness to LPS across all models. Microglial transcriptome profiles of uncultured pMG showed the highest similarity to cultured pMG and oMG, followed by iPSC-MG and then MDMi. Direct comparison of HIV infection showed a striking difference, with high levels of viral replication in cultured pMG and MDMi and relatively low levels in oMG resembling HIV infection observed in post-mortem biopsies, while the SV40 and HMC3 cell lines did not support HIV infection. Altogether, based on transcriptional similarities to uncultured pMG and susceptibility to HIV infection, MDMi may serve as a first screening tool, whereas oMG, cultured pMG, and iPSC-MG provide more representative microglial culture models for HIV research. The use of current human microglial cell lines (SV40, HMC3) is not recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie B H Gumbs
- Translational Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Raphael Kübler
- Translational Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lavina Gharu
- Translational Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Pauline J Schipper
- Translational Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Anne L Borst
- Translational Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Gijsje J L J Snijders
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht, Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Paul R Ormel
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht, Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Amber Berdenis van Berlekom
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht, Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht, Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Annemarie M J Wensing
- Translational Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Lot D de Witte
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht, Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Monique Nijhuis
- Translational Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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16
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Crucial Role of Central Nervous System as a Viral Anatomical Compartment for HIV-1 Infection. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9122537. [PMID: 34946138 PMCID: PMC8705402 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9122537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 07/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The chronic infection established by the human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) produces serious CD4+ T cell immunodeficiency despite the decrease in HIV-1 ribonucleic acid (RNA) levels and the raised life expectancy of people living with HIV-1 (PLWH) through treatment with combined antiretroviral therapies (cART). HIV-1 enters the central nervous system (CNS), where perivascular macrophages and microglia are infected. Serious neurodegenerative symptoms related to HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) are produced by infection of the CNS. Despite advances in the treatment of this infection, HAND significantly contribute to morbidity and mortality globally. The pathogenesis and the role of inflammation in HAND are still incompletely understood. Principally, growing evidence shows that the CNS is an anatomical reservoir for viral infection and replication, and that its compartmentalization can trigger the evolution of neurological damage and thus make virus eradication more difficult. In this review, important concepts for understanding HAND and neuropathogenesis as well as the viral proteins involved in the CNS as an anatomical reservoir for HIV infection are discussed. In addition, an overview of the recent advancements towards therapeutic strategies for the treatment of HAND is presented. Further neurological research is needed to address neurodegenerative difficulties in people living with HIV, specifically regarding CNS viral reservoirs and their effects on eradication.
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17
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Drug repurposing for COVID-19 using computational screening: Is Fostamatinib/R406 a potential candidate? Methods 2021; 203:564-574. [PMID: 34455072 PMCID: PMC8390099 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2021.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
With the gradual increase in the COVID-19 mortality rate, there is an urgent need for an effective drug/vaccine. Several drugs like Remdesivir, Azithromycin, Favirapir, Ritonavir, Darunavir, etc., are put under evaluation in more than 300 clinical trials to treat COVID-19. On the other hand, several vaccines like Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, Johnson & Johnson's Janssen, Sputnik V, Covishield, Covaxin, etc., also evolved from the research study. While few of them already gets approved, others show encouraging results and are still under assessment. In parallel, there are also significant developments in new drug development. But, since the approval of new molecules takes substantial time, drug repurposing studies have also gained considerable momentum. The primary agent of the disease progression of COVID-19 is SARS-CoV2/nCoV, which is believed to have ~89% genetic resemblance with SARS-CoV, a coronavirus responsible for the massive outbreak in 2003. With this hypothesis, Human-SARS-CoV protein interactions are used to develop an in-silico Human-nCoV network by identifying potential COVID-19 human spreader proteins by applying the SIS model and fuzzy thresholding by a possible COVID-19 FDA drugs target-based validation. At first, the complete list of FDA drugs is identified for the level-1 and level-2 spreader proteins in this network, followed by applying a drug consensus scoring strategy. The same consensus strategy is involved in the second analysis but on a curated overlapping set of key genes/proteins identified from COVID-19 symptoms. Validation using subsequent docking study has also been performed on COVID-19 potential drugs with the available major COVID-19 crystal structures whose PDB IDs are: 6LU7, 6M2Q, 6W9C, 6M0J, 6M71 and 6VXX. Our computational study and docking results suggest that Fostamatinib (R406 as its active promoiety) may also be considered as one of the potential candidates for further clinical trials in pursuit to counter the spread of COVID-19.
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18
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Alzheimer's-Like Pathology at the Crossroads of HIV-Associated Neurological Disorders. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9080930. [PMID: 34452054 PMCID: PMC8402792 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9080930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the widespread success of combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) in suppressing viremia, the prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-associated neurological disorders (HAND) and associated comorbidities such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD)-like symptomatology is higher among people living with HIV. The pathophysiology of observed deficits in HAND is well understood. However, it has been suggested that it is exacerbated by aging. Epidemiological studies have suggested comparable concentrations of the toxic amyloid protein, amyloid-β42 (Aβ42), in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of HAND patients and in the brains of patients with dementia of the Alzheimer’s type. Apart from abnormal amyloid-β (Aβ) metabolism in AD, a better understanding of the role of similar pathophysiologic processes in HAND could be of substantial value. The pathogenesis of HAND involves either the direct effects of the virus or the effect of viral proteins, such as Tat, Gp120, or Nef, as well as the effects of antiretrovirals on amyloid metabolism and tauopathy, leading, in turn, to synaptodendritic alterations and neuroinflammatory milieu in the brain. Additionally, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the causative or bystander role of Alzheimer’s-like pathology in HAND, which is a barrier to the development of therapeutics for HAND. This review attempts to highlight the cause–effect relationship of Alzheimer’s-like pathology with HAND, attempting to dissect the role of HIV-1, HIV viral proteins, and antiretrovirals in patient samples, animal models, and cell culture model systems. Biomarkers associated with Alzheimer’s-like pathology can serve as a tool to assess the neuronal injury in the brain and the associated cognitive deficits. Understanding the factors contributing to the AD-like pathology associated with HAND could set the stage for the future development of therapeutics aimed at abrogating the disease process.
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19
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Lee YJ, Yeo IJ, Choi DY, Yun J, Son DJ, Han SB, Hong JT. Amyloidogenic, neuroinflammatory and memory dysfunction effects of HIV-1 gp120. Arch Pharm Res 2021; 44:689-701. [PMID: 34302237 PMCID: PMC8300079 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-021-01340-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) infection can cause several HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders a variety of neurological impairments characterized by the loss of cortical and subcortical neurons and decreased cognitive and motor function. HIV-1 gp120, the major envelope glycoprotein on viral particles, acts as a binding protein for viral entry and is known to be an agent of neuronal cell death. To determine the mechanism of HIV-1 gp120-induced memory dysfunction, we performed mouse intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) infusion with HIV-1 gp120 protein (300 ng per mouse) and investigated memory impairment and amyloidogenesis. Infusion of the HIV-1 gp120 protein induced memory dysfunction, which was evaluated using passive avoidance and water maze tests. Infusion of HIV-1 gp120 induced neuroinflammation, such as the release of iNOS and COX-2 and the activation of astrocytes and microglia and increased the mRNA and protein levels of IL-6, ICAM-1, M-CSF, TIM, and IL-2. In particular, we found that the infusion of HIV-1 gp120 induced the accumulation of amyloid plaques and signs of elevated amyloidogenesis, such as increased expression of amyloid precursor protein and BACE1 and increased β-secretase activity. Therefore, these studies suggest that HIV-1 gp120 may induce memory impairment through Aβ accumulation and neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Jung Lee
- Department of Equine Resources Science, School of Equine and Horticultural, Cheju Halla University, 38 Halladaehak-ro, Jeju-si, Jeju Special Self-Governing Province, 63092, Republic of Korea
| | - In Jun Yeo
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Osong-eup, Heungdeok-gu, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Young Choi
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, 280 Daehak Road, Gyeonsan, Gyeongbuk, 38541, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaesuk Yun
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Osong-eup, Heungdeok-gu, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Ju Son
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Osong-eup, Heungdeok-gu, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Bae Han
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Osong-eup, Heungdeok-gu, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Tae Hong
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Osong-eup, Heungdeok-gu, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28160, Republic of Korea.
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20
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Abstract
Long-term effective use of antiretroviral therapy (ART) among people with HIV (PWH) has significantly reduced the burden of disease, yet a cure for HIV has not been universally achieved, likely due to the persistence of an HIV reservoir. The central nervous system (CNS) is an understudied HIV sanctuary. Importantly, due to viral persistence in the brain, cognitive disturbances persist to various degrees at high rates in PWH despite suppressive ART. Given the complexity and accessibility of the CNS compartment and that it is a physiologically and anatomically unique immune site, human studies to reveal molecular mechanisms of viral entry, reservoir establishment, and the cellular and structural interactions leading to viral persistence and brain injury to advance a cure and either prevent or limit cognitive impairments in PWH remain challenging. Recent advances in human brain organoids show that they can mimic the intercellular dynamics of the human brain and may recapitulate many of the events involved in HIV infection of the brain (neuroHIV). Human brain organoids can be produced, spontaneously or with addition of growth factors and at immature or mature states, and have become stronger models to study neurovirulent viral infections of the CNS. While organoids provide opportunities to study neuroHIV, obstacles such as the need to incorporate microglia need to be overcome to fully utilize this model. Here, we review the current achievements in brain organoid biology and their relevance to neuroHIV research efforts.
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21
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Leone MJ, Sun H, Boutros CL, Liu L, Ye E, Sullivan L, Thomas RJ, Robbins GK, Mukerji SS, Westover MB. HIV Increases Sleep-based Brain Age Despite Antiretroviral Therapy. Sleep 2021; 44:6204183. [PMID: 33783511 DOI: 10.1093/sleep/zsab058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVES Age-related comorbidities and immune activation raise concern for advanced brain aging in people living with HIV (PLWH). The brain age index (BAI) is a machine learning model that quantifies deviations in brain activity during sleep relative to healthy individuals of the same age. High BAI was previously found to be associated with neurological, psychiatric, cardiometabolic diseases, and reduced life expectancy among people without HIV. Here, we estimated the effect of HIV infection on BAI by comparing PLWH and HIV-controls. METHODS Clinical data and sleep EEGs from 43 PLWH on antiretroviral therapy (HIV+) and 3,155 controls (HIV-) were collected from Massachusetts General Hospital. The effect of HIV infection on BAI, and on individual EEG features, was estimated using causal inference. RESULTS The average effect of HIV on BAI was estimated to be +3.35 years (p < 0.01, 95% CI = [0.67, 5.92]) using doubly robust estimation. Compared to HIV- controls, HIV+ participants exhibited a reduction in delta band power during deep sleep and rapid eye movement sleep. CONCLUSION We provide causal evidence that HIV contributes to advanced brain aging reflected in sleep EEG. A better understanding is greatly needed of potential therapeutic targets to mitigate the effect of HIV on brain health, potentially including sleep disorders and cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Haoqi Sun
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Lin Liu
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Elissa Ye
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
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22
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Michiels E, Rousseau F, Schymkowitz J. Mechanisms and therapeutic potential of interactions between human amyloids and viruses. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:2485-2501. [PMID: 33244624 PMCID: PMC7690653 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-020-03711-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The aggregation of specific proteins and their amyloid deposition in affected tissue in disease has been studied for decades assuming a sole pathogenic role of amyloids. It is now clear that amyloids can also encode important cellular functions, one of which involves the interaction potential of amyloids with microbial pathogens, including viruses. Human expressed amyloids have been shown to act both as innate restriction molecules against viruses as well as promoting agents for viral infectivity. The underlying molecular driving forces of such amyloid-virus interactions are not completely understood. Starting from the well-described molecular mechanisms underlying amyloid formation, we here summarize three non-mutually exclusive hypotheses that have been proposed to drive amyloid-virus interactions. Viruses can indirectly drive amyloid depositions by affecting upstream molecular pathways or induce amyloid formation by a direct interaction with the viral surface or specific viral proteins. Finally, we highlight the potential of therapeutic interventions using the sequence specificity of amyloid interactions to drive viral interference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emiel Michiels
- VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium
- Switch Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Frederic Rousseau
- VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium.
- Switch Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Joost Schymkowitz
- VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium.
- Switch Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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23
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Jha NK, Sharma A, Jha SK, Ojha S, Chellappan DK, Gupta G, Kesari KK, Bhardwaj S, Shukla SD, Tambuwala MM, Ruokolainen J, Dua K, Singh SK. Alzheimer's disease-like perturbations in HIV-mediated neuronal dysfunctions: understanding mechanisms and developing therapeutic strategies. Open Biol 2020; 10:200286. [PMID: 33352062 PMCID: PMC7776571 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.200286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Excessive exposure to toxic substances or chemicals in the environment and various pathogens, including viruses and bacteria, is associated with the onset of numerous brain abnormalities. Among them, pathogens, specifically viruses, elicit persistent inflammation that plays a major role in Alzheimer's disease (AD) as well as dementia. AD is the most common brain disorder that affects thought, speech, memory and ability to execute daily routines. It is also manifested by progressive synaptic impairment and neurodegeneration, which eventually leads to dementia following the accumulation of Aβ and hyperphosphorylated Tau. Numerous factors contribute to the pathogenesis of AD, including neuroinflammation associated with pathogens, and specifically viruses. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is often linked with HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) following permeation through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and induction of persistent neuroinflammation. Further, HIV infections also exhibited the ability to modulate numerous AD-associated factors such as BBB regulators, members of stress-related pathways as well as the amyloid and Tau pathways that lead to the formation of amyloid plaques or neurofibrillary tangles accumulation. Studies regarding the role of HIV in HAND and AD are still in infancy, and potential link or mechanism between both is not yet established. Thus, in the present article, we attempt to discuss various molecular mechanisms that contribute to the basic understanding of the role of HIV-associated neuroinflammation in AD and HAND. Further, using numerous growth factors and drugs, we also present possible therapeutic strategies to curb the neuroinflammatory changes and its associated sequels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niraj Kumar Jha
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida, UP 201310, India
| | - Ankur Sharma
- Department of Life Science, School of Basic Science and Research (SBSR), Sharda University, Greater Noida, UP 201310, India
| | - Saurabh Kumar Jha
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida, UP 201310, India
| | - Shreesh Ojha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, PO Box 17666, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Dinesh Kumar Chellappan
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
| | - Gaurav Gupta
- School of Phamacy, Suresh Gyan Vihar University, Jagatpura, Mahal Road, Jaipur, India
| | - Kavindra Kumar Kesari
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Science, Aalto University, Espoo 00076, Finland
| | - Shanu Bhardwaj
- Department of Biotechnology, HIMT, Greater Noida, CCS University, UP, India
| | - Shakti D. Shukla
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute (HMRI) and School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | - Murtaza M. Tambuwala
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine, County Londonderry, BT52 1SA, UK
| | - Janne Ruokolainen
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Science, Aalto University, Espoo 00076, Finland
| | - Kamal Dua
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute (HMRI) and School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
- Discipline of Pharmacy, Graduate School of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2007, Australia
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shoolini University of Biotechnology and Management Sciences, PO Box 9, Solan, Himachal Pradesh 173229, India
| | - Sandeep Kumar Singh
- Department of Biomedical Research, Centre of Biomedical Research, SGPGI Campus, Lucknow 226014, UP, India
- Biological Science, Indian Scientific Education and Technology Foundation, Lucknow 226002, UP, India
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24
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Marino J, Wigdahl B, Nonnemacher MR. Extracellular HIV-1 Tat Mediates Increased Glutamate in the CNS Leading to Onset of Senescence and Progression of HAND. Front Aging Neurosci 2020; 12:168. [PMID: 32581774 PMCID: PMC7295946 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.00168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)- associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) is a disease of neurologic impairment that involves mechanisms of damage similar to other degenerative neurologic diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In the current era of antiretroviral therapy (ART), HIV-1 replication is well-suppressed, and yet, HIV-1-infected patients still have high levels of chronic inflammation, indicating that factors other than viral replication are contributing to the development of neurocognitive impairment in these patients. The underlying mechanisms of HAND are still unknown, but the HIV-1 protein, Tat, has been highlighted as a potential viral product that contributes to the development of cognitive impairment. In AD, the presence of senescent cells in the CNS has been discussed as a contributing factor to the progression of cognitive decline and may be a mechanism also involved in the development of HAND. This mini-review discusses the viral protein HIV-1 Tat, and its potential to induce senescence in the CNS, contributing to the development of HAND.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie Marino
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine & Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Brian Wigdahl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine & Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Michael R Nonnemacher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine & Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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25
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Huang J, Bloe CB, Zhou X, Wu S, Zhang W. The Role of the Spinal Wnt Signaling Pathway in HIV-Related Neuropathic Pain. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2020; 40:1075-1085. [PMID: 32100186 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-020-00805-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-related neuropathic pain includes HIV-induced neuropathic pain (HNP) and antiretroviral therapy-induced neuropathic pain (ART-NP). A significant amount of evidence from the past few years has shown that the development of HIV-related neuropathic pain is closely related to the activation of the Wnt signaling pathway in the spinal cord. This review summarizes the function of the spinal Wnt signaling pathway in HIV-induced neuropathic pain, focusing on the role of the spinal Wnt signaling pathway in HNP, and provides a theoretical basis for further studies and the exploration of new target drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Huang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
| | - Chris Bloe Bloe
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
| | - Xinxin Zhou
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
| | - Shengjun Wu
- Clinical Laboratory of Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310016, China.
| | - Wenping Zhang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, 310018, China.
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26
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Vittor AY, Long M, Chakrabarty P, Aycock L, Kollu V, DeKosky ST. West Nile Virus-Induced Neurologic Sequelae-Relationship to Neurodegenerative Cascades and Dementias. CURRENT TROPICAL MEDICINE REPORTS 2020; 7:25-36. [PMID: 32775145 DOI: 10.1007/s40475-020-00200-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Purpose of Review West Nile virus (WNV) emerged from Central Africa in the 1990s and is now endemic throughout much of the world. Twenty years after its introduction in the USA, it is becoming apparent that neurological impairments can persist for years following infection. Here, we review the epidemiological data in support of such long-term deficits and discuss possible mechanisms that drive these persistent manifestations. Recent Findings Focusing on the recently discovered antimicrobial roles of amyloid and alpha-synuclein, we connect WNV late pathology to overlapping features encountered in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. We also summarize new research on microglial activation and engulfment of neural synapses seen in recovered WNV as well as in neurodegenerative diseases, and discuss how loss of integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) may exacerbate this process. Summary Neuroinvasive viral infections such as WNV may be linked epidemiologically and mechanistically to neurodegeneration. This may open doors to therapeutic options for hitherto untreatable infectious sequelae; additionally, it may also shed light on the possible infectious etiologies of age-progressive neurodegenerative dementias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Y Vittor
- Division of Infectious Disease and Global Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Maureen Long
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Paramita Chakrabarty
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Lauren Aycock
- School of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Vidya Kollu
- Division of Infectious Disease and Global Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Steven T DeKosky
- Department of Neurology and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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27
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Frost GR, Jonas LA, Li YM. Friend, Foe or Both? Immune Activity in Alzheimer's Disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2019; 11:337. [PMID: 31920620 PMCID: PMC6916654 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2019.00337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is marked by the presence of amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques, neurofibrillary tangles (NFT), neuronal death and synaptic loss, and inflammation in the brain. AD research has, in large part, been dedicated to the understanding of Aβ and NFT deposition as well as to the pharmacological reduction of these hallmarks. However, recent GWAS data indicates neuroinflammation plays a critical role in AD development, thereby redirecting research efforts toward unveiling the complexities of AD-associated neuroinflammation. It is clear that the innate immune system is intimately associated with AD progression, however, the specific roles of glia and neuroinflammation in AD pathology remain to be described. Moreover, inflammatory processes have largely been painted as detrimental to AD pathology, when in fact, many immune mechanisms such as phagocytosis aid in the reduction of AD pathologies. In this review, we aim to outline the delicate balance between the beneficial and detrimental aspects of immune activation in AD as a more thorough understanding of these processes is critical to development of effective therapeutics for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia R Frost
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Manhattan, NY, United States
| | - Lauren A Jonas
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Manhattan, NY, United States.,Pharmacology Program, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Yue-Ming Li
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Manhattan, NY, United States.,Pharmacology Program, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
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28
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Mackiewicz MM, Overk C, Achim CL, Masliah E. Pathogenesis of age-related HIV neurodegeneration. J Neurovirol 2019; 25:622-633. [PMID: 30790184 PMCID: PMC6703984 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-019-00728-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
People over the age of 50 are the fastest growing segment of the HIV-infected population in the USA. Although antiretroviral therapy has remarkable success controlling the systemic HIV infection, HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) prevalence has increased or remained the same among this group, and cognitive deficits appear more severe in aged patients with HIV. The mechanisms of HAND in the aged population are not completely understood; a leading hypothesis is that aged individuals with HIV might be at higher risk of developing Alzheimer's disease (AD) or one of the AD-related dementias (ADRD). There are a number of mechanisms through which chronic HIV disease alone or in combination with antiretroviral therapy and other comorbidities (e.g., drug use, hepatitis C virus (HCV)) might be contributing to HAND in individuals over the age of 50 years, including (1) overlapping pathogenic mechanisms between HIV and aging (e.g., decreased proteostasis, DNA damage, chronic inflammation, epigenetics, vascular), which could lead to accelerated cellular aging and neurodegeneration and/or (2) by promoting pathways involved in AD/ADRD neuropathogenesis (e.g., triggering amyloid β, Tau, or α-synuclein accumulation). In this manuscript, we will review some of the potential common mechanisms involved and evidence in favor and against a role of AD/ADRD in HAND.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cassia Overk
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Cristian L Achim
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Eliezer Masliah
- Division of Neuroscience, National Institute on Aging/NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging/NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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29
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Kodidela S, Gerth K, Haque S, Gong Y, Ismael S, Singh A, Tauheed I, Kumar S. Extracellular Vesicles: A Possible Link between HIV and Alzheimer's Disease-Like Pathology in HIV Subjects? Cells 2019; 8:E968. [PMID: 31450610 PMCID: PMC6769601 DOI: 10.3390/cells8090968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The longevity of people with HIV/AIDS has been prolonged with the use of antiretroviral therapy (ART). The age-related complications, especially cognitive deficits, rise as HIV patients live longer. Deposition of beta-amyloid (Aβ), a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD), has been observed in subjects with HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). Various mechanisms such as neuroinflammation induced by HIV proteins (e.g., Tat, gp120, Nef), excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and the use of ART contribute to the deposition of Aβ, leading to dementia. However, progressive dementia in older subjects with HIV might be due to HAND, AD, or both. Recently, extracellular vesicles (EVs)/exosomes, have gained recognition for their importance in understanding the pathology of both HAND and AD. EVs can serve as a possible link between HIV and AD, due to their ability to package and transport the toxic proteins implicated in both AD and HIV (Aβ/tau and gp120/tat, respectively). Given that Aß is also elevated in neuron-derived exosomes isolated from the plasma of HIV patients, it is reasonable to suggest that neuron-to-neuron exosomal transport of Aβ and tau also contributes to AD-like pathology in HIV-infected subjects. Therefore, exploring exosomal contents is likely to help distinguish HAND from AD. However, future prospective clinical studies need to be conducted to compare the exosomal contents in the plasma of HIV subjects with and without HAND as well as those with and without AD. This would help to find new markers and develop new treatment strategies to treat AD in HIV-positive subjects. This review presents comprehensive literatures on the mechanisms contributing to Aβ deposition in HIV-infected cells, the role of EVs in the propagation of Aβ in AD, the possible role of EVs in HIV-induced AD-like pathology, and finally, possible therapeutic targets or molecules to treat HIV subjects with AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunitha Kodidela
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 881 Madison Ave, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
| | - Kelli Gerth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 881 Madison Ave, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Sanjana Haque
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 881 Madison Ave, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Yuqing Gong
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 881 Madison Ave, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Saifudeen Ismael
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 855 Monroe Avenue #515, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Ajay Singh
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, Le Bonheur Children Hospital, 50 N. Dunlap st, Memphis, TN 38103, USA
| | - Ishrat Tauheed
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 855 Monroe Avenue #515, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Santosh Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 881 Madison Ave, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
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30
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Ozturk T, Kollhoff A, Anderson AM, Christina Howell J, Loring DW, Waldrop-Valverde D, Franklin D, Letendre S, Tyor WR, Hu WT. Linked CSF reduction of phosphorylated tau and IL-8 in HIV associated neurocognitive disorder. Sci Rep 2019; 9:8733. [PMID: 31217522 PMCID: PMC6584499 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-45418-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) is a common condition in both developed and developing nations, but its cause is largely unknown. Previous research has inconsistently linked Alzheimer’s disease (AD), viral burden, and inflammation to the onset of HAND in HIV-infected individuals. Here we simultaneously measured cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of established amyloid and tau biomarkers for AD, viral copy numbers, and six key cytokines in 41 HIV-infected individuals off combination anti-retroviral therapy (14 with HAND) who underwent detailed clinical and neuropsychological characterization, and compared their CSF patterns with those from young healthy subjects, older healthy subjects with normal cognition, and older people with AD. HAND was associated with the lowest CSF levels of phosphorylated tau (p-Tau181) after accounting for age and race. We also found very high CSF levels of the pro-inflammatory interferon gamma-induced protein 10 (IP-10/CXCL10) in HIV regardless of cognition, but elevated CSF interleukin 8 (IL-8/CXCL8) only in HIV-NC but not HAND. Eleven HIV-infected subjects underwent repeat CSF collection six months later and showed strongly correlated longitudinal changes in p-Tau181 and IL-8 levels (R = 0.841). These data suggest reduced IL-8 relative to IP-10 and reduced p-Tau181 to characterize HAND.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tugba Ozturk
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Alexander Kollhoff
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Albert M Anderson
- Department of Medicine - Division of Infectious Disease, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - J Christina Howell
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - David W Loring
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Drenna Waldrop-Valverde
- Center for Neurocognitive Studies, Emory University Hodgson Woodruff School of Nursing, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Donald Franklin
- HIV Neurobehavioral Research Center, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Scott Letendre
- HIV Neurobehavioral Research Center, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - William R Tyor
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - William T Hu
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA. .,Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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31
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Gosztyla ML, Brothers HM, Robinson SR. Alzheimer's Amyloid-β is an Antimicrobial Peptide: A Review of the Evidence. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 62:1495-1506. [PMID: 29504537 DOI: 10.3233/jad-171133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide has long been considered to be the driving force behind Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, clinical trials that have successfully reduced Aβ burden in the brain have not slowed the cognitive decline, and in some instances, have resulted in adverse outcomes. While these results can be interpreted in different ways, a more nuanced picture of Aβ is emerging that takes into account the facts that the peptide is evolutionarily conserved and is present throughout life in cognitively normal individuals. Recent evidence indicates a role for Aβ as an antimicrobial peptide (AMP), a class of innate immune defense molecule that utilizes fibrillation to protect the host from a wide range of infectious agents. In humans and in animal models, infection of the brain frequently leads to increased amyloidogenic processing of the amyloid-β protein precursor (AβPP) and resultant fibrillary aggregates of Aβ. Evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrates that Aβ oligomers have potent, broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties by forming fibrils that entrap pathogens and disrupt cell membranes. Importantly, overexpression of Aβ confers increased resistance to infection from both bacteria and viruses. The antimicrobial role of Aβ may explain why increased rates of infection have been observed in some of the AD clinical trials that depleted Aβ. Perhaps progress toward a cure for AD will accelerate once treatment strategies begin to take into account the likely physiological functions of this enigmatic peptide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya L Gosztyla
- Department of Neuroscience, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Holly M Brothers
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Stephen R Robinson
- Discipline of Psychology, School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
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32
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Fulop T, Witkowski JM, Larbi A, Khalil A, Herbein G, Frost EH. Does HIV infection contribute to increased beta-amyloid synthesis and plaque formation leading to neurodegeneration and Alzheimer's disease? J Neurovirol 2019; 25:634-647. [PMID: 30868421 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-019-00732-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
HIV infection in the combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) era has become a chronic disease with a life expectancy almost identical to those free from this infection. Concomitantly, chronic diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases have emerged as serious clinical problems. HIV-induced cognitive changes, although clinically very diverse are collectively called HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND). HAND, which until the introduction of cART manifested clinically as a subcortical disorder, is now considered primarily cognitive disorder, which makes it similar to diseases like Alzheimer's (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). The pathogenesis involves either the direct effects of the virus or the effect of viral proteins such as Tat, Ggp120, and Nef. These proteins are either capable of destroying neurons directly by inducing neurotoxic mediators or by initiating neuroinflammation by microglia and astrocytes. Recently, it has become recognized that HIV infection is associated with increased production of the beta-amyloid peptide (Aβ) which is a characteristic of AD. Moreover, amyloid plaques have also been demonstrated in the brains of patients suffering from HAND. Thus, the question arises whether this production of Aβ indicates that HAND may lead to AD or it is a form of AD or this increase in Aβ production is only a bystander effect. It has also been discovered that APP in HIV and its metabolic product Aβ in AD manifest antiviral innate immune peptide characteristics. This review attempts to bring together studies linking amyloid precursor protein (APP) and Aβ production in HIV infection and their possible impact on the course of HAND and AD. These data indicate that human defense mechanisms in HAND and AD are trying to contain microorganisms by antimicrobial peptides, however by employing different means. Future studies will, no doubt, uncover the relationship between HAND and AD and, hopefully, reveal novel treatment possibilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamas Fulop
- Research Center on Aging, Geriatric Division, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, 3001, 12th Avenue North, Sherbrooke, Quebec, J1H 5N4, Canada.
| | - Jacek M Witkowski
- Department of Pathophysiology, Medical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Anis Larbi
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), Immunos Building, Biopolis, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Abdelouahed Khalil
- Research Center on Aging, Geriatric Division, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, 3001, 12th Avenue North, Sherbrooke, Quebec, J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Georges Herbein
- Department Pathogens & Inflammation-EPILAB, UPRES EA4266, Université of Franche-Comté (UFC), University of Bourgogne France-Comté (UBFC), F-25030, Besançon, France.,Department of Virology, CHRU Besancon, F-25030, Besancon, France
| | - Eric H Frost
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
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33
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Szaniawski MA, Spivak AM, Bosque A, Planelles V. Sex Influences SAMHD1 Activity and Susceptibility to Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 in Primary Human Macrophages. J Infect Dis 2019; 219:777-785. [PMID: 30299483 PMCID: PMC6376916 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiy583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Macrophages are major targets for HIV-1, contribute to viral propagation in vivo, and are instrumental in the pathogenesis of HAND. While it is known that host sex affects HIV-1 viremia and influences the severity of HIV-1-associated neurocognitive disease, a cellular or molecular basis for these findings remains elusive. METHODS We explored whether sex affects HIV-1 infectivity of primary human macrophages and CD4+ T cells in vitro. RESULTS Macrophages derived from female donors were less susceptible to HIV-1 infection than those derived from males. This sex-dependent difference in macrophage infectivity was independent of the requirement for CD4/CCR5-mediated virus entry and was not observed in CD4+ T cells. Investigations into the mechanism governing these sex-dependent differences revealed that the host restriction factor SAMHD1 exists in a hyperphosphorylated, less active state in male-derived macrophages. In addition, the major kinase responsible for SAMHD1 phosphorylation, CDK1, exhibited lower levels of expression in female-derived macrophages in all tested donor pairs. The sex-dependent differences in viral restriction imposed by SAMHD1 were abrogated upon its depletion. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that SAMHD1 is an essential modulator of infectivity in a sex-dependent manner in macrophages, constituting a novel component of sex differences in innate immune control of HIV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew A Szaniawski
- Department of Pathology, Division of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Utah School of Medicine
| | - Adam M Spivak
- Department of Medicine, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City
| | - Alberto Bosque
- Department of Microbiology Immunology and Tropical Medicine, George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Vicente Planelles
- Department of Pathology, Division of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Utah School of Medicine
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Canet G, Dias C, Gabelle A, Simonin Y, Gosselet F, Marchi N, Makinson A, Tuaillon E, Van de Perre P, Givalois L, Salinas S. HIV Neuroinfection and Alzheimer's Disease: Similarities and Potential Links? Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:307. [PMID: 30254568 PMCID: PMC6141679 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental factors such as chemicals, stress and pathogens are now widely believed to play important roles in the onset of some brain diseases, as they are associated with neuronal impairment and acute or chronic inflammation. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by progressive synaptic dysfunction and neurodegeneration that ultimately lead to dementia. Neuroinflammation also plays a prominent role in AD and possible links to viruses have been proposed. In particular, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can pass the blood-brain barrier and cause neuronal dysfunction leading to cognitive dysfunctions called HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). Similarities between HAND and HIV exist as numerous factors involved in AD such as members of the amyloid and Tau pathways, as well as stress-related pathways or blood brain barrier (BBB) regulators, seem to be modulated by HIV brain infection, leading to the accumulation of amyloid plaques or neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) in some patients. Here, we summarize findings regarding how HIV and some of its proteins such as Tat and gp120 modulate signaling and cellular pathways also impaired in AD, suggesting similarities and convergences of these two pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey Canet
- Molecular Mechanisms in Neurodegenerative Dementia, INSERM, University of Montpellier/EPHE, Montpellier, France
| | - Chloé Dias
- Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Etablissement français du Sang, Montpellier, France
| | - Audrey Gabelle
- Memory Research and Resources Center, CHU Montpellier, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Yannick Simonin
- Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Etablissement français du Sang, Montpellier, France
| | - Fabien Gosselet
- Laboratoire de la Barrière Hémato-Encéphalique, Université d'Artois, Lens, France
| | - Nicola Marchi
- Cerebrovascular Mechanisms of Brain Disorders, Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Functional Genomics, CNRS, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Alain Makinson
- Department of Infectious Diseases CHU Montpellier, INSERM, IRD, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Edouard Tuaillon
- Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Etablissement français du Sang, Montpellier, France.,Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Etablissement français du Sang, CHU Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Philippe Van de Perre
- Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Etablissement français du Sang, Montpellier, France.,Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Etablissement français du Sang, CHU Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Laurent Givalois
- Molecular Mechanisms in Neurodegenerative Dementia, INSERM, University of Montpellier/EPHE, Montpellier, France
| | - Sara Salinas
- Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Etablissement français du Sang, Montpellier, France
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Olson KE, Bade AN, Namminga KL, Potash MJ, Mosley RL, Poluektova LY, Volsky DJ, Gendelman HE. Persistent EcoHIV infection induces nigral degeneration in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-intoxicated mice. J Neurovirol 2018; 24:398-410. [PMID: 29594983 PMCID: PMC6105545 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-018-0629-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Revised: 03/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The widespread use of antiretroviral therapy for treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections has dramatically improved the quality and duration of life for HIV-positive individuals. Despite this success, HIV persists for the life of an infected person in tissue reservoirs including the nervous system. Thus, whether HIV exacerbates age-related brain disorders such as Parkinson's disease (PD) is of concern. In support of this idea, HIV infection can be associated with motor and gait abnormalities that parallel late-stage manifestations of PD including dopaminergic neuronal loss. With these findings in hand, we investigated whether viral infection could affect nigrostriatal degeneration or exacerbate chemically induced nigral degeneration. We now demonstrate an additive effect of EcoHIV on dopaminergic neuronal loss and neuroinflammation induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine intoxication. HIV-1-infected humanized mice failed to recapitulate these EcoHIV results suggesting species-specific neural signaling. The results demonstrate a previously undefined EcoHIV-associated neurodegenerative response that may be used to model pathobiological aspects of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine E Olson
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - Aditya N Bade
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - Krista L Namminga
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - Mary Jane Potash
- Department of Medicine, Infectious Diseases Division, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - R Lee Mosley
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - Larisa Y Poluektova
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - David J Volsky
- Department of Medicine, Infectious Diseases Division, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Howard E Gendelman
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA.
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