Protrudin and PDZD8 contribute to neuronal integrity by promoting lipid extraction required for endosome maturation

PDZD8-FKBP8 tethering complex at ER-mitochondria contact sites regulates mitochondrial complexity

Mitochondria-ER membrane contact sites (MERCS) represent a fundamental ultrastructural feature underlying unique biochemistry and physiology in eukaryotic cells. The ER protein PDZD8 is required for the formation of MERCS in many cell types, however, its tethering partner on the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM) is currently unknown. Here we identified the OMM protein FKBP8 as the tethering partner of PDZD8 using a combination of unbiased proximity proteomics, CRISPR-Cas9 endogenous protein tagging, Cryo-Electron Microscopy (Cryo-EM) tomography, and correlative light-EM (CLEM). Single molecule tracking revealed highly dynamic diffusion properties of PDZD8 along the ER membrane with significant pauses and capture at MERCS. Overexpression of FKBP8 was sufficient to narrow the ER-OMM distance, whereas independent versus combined deletions of these two proteins demonstrated their interdependence for MERCS formation. Furthermore, PDZD8 enhances mitochondrial complexity in a FKBP8-dependent manner. Our results identify a novel ER-mitochondria tethering complex that regulates mitochondrial morphology in mammalian cells.

Evidence of mitochondrial dysfunction in ALS and methods for measuring in model systems

Metabolic dysfunction is a hallmark of multiple amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) models with a majority of ALS patients exhibiting hypermetabolism. The central sites of metabolism in the cell are mitochondria, capable of utilising a multitude of cellular substrates in an array of ATP-generating reactions. With reactive oxygen species (ROS) production occurring during some of these reactions, mitochondria can contribute considerably to oxidative stress. Mitochondria are also very dynamic organelles, interacting with other organelles, undergoing fusion/fission in response to changing metabolic states and being turned over by the cell regularly. Disruptions to many of these mitochondrial functions and processes have been reported in ALS models, largely indicating compromised mitochondrial function, increased ROS production by mitochondria, disrupted interactions with the endoplasmic reticulum and reduced turnover. This chapter summarises methods routinely used to assess mitochondria in ALS models and the alterations that have been reported in these models.

ER-organelle contacts: A signaling hub for neurological diseases

Neuronal health is closely linked to the homeostasis of intracellular organelles, and organelle dysfunction affects the pathological progression of neurological diseases. In contrast to isolated cellular compartments, a growing number of studies have found that organelles are largely interdependent structures capable of communicating through membrane contact sites (MCSs). MCSs have been identified as key pathways mediating inter-organelle communication crosstalk in neurons, and their alterations have been linked to neurological disease pathology. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a membrane-bound organelle capable of forming an extensive network of pools and tubules with important physiological functions within neurons. There are multiple MCSs between the ER and other organelles and the plasma membrane (PM), which regulate a variety of cellular processes. In this review, we focus on ER-organelle MCSs and their role in a variety of neurological diseases. We compared the biological effects between different tethering proteins and the effects of their respective disease counterparts. We also discuss how altered ER-organelle contacts may affect disease pathogenesis. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms of ER-organelle MCSs in neuronal homeostasis will lay the foundation for the development of new therapies targeting ER-organelle contacts.

Transcriptome- and proteome-wide effects of a circular RNA encompassing four early exons of the spinal muscular atrophy genes

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) genes, SMN1 and SMN2, produce multiple circular RNAs (circRNAs), including C2A-2B-3-4 that encompasses early exons 2A, 2B, 3 and 4. Here we report the transcriptome- and proteome-wide effects of overexpression of C2A-2B-3-4 in inducible HEK293 cells. Our RNA-Seq analysis revealed altered expression of ~ 15% genes (4,172 genes) by C2A-2B-3-4. About half of the affected genes by C2A-2B-3-4 remained unaffected by L2A-2B-3-4, a linear transcript encompassing exons 2A, 2B, 3 and 4 of SMN1/SMN2. These fifindings underscore the unique role of the structural context of C2A-2B-3-4 in gene regulation. A surprisingly high number of upregulated genes by C2A-2B-3-4 were located on chromosomes 4 and 7, whereas many of the downregulated genes were located on chromosomes 10 and X. Supporting a cross-regulation of SMN1/SMN2 transcripts, C2A-2B-3-4 and L2A-2B-3-4 upregulated and downregulated SMN1/SMN2 mRNAs, respectively. Proteome analysis revealed 61 upregulated and 57 downregulated proteins by C2A-2B-3-4 with very limited overlap with those affected by L2A-2B-3-4. Independent validations confirmed the effect of C2A-2B-3-4 on expression of genes associated with chromatin remodeling, transcription, spliceosome function, ribosome biogenesis, lipid metabolism, cytoskeletal formation, cell proliferation and neuromuscular junction formation. Our findings reveal a broad role of C2A-2B-3-4, a universally expressed circRNA produced by SMN1/SMN2.

Stay in touch with the endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which is composed of a continuous network of tubules and sheets, forms the most widely distributed membrane system in eukaryotic cells. As a result, it engages a variety of organelles by establishing membrane contact sites (MCSs). These contacts regulate organelle positioning and remodeling, including fusion and fission, facilitate precise lipid exchange, and couple vital signaling events. Here, we systematically review recent advances and converging themes on ER-involved organellar contact. The molecular basis, cellular influence, and potential physiological functions for ER/nuclear envelope contacts with mitochondria, Golgi, endosomes, lysosomes, lipid droplets, autophagosomes, and plasma membrane are summarized.

Not So Rare: Diseases Based on Mutant Proteins Controlling Endoplasmic Reticulum-Mitochondria Contact (MERC) Tethering

Mitochondria-endoplasmic reticulum contacts (MERCs), also called endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria contact sites (ERMCS), are the membrane domains, where these two organelles exchange lipids, Ca2+ ions, and reactive oxygen species. This crosstalk is a major determinant of cell metabolism, since it allows the ER to control mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and the Krebs cycle, while conversely, it allows the mitochondria to provide sufficient ATP to control ER proteostasis. MERC metabolic signaling is under the control of tethers and a multitude of regulatory proteins. Many of these proteins have recently been discovered to give rise to rare diseases if their genes are mutated. Surprisingly, these diseases share important hallmarks and cause neurological defects, sometimes paired with, or replaced by skeletal muscle deficiency. Typical symptoms include developmental delay, intellectual disability, facial dysmorphism and ophthalmologic defects. Seizures, epilepsy, deafness, ataxia, or peripheral neuropathy can also occur upon mutation of a MERC protein. Given that most MERC tethers and regulatory proteins have secondary functions, some MERC protein-based diseases do not fit into this categorization. Typically, however, the proteins affected in those diseases have dominant functions unrelated to their roles in MERCs tethering or their regulation. We are discussing avenues to pharmacologically target genetic diseases leading to MERC defects, based on our novel insight that MERC defects lead to common characteristics in rare diseases. These shared characteristics of MERCs disorders raise the hope that they may allow for similar treatment options.

ESYT1 tethers the ER to mitochondria and is required for mitochondrial lipid and calcium homeostasis

Mitochondria interact with the ER at structurally and functionally specialized membrane contact sites known as mitochondria-ER contact sites (MERCs). Combining proximity labelling (BioID), co-immunoprecipitation, confocal microscopy and subcellular fractionation, we found that the ER resident SMP-domain protein ESYT1 was enriched at MERCs, where it forms a complex with the outer mitochondrial membrane protein SYNJ2BP. BioID analyses using ER-targeted, outer mitochondrial membrane-targeted, and MERC-targeted baits, confirmed the presence of this complex at MERCs and the specificity of the interaction. Deletion of ESYT1 or SYNJ2BP reduced the number and length of MERCs. Loss of the ESYT1-SYNJ2BP complex impaired ER to mitochondria calcium flux and provoked a significant alteration of the mitochondrial lipidome, most prominently a reduction of cardiolipins and phosphatidylethanolamines. Both phenotypes were rescued by reexpression of WT ESYT1 and an artificial mitochondria-ER tether. Together, these results reveal a novel function for ESYT1 in mitochondrial and cellular homeostasis through its role in the regulation of MERCs.

PDZD8 promotes autophagy at ER-Lysosome contact sites to regulate synaptogenesis

Building synaptic connections, which are often far from the soma, requires coordinating a host of cellular activities from transcription to protein turnover, placing a high demand on intracellular communication. Membrane contact sites (MCSs) formed between cellular organelles have emerged as key signaling hubs for coordinating an array of cellular activities. We have found that the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) MCS tethering protein PDZD8 is required for activity-dependent synaptogenesis. PDZD8 is sufficient to drive ectopic synaptic bouton formation through an autophagy-dependent mechanism and required for basal synapse formation when autophagy biogenesis is limited. PDZD8 functions at ER-late endosome/lysosome (LEL) MCSs to promote lysosome maturation and accelerate autophagic flux. Mutational analysis of PDZD8's SMP domain further suggests a role for lipid transfer at ER-LEL MCSs. We propose that PDZD8-dependent lipid transfer from ER to LELs promotes lysosome maturation to increase autophagic flux during periods of high demand, including activity-dependent synapse formation.

Lysosomes in senescence and aging

Dysfunction of lysosomes, the primary hydrolytic organelles in animal cells, is frequently associated with aging and age-related diseases. At the cellular level, lysosomal dysfunction is strongly linked to cellular senescence or the induction of cell death pathways. However, the precise mechanisms by which lysosomal dysfunction participates in these various cellular or organismal phenotypes have remained elusive. The ability of lysosomes to degrade diverse macromolecules including damaged proteins and organelles puts lysosomes at the center of multiple cellular stress responses. Lysosomal activity is tightly regulated by many coordinated cellular processes including pathways that function inside and outside of the organelle. Here, we collectively classify these coordinated pathways as the lysosomal processing and adaptation system (LYPAS). We review evidence that the LYPAS is upregulated by diverse cellular stresses, its adaptability regulates senescence and cell death decisions, and it can form the basis for therapeutic manipulation for a wide range of age-related diseases and potentially for aging itself.

Metabolomic insights into neurological effects of BDE-47 exposure in the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus

The persistent organic pollutant 2,2',4,4'-Tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47), a prevalent congener among polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), exhibits potent bioaccumulation and toxicity. Despite extensive research into the adverse effects of BDE-47, its neurotoxicity in sea cucumbers remains unexplored. Given the crucial role of the sea cucumber's nervous system in survival and adaptation, evaluating the impacts of BDE-47 is vital for sustainable aquaculture and consumption. In this study, we employed ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Triple-TOF-MS) to analyze metabolomic changes in neuro-related tissues of Apostichopus japonicus exposed to low (0.1 µg/L), medium (1.0 µg/L), and high (10.0 µg/L) BDE-47 concentrations. We identified significantly changed metabolites in each exposure group (87 in low, 79 in medium, and 102 in high), affecting a variety of physiological processes such as steroid hormone balance, nucleotide metabolism, energy metabolism, neurotransmitter levels, and neuroprotection. In addition, we identified concentration-dependent, common, and some other metabolic responses in the neuro-related tissues. Our findings reveal critical insights into the neurotoxic effects of BDE-47 in sea cucumbers and contribute to risk assessment related to BDE-47 exposure in the sea cucumber industry, paving the way for future neurotoxicological research in invertebrates.

Mitochondrial Calcium Overload Plays a Causal Role in Oxidative Stress in the Failing Heart

Heart failure is a serious global health challenge, affecting more than 6.2 million people in the United States and is projected to reach over 8 million by 2030. Independent of etiology, failing hearts share common features, including defective calcium (Ca2+) handling, mitochondrial Ca2+ overload, and oxidative stress. In cardiomyocytes, Ca2+ not only regulates excitation-contraction coupling, but also mitochondrial metabolism and oxidative stress signaling, thereby controlling the function and actual destiny of the cell. Understanding the mechanisms of mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake and the molecular pathways involved in the regulation of increased mitochondrial Ca2+ influx is an ongoing challenge in order to identify novel therapeutic targets to alleviate the burden of heart failure. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms underlying altered mitochondrial Ca2+ handling in heart failure and the potential therapeutic strategies.

Role of Mitochondria-ER Contact Sites in Mitophagy

Mitochondria are often referred to as the "powerhouse" of the cell. However, this organelle has many more functions than simply satisfying the cells' metabolic needs. Mitochondria are involved in calcium homeostasis and lipid metabolism, and they also regulate apoptotic processes. Many of these functions require contact with the ER, which is mediated by several tether proteins located on the respective organellar surfaces, enabling the formation of mitochondria-ER contact sites (MERCS). Upon damage, mitochondria produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can harm the surrounding cell. To circumvent toxicity and to maintain a functional pool of healthy organelles, damaged and excess mitochondria can be targeted for degradation via mitophagy, a form of selective autophagy. Defects in mitochondria-ER tethers and the accumulation of damaged mitochondria are found in several neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, which argues that the interplay between the two organelles is vital for neuronal health. This review provides an overview of the different mechanisms of mitochondrial quality control that are implicated with the different mitochondria-ER tether proteins, and also provides a novel perspective on how MERCS are involved in mediating mitophagy upon mitochondrial damage.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Membrane Contact Sites, Lipid Transport, and Neurodegeneration

The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is an endomembrane system that plays a multiplicity of roles in cell physiology and populates even the most distal cell compartments, including dendritic tips and axon terminals of neurons. Some of its functions are achieved by a cross talk with other intracellular membranous organelles and with the plasma membrane at membrane contacts sites (MCSs). As the ER synthesizes most membrane lipids, lipid exchanges mediated by lipid transfer proteins at MCSs are a particularly important aspect of this cross talk, which synergizes with the cross talk mediated by vesicular transport. Several mutations of genes that encode proteins localized at ER MCSs result in familial neurodegenerative diseases, emphasizing the importance of the normal lipid traffic within cells for a healthy brain. Here, we provide an overview of such diseases, with a specific focus on proteins that directly or indirectly impact lipid transport.

Comprehensive classification of proteins based on structures that engage lipids by COMPOSEL

Structures can now be predicted for any protein using programs like AlphaFold and Rosetta, which rely on a foundation of experimentally determined structures of architecturally diverse proteins. The accuracy of such artificial intelligence and machine learning (AI/ML) approaches benefits from the specification of restraints which assist in navigating the universe of folds to converge on models most representative of a given protein's physiological structure. This is especially pertinent for membrane proteins, with structures and functions that depend on their presence in lipid bilayers. Structures of proteins in their membrane environments could conceivably be predicted from AI/ML approaches with user-specificized parameters that describe each element of the architecture of a membrane protein accompanied by its lipid environment. We propose the Classification Of Membrane Proteins based On Structures Engaging Lipids (COMPOSEL), which builds on existing nomenclature types for monotopic, bitopic, polytopic and peripheral membrane proteins as well as lipids. Functional and regulatory elements are also defined in the scripts, as shown with membrane fusing synaptotagmins, multidomain PDZD8 and Protrudin proteins that recognize phosphoinositide (PI) lipids, the intrinsically disordered MARCKS protein, caveolins, the β barrel assembly machine (BAM), an adhesion G-protein coupled receptor (aGPCR) and two lipid modifying enzymes - diacylglycerol kinase DGKε and fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase FALDH. This demonstrates how COMPOSEL communicates lipid interactivity as well as signaling mechanisms and binding of metabolites, drug molecules, polypeptides or nucleic acids to describe the operations of any protein. Moreover COMPOSEL can be scaled to express how genomes encode membrane structures and how our organs are infiltrated by pathogens such as SARS-CoV-2.

Insights into membrane association of the SMP domain of extended synaptotagmin

The Synaptotagmin-like Mitochondrial-lipid-binding Protein (SMP) domain is a newly identified lipid transfer module present in proteins that regulate lipid homeostasis at membrane contact sites (MCSs). However, how the SMP domain associates with the membrane to extract and unload lipids is unclear. Here, we performed in vitro DNA brick-assisted lipid transfer assays and in silico molecular dynamics simulations to investigate the molecular basis of the membrane association by the SMP domain of extended synaptotagmin (E-Syt), which tethers the tubular endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the plasma membrane (PM). We demonstrate that the SMP domain uses its tip region to recognize the extremely curved subdomain of tubular ER and the acidic-lipid-enriched PM for highly efficient lipid transfer. Supporting these findings, disruption of these mechanisms results in a defect in autophagosome biogenesis contributed by E-Syt. Our results suggest a model that provides a coherent picture of the action of the SMP domain at MCSs.

Integrated metabolomics and phosphoproteomics reveal the protective role of exosomes from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells in naturally aging mouse livers

BACKGROUND

Aging is characterized by a general decline in cellular function, which ultimately affects whole body homeostasis. This study aimed to investigate the effects and underlying mechanisms of exosomes derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUCMSC-exos) on the livers of naturally aging mice.

METHOD

Twenty-two-month-old C57BL6 mice were used as a natural aging animal model, divided into a saline-treated wild-type aged control group (WT-AC) and a hUCMSC-exo-treated group (WT-AEX), and then detected by morphology, metabolomics and phosphoproteomics.

RESULTS

Morphological analysis showed that hUCMSC-exos ameliorated structural disorder and decreased markers of senescence and genome instability in aging livers. Metabolomics showed that hUCMSC-exos decreased the contents of saturated glycerophospholipids, palmitoyl-glycerols and eicosanoid derivatives associated with lipotoxicity and inflammation, consistent with the decreased phosphorylation of metabolic enzymes, such as propionate-CoA ligase (Acss2), at S267 detected by phosphoproteomics. Moreover, phosphoproteomics indicated that hUCMSC-exos reduced the phosphorylation of proteins participating in nuclear transport and cancer signaling, such as heat shock protein HSP90-beta (Hsp90ab1) at S226 and nucleoprotein TPR (Tpr) at S453 and S379, while increasing those involved in intracellular communication, such as calnexin (Canx) at S563 and PDZ domain-containing protein 8 (Pdzd8). Finally, phosphorylated HSP90β and Tpr were verified predominantly in hepatocytes.

CONCLUSION

HUCMSC-exos improved metabolic reprogramming and genome stability mainly associated with phosphorylated HSP90β in hepatocytes in natural aging livers. This work provides a comprehensive resource of biological data by omics to support future investigations of hUCMSC-exos in aging.

PDZD8-deficient mice manifest behavioral abnormalities related to emotion, cognition, and adaptation due to dyslipidemia in the brain

Although dyslipidemia in the brain has been implicated in neurodegenerative disorders, the molecular mechanisms underlying its pathogenesis have been largely unclear. PDZD8 is a lipid transfer protein and mice deficient in PDZD8 (PDZD8-KO mice) manifest abnormal accumulation of cholesteryl esters (CEs) in the brain due to impaired lipophagy, the degradation system of lipid droplets. Here we show the detailed mechanism of PDZD8-dependent lipophagy. PDZD8 transports cholesterol to lipid droplets (LDs), and eventually promotes fusion of LDs and lysosomes. In addition, PDZD8-KO mice exhibit growth retardation, hyperactivity, reduced anxiety and fear, increased sensorimotor gating, and impaired cued fear conditioned memory and working memory. These results indicate that abnormal CE accumulation in the brain caused by PDZD8 deficiency affects emotion, cognition and adaptive behavior, and that PDZD8 plays an important role in the maintenance of brain function through lipid metabolism.

Molecular machinery regulating organelle dynamics during axon growth and guidance

Axon growth and guidance in the developing nervous system rely on intracellular membrane dynamics that involve endosome maturation and transport, as well as its regulated tethering to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Recent studies have identified several key molecules, such as protrudin, which plays a dynamic role at membrane contact sites between the ER and endosomes/lysosomes, and myosin Va, which acts as a sensor for ER-derived Ca²⁺ that triggers peri-ER membrane export. These molecules form different types of multiprotein complexes at the interface of organelles and, in response to their surrounding microenvironments, such as Ca²⁺ concentrations and lipid contents, regulate the directional movement of endosomal vesicles in extending axons. Here, we review the molecular mechanisms underlying membrane dynamics and inter-organelle interactions during neuronal morphogenesis.

Transmembrane Membrane Readers form a Novel Class of Proteins That Include Peripheral Phosphoinositide Recognition Domains and Viral Spikes

Membrane proteins are broadly classified as transmembrane (TM) or peripheral, with functions that pertain to only a single bilayer at a given time. Here, we explicate a class of proteins that contain both transmembrane and peripheral domains, which we dub transmembrane membrane readers (TMMRs). Their transmembrane and peripheral elements anchor them to one bilayer and reversibly attach them to another section of bilayer, respectively, positioning them to tether and fuse membranes while recognizing signals such as phosphoinositides (PIs) and modifying lipid chemistries in proximity to their transmembrane domains. Here, we analyze full-length models from AlphaFold2 and Rosetta, as well as structures from nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography, using the Membrane Optimal Docking Area (MODA) program to map their membrane-binding surfaces. Eukaryotic TMMRs include phospholipid-binding C1, C2, CRAL-TRIO, FYVE, GRAM, GTPase, MATH, PDZ, PH, PX, SMP, StART and WD domains within proteins including protrudin, sorting nexins and synaptotagmins. The spike proteins of SARS-CoV-2 as well as other viruses are also TMMRs, seeing as they are anchored into the viral membrane while mediating fusion with host cell membranes. As such, TMMRs have key roles in cell biology and membrane trafficking, and include drug targets for diseases such as COVID-19.

Decreasing pdzd8-mediated mito-ER contacts improves organismal fitness and mitigates Aβ42 toxicity

Mitochondria-ER contact sites (MERCs) orchestrate many important cellular functions including regulating mitochondrial quality control through mitophagy and mediating mitochondrial calcium uptake. Here, we identify and functionally characterize the Drosophila ortholog of the recently identified mammalian MERC protein, Pdzd8. We find that reducing pdzd8-mediated MERCs in neurons slows age-associated decline in locomotor activity and increases lifespan in Drosophila. The protective effects of pdzd8 knockdown in neurons correlate with an increase in mitophagy, suggesting that increased mitochondrial turnover may support healthy aging of neurons. In contrast, increasing MERCs by expressing a constitutive, synthetic ER-mitochondria tether disrupts mitochondrial transport and synapse formation, accelerates age-related decline in locomotion, and reduces lifespan. Although depletion of pdzd8 prolongs the survival of flies fed with mitochondrial toxins, it is also sufficient to rescue locomotor defects of a fly model of Alzheimer's disease expressing Amyloid β₄₂ (Aβ₄₂). Together, our results provide the first in vivo evidence that MERCs mediated by the tethering protein pdzd8 play a critical role in the regulation of mitochondrial quality control and neuronal homeostasis.

ER as master regulator of membrane trafficking and organelle function

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which occupies a large portion of the cytoplasm, is the cell’s main site for the biosynthesis of lipids and carbohydrate conjugates, and it is essential for folding, assembly, and biosynthetic transport of secreted proteins and integral membrane proteins. The discovery of abundant membrane contact sites (MCSs) between the ER and other membrane compartments has revealed that, in addition to its biosynthetic and secretory functions, the ER plays key roles in the regulation of organelle dynamics and functions. In this review, we will discuss how the ER regulates endosomes, lysosomes, autophagosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, and the Golgi apparatus via MCSs. Such regulation occurs via lipid and Ca2+ transfer and also via control of in trans dephosphorylation reactions and organelle motility, positioning, fusion, and fission. The diverse controls of other organelles via MCSs manifest the ER as master regulator of organelle biology.

PDZD8 Disruption Causes Cognitive Impairment in Humans, Mice, and Fruit Flies

BACKGROUND

The discovery of coding variants in genes that confer risk of intellectual disability (ID) is an important step toward understanding the pathophysiology of this common developmental disability.

METHODS

Homozygosity mapping, whole-exome sequencing, and cosegregation analyses were used to identify gene variants responsible for syndromic ID with autistic features in two independent consanguineous families from the Arabian Peninsula. For in vivo functional studies of the implicated gene's function in cognition, Drosophila melanogaster and mice with targeted interference of the orthologous gene were used. Behavioral, electrophysiological, and structural magnetic resonance imaging analyses were conducted for phenotypic testing.

RESULTS

Homozygous premature termination codons in PDZD8, encoding an endoplasmic reticulum-anchored lipid transfer protein, showed cosegregation with syndromic ID in both families. Drosophila melanogaster with knockdown of the PDZD8 ortholog exhibited impaired long-term courtship-based memory. Mice homozygous for a premature termination codon in Pdzd8 exhibited brain structural, hippocampal spatial memory, and synaptic plasticity deficits.

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrate the involvement of homozygous loss-of-function mutations in PDZD8 in a neurodevelopmental cognitive disorder. Model organisms with manipulation of the orthologous gene replicate aspects of the human phenotype and suggest plausible pathophysiological mechanisms centered on disrupted brain development and synaptic function. These findings are thus consistent with accruing evidence that synaptic defects are a common denominator of ID and other neurodevelopmental conditions.

Ubap1 knock-in mice reproduced the phenotype of SPG80

SPG80 is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a pure type of juvenile-onset hereditary spastic paraplegia and is caused by a heterozygous mutation of the UBAP1 (ubiquitin-associated protein 1) gene. UBAP1 is one of the subunits of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport I and plays a role in endosome sorting by binding to ubiquitin-tagged proteins. In this study, we generated novel Ubap1^+/E176Efx23 knock-in mice, in which the SOUBA domain of Ubap1 was completely deleted with the UMA domain being intact, as an animal model of SPG80. The knock-in mice with this heterozygous Ubap1 truncated mutation appeared normal at birth, but they developed progressive hind limb dysfunction several months later. Molecular pathologically, loss of neurons in the spinal cord and accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins were observed in Ubap1^+/E176Efx23 knock-in mice. In addition, changes in the distributions of Rab5 and Rab7 in the spinal cord suggest that this mutation in Ubap1 disturbs endosome-mediated vesicular trafficking. This is the first report of a mouse model that reproduces the phenotype of SPG80. Our knock-in mice may provide a clue for understanding the molecular pathogenesis underlying UBAP1-related HSP and screening of therapeutic agents.

Compositions and Functions of Mitochondria-Associated Endoplasmic Reticulum Membranes and Their Contribution to Cardioprotection by Exercise Preconditioning

Mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membranes (MAMs) are important components of intracellular signaling and contribute to the regulation of intracellular Ca²⁺/lipid homeostasis, mitochondrial dynamics, autophagy/mitophagy, apoptosis, and inflammation. Multiple studies have shown that proteins located on MAMs mediate cardioprotection. Exercise preconditioning (EP) has been shown to protect the myocardium from adverse stimuli, but these mechanisms are still being explored. Recently, a growing body of evidence points to MAMs, suggesting that exercise or EP may be involved in cardioprotection by modulating proteins on MAMs and subsequently affecting MAMs. In this review, we summarize the latest findings on MAMs, analyzing the structure and function of MAMs and the role of MAM-related proteins in cardioprotection. We focused on the possible mechanisms by which exercise or EP can modulate the involvement of MAMs in cardioprotection. We found that EP may affect MAMs by regulating changes in MFN2, MFN1, AMPK, FUNDC1, BECN1, VDAC1, GRP75, IP3R, CYPD, GSK3β, AKT, NLRP3, GRP78, and LC3, thus playing a cardioprotective role. We also provided direction for future studies that may be of interest so that more in-depth studies can be conducted to elucidate the relationship between EP and cardioprotection.

Protrudin regulates FAK activation, endothelial cell migration and angiogenesis

During angiogenesis, endothelial cells form protrusive sprouts and migrate towards the angiogenic stimulus. In this study, we investigate the role of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-anchored protein, Protrudin, in endothelial cell protrusion, migration and angiogenesis. Our results demonstrate that Protrudin regulates angiogenic tube formation in primary endothelial cells, Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Analysis of RNA sequencing data and its experimental validation revealed cell migration as a prominent cellular function affected in HUVECs subjected to Protrudin knockdown. Further, our results demonstrate that knockdown of Protrudin inhibits focal adhesion kinase (FAK) activation in HUVECs and human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs). This is associated with a loss of polarized phospho-FAK distribution upon Protrudin knockdown as compared to Protrudin expressing HUVECs. Reduction of Protrudin also results in a perinuclear accumulation of mTOR and a decrease in VEGF-mediated S6K activation. However, further experiments suggest that the observed inhibition of angiogenesis in Protrudin knockdown cells is not affected by mTOR disturbance. Therefore, our findings suggest that defects in FAK activation and its abnormal subcellular distribution upon Protrudin knockdown are associated with a detrimental effect on endothelial cell migration and angiogenesis. Furthermore, mice with global Protrudin deletion demonstrate reduced retinal vascular progression. To conclude, our results provide evidence for a novel key role of Protrudin in endothelial cell migration and angiogenesis.

Annexins Bridging the Gap: Novel Roles in Membrane Contact Site Formation

Membrane contact sites (MCS) are specialized small areas of close apposition between two different organelles that have led researchers to reconsider the dogma of intercellular communication via vesicular trafficking. The latter is now being challenged by the discovery of lipid and ion transfer across MCS connecting adjacent organelles. These findings gave rise to a new concept that implicates cell compartments not to function as individual and isolated entities, but as a dynamic and regulated ensemble facilitating the trafficking of lipids, including cholesterol, and ions. Hence, MCS are now envisaged as metabolic platforms, crucial for cellular homeostasis. In this context, well-known as well as novel proteins were ascribed functions such as tethers, transporters, and scaffolds in MCS, or transient MCS companions with yet unknown functions. Intriguingly, we and others uncovered metabolic alterations in cell-based disease models that perturbed MCS size and numbers between coupled organelles such as endolysosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, or lipid droplets. On the other hand, overexpression or deficiency of certain proteins in this narrow 10-30 nm membrane contact zone can enable MCS formation to either rescue compromised MCS function, or in certain disease settings trigger undesired metabolite transport. In this "Mini Review" we summarize recent findings regarding a subset of annexins and discuss their multiple roles to regulate MCS dynamics and functioning. Their contribution to novel pathways related to MCS biology will provide new insights relevant for a number of human diseases and offer opportunities to design innovative treatments in the future.

Phosphoinositides as membrane organizers

Phosphoinositides are signalling lipids derived from phosphatidylinositol, a ubiquitous phospholipid in the cytoplasmic leaflet of eukaryotic membranes. Initially discovered for their roles in cell signalling, phosphoinositides are now widely recognized as key integrators of membrane dynamics that broadly impact on all aspects of cell physiology and on disease. The past decade has witnessed a vast expansion of our knowledge of phosphoinositide biology. On the endocytic and exocytic routes, phosphoinositides direct the inward and outward flow of membrane as vesicular traffic is coupled to the conversion of phosphoinositides. Moreover, recent findings on the roles of phosphoinositides in autophagy and the endolysosomal system challenge our view of lysosome biology. The non-vesicular exchange of lipids, ions and metabolites at membrane contact sites in between organelles has also been found to depend on phosphoinositides. Here we review our current understanding of how phosphoinositides shape and direct membrane dynamics to impact on cell physiology, and provide an overview of emerging concepts in phosphoinositide regulation.

Mechanisms of Non-Vesicular Exchange of Lipids at Membrane Contact Sites: Of Shuttles, Tunnels and, Funnels

Eukaryotic cells are characterized by their exquisite compartmentalization resulting from a cornucopia of membrane-bound organelles. Each of these compartments hosts a flurry of biochemical reactions and supports biological functions such as genome storage, membrane protein and lipid biosynthesis/degradation and ATP synthesis, all essential to cellular life. Acting as hubs for the transfer of matter and signals between organelles and throughout the cell, membrane contacts sites (MCSs), sites of close apposition between membranes from different organelles, are essential to cellular homeostasis. One of the now well-acknowledged function of MCSs involves the non-vesicular trafficking of lipids; its characterization answered one long-standing question of eukaryotic cell biology revealing how some organelles receive and distribute their membrane lipids in absence of vesicular trafficking. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in synergy with the mitochondria, stands as the nexus for the biosynthesis and distribution of phospholipids (PLs) throughout the cell by contacting nearly all other organelle types. MCSs create and maintain lipid fluxes and gradients essential to the functional asymmetry and polarity of biological membranes throughout the cell. Membrane apposition is mediated by proteinaceous tethers some of which function as lipid transfer proteins (LTPs). We summarize here the current state of mechanistic knowledge of some of the major classes of LTPs and tethers based on the available atomic to near-atomic resolution structures of several "model" MCSs from yeast but also in Metazoans; we describe different models of lipid transfer at MCSs and analyze the determinants of their specificity and directionality. Each of these systems illustrate fundamental principles and mechanisms for the non-vesicular exchange of lipids between eukaryotic membrane-bound organelles essential to a wide range of cellular processes such as at PL biosynthesis and distribution, lipid storage, autophagy and organelle biogenesis.

Direct homophilic interaction of LAMP2A with the two-domain architecture revealed by site-directed photo-crosslinks and steric hindrances in mammalian cells

LAMP1 (lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1) and LAMP2 are the most abundant protein components of lysosome membranes. Both LAMPs have common structures consisting of a large lumenal domain composed of two domains (N-domain and C-domain, which are membrane-distal and -proximal, respectively), both with the β-prism fold, a transmembrane domain, and a short cytoplasmic tail. LAMP2 is involved in various aspects of autophagy, and reportedly forms high-molecular weight complexes at the lysosomal membrane. We previously showed that LAMP2 molecules coimmunoprecipitated with each other, but whether the homophilic interaction is direct or indirect has remained to be elucidated. In the present study, we demonstrated the direct homophilic interaction of mouse LAMP2A molecules, using expanded genetic code technologies that generate photo-crosslinking and/or steric hindrance at specified interfaces. Specifically, the results suggested that LAMP2A molecules assemble by facing each other with one side of the β-prism (defined as side A) of the C-domains. The N-domain truncation, which increased the coimmunoprecipitation of LAMP2A molecules in our previous study, permitted the nonspecific involvement of both sides of the β-prism (side A and side B). Thus, the presence of the N-domain restricts the LAMP2A interactions to side A-specific. The truncation of LAMP2A impaired the recruitment of GAPDH (a CMA-substrate) fused to the HaloTag protein to the surface of late endosomes/lysosomes (LE/Lys) and affected a process that generates LE/Lys. The present study revealed that the homophilic interaction of LAMP2A is direct, and the side A-specific, homophilic interaction of LAMP2A is required for the functional aspects of LAMP2A.Abbreviations: Aloc-Lys: Nε-allyloxycarbonyl-l-lysine; CMA: chaperone-mediated autophagy; FFE: free-flow electrophoresis; GAPDH-HT: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase fused to HaloTag protein; LAMP1: lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1; LAMP2A: lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2A; LBPA: lysobisphosphatidic acid; LE/Lys: late endosome/lysosomes; MEFs: mouse embryonic fibroblasts; pBpa: p-benzoyl- l-phenylalanine.

Lipidomics Reveals Dysregulated Glycerophospholipid Metabolism in the Corpus Striatum of Mice Treated with Cefepime

Cefepime exhibits a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity and thus is a widely used treatment for severe bacterial infections. Adverse effects on the central nervous system (CNS) have been reported in patients treated with cefepime. Current explanation for the adverse neurobehavioral effect of cefepime is mainly attributed to its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier and competitively bind to the GABAergic receptor; however, the underlying mechanism is largely unknown. In this study, mice were intraperitoneally administered 80 mg/kg cefepime for different periods, followed by neurobehavioral tests and a brain lipidomic analysis. LC/MS-MS-based metabolomics was used to investigate the effect of cefepime on the brain lipidomic profile and metabolic pathways. Repeated cefepime treatment time-dependently caused anxiety-like behaviors, which were accompanied by reduced locomotor activity in the open field test. Cefepime profoundly altered the lipid profile, acyl chain length, and unsaturation of fatty acids in the corpus striatum, and glycerophospholipids accounted for a large proportion of those significantly modified lipids. In addition, cefepime treatment caused obvious alteration in the lipid-enriched membrane structure, neurites, mitochondria, and synaptic vesicles of primary cultured striatal neurons; moreover, the spontaneous electrical activity of striatal neurons was significantly reduced. Collectively, cefepime reprograms glycerophospholipid metabolism in the corpus striatum, which may interfere with neuronal structure and activity, eventually leading to aberrant neurobehaviors in mice.

Heterologous Expression and Assembly of Human TLR Signaling Components in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling is key to detect pathogens and initiating inflammation. Ligand recognition triggers the assembly of supramolecular organizing centers (SMOCs) consisting of large complexes composed of multiple subunits. Building such signaling hubs relies on Toll Interleukin-1 Receptor (TIR) and Death Domain (DD) protein-protein interaction domains. We have expressed TIR domain-containing components of the human myddosome (TIRAP and MyD88) and triffosome (TRAM and TRIF) SMOCs in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as a platform for their study. Interactions between the TLR4 TIR domain, TIRAP, and MyD88 were recapitulated in yeast. Human TIRAP decorated the yeast plasma membrane (PM), except for the bud neck, whereas MyD88 was found at cytoplasmic spots, which were consistent with endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria junctions, as evidenced by co-localization with Mmm1 and Mdm34, components of the ER and Mitochondria Encounter Structures (ERMES). The formation of MyD88-TIRAP foci at the yeast PM was reinforced by co-expression of a membrane-bound TLR4 TIR domain. Mutations in essential residues of their TIR domains aborted MyD88 recruitment by TIRAP, but their respective subcellular localizations were unaltered. TRAM and TRIF, however, did not co-localize in yeast. TRAM assembled long PM-bound filaments that were disrupted by co-expression of the TLR4 TIR domain. Our results evidence that the yeast model can be exploited to study the interactions and subcellular localization of human SMOC components in vivo.

Molecular and cellular mechanisms of spastin in neural development and disease (Review)

Spastin is a microtubule (MT)‑severing enzyme identified from mutations of hereditary spastic paraplegia in 1999 and extensive studies indicate its vital role in various cellular activities. In the past two decades, efforts have been made to understand the underlying molecular mechanisms of how spastin is linked to neural development and disease. Recent studies on spastin have unraveled the mechanistic processes of its MT‑severing activity and revealed that spastin acts as an MT amplifier to mediate its remodeling, thus providing valuable insight into the molecular roles of spastin under physiological conditions. In addition, recent research has revealed multiple novel molecular mechanisms of spastin in cellular biological pathways, including endoplasmic reticulum shaping, calcium trafficking, fatty acid trafficking, as well as endosomal fission and trafficking. These processes are closely involved in axonal and dendritic development and maintenance. The current review presents recent biological advances regarding the molecular mechanisms of spastin at the cellular level and provides insight into how it affects neural development and disease.

PDZD-8 and TEX-2 regulate endosomal PI(4,5)P2 homeostasis via lipid transport to promote embryogenesis in C. elegans

Different types of cellular membranes have unique lipid compositions that are important for their functional identity. PI(4,5)P2 is enriched in the plasma membrane where it contributes to local activation of key cellular events, including actomyosin contraction and cytokinesis. However, how cells prevent PI(4,5)P2 from accumulating in intracellular membrane compartments, despite constant intermixing and exchange of lipid membranes, is poorly understood. Using the C. elegans early embryo as our model system, we show that the evolutionarily conserved lipid transfer proteins, PDZD-8 and TEX-2, act together with the PI(4,5)P2 phosphatases, OCRL-1 and UNC-26/synaptojanin, to prevent the build-up of PI(4,5)P2 on endosomal membranes. In the absence of these four proteins, large amounts of PI(4,5)P2 accumulate on endosomes, leading to embryonic lethality due to ectopic recruitment of proteins involved in actomyosin contractility. PDZD-8 localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum and regulates endosomal PI(4,5)P2 levels via its lipid harboring SMP domain. Accumulation of PI(4,5)P2 on endosomes is accompanied by impairment of their degradative capacity. Thus, cells use multiple redundant systems to maintain endosomal PI(4,5)P2 homeostasis.

Structural basis of human PDZD8-Rab7 interaction for the ER-late endosome tethering

The membrane contact sites (MCSs) between the ER and late endosomes (LEs) are essential for the regulation of endosomal protein sorting, dynamics, and motility. PDZD8 is an ER transmembrane protein containing a Synaptotagmin-like Mitochondrial lipid-binding Proteins (SMP) domain. PDZD8 tethers the ER to late endosomes and lysosomes by associating its C-terminal coiled-coil (CC) with the LE Rab7. To identify the structural determinants for the PDZD8–Rab7 interaction, we determined the crystal structure of the human PDZD8 CC domain in complex with the GTP-bound form of Rab7. The PDZD8 CC contains one short helix and the two helices forming an antiparallel coiled-coil. Two Rab7 molecules bind to the opposite sides of the PDZD8 CC in a 2:1 ratio. The switch I/II and interswitch regions of the GTP-loaded Rab7 form the binding interfaces, which correlates with the GTP-dependent interaction of PDZD8 and Rab7. Analysis of the protein interaction by isothermal titration calorimetry confirms that two Rab7 molecules bind the PDZD8 CC in a GTP-dependent manner. The structural model of the PDZD8 CC–Rab7 complex correlates with the recruitment of PDZD8 at the LE–ER interface and its role in lipid transport and regulation.

Cytoskeleton and Membrane Organization at Axon Branches

Axon branching is a critical process ensuring a high degree of interconnectivity for neural network formation. As branching occurs at sites distant from the soma, it is necessary that axons have a local system to dynamically control and regulate axonal growth. This machinery depends on the orchestration of cellular functions such as cytoskeleton, subcellular transport, energy production, protein- and membrane synthesis that are adapted for branch formation. Compared to the axon shaft, branching sites show a distinct and dynamic arrangement of cytoskeleton components, endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria. This review discusses the regulation of axon branching in the context of cytoskeleton and membrane remodeling.

ORP1L mediated PI(4)P signaling at ER-lysosome-mitochondrion three-way contact contributes to mitochondrial division

Mitochondrial division is not an autonomous event but involves multiple organelles, including the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and lysosomes. Whereas the ER drives the constriction of mitochondrial membranes, the role of lysosomes in mitochondrial division is not known. Here, using super-resolution live-cell imaging, we investigate the recruitment of lysosomes to the site of mitochondrial division. We find that the ER recruits lysosomes to the site of division through the interaction of VAMP-associated proteins (VAPs) with the lysosomal lipid transfer protein ORP1L to induce a three-way contact between the ER, lysosome, and the mitochondrion. We also show that ORP1L might transport phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate (PI(4)P) from lysosomes to mitochondria, as inhibiting its transfer or depleting PI(4)P at the mitochondrial division site impairs fission, demonstrating a direct role for PI(4)P in the division process. Our findings support a model where the ER recruits lysosomes to act in concert at the fission site for the efficient division of mitochondria.

Intertwined and Finely Balanced: Endoplasmic Reticulum Morphology, Dynamics, Function, and Diseases

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle that is responsible for many essential subcellular processes. Interconnected narrow tubules at the periphery and thicker sheet-like regions in the perinuclear region are linked to the nuclear envelope. It is becoming apparent that the complex morphology and dynamics of the ER are linked to its function. Mutations in the proteins involved in regulating ER structure and movement are implicated in many diseases including neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The ER is also hijacked by pathogens to promote their replication. Bacteria such as Legionella pneumophila and Chlamydia trachomatis, as well as the Zika virus, bind to ER morphology and dynamics-regulating proteins to exploit the functions of the ER to their advantage. This review covers our understanding of ER morphology, including the functional subdomains and membrane contact sites that the organelle forms. We also focus on ER dynamics and the current efforts to quantify ER motion and discuss the diseases related to ER morphology and dynamics.

Secondary CoQ10 deficiency, bioenergetics unbalance in disease and aging

Coenzyme Q₁₀ (CoQ₁₀ ) deficiency is a rare disease characterized by a decreased accumulation of CoQ₁₀ in cell membranes. Considering that CoQ₁₀ synthesis and most of its functions are carried out in mitochondria, CoQ₁₀ deficiency cases are usually considered a mitochondrial disease. A relevant feature of CoQ₁₀ deficiency is that it is the only mitochondrial disease with a successful therapy available, the CoQ₁₀ supplementation. Defects in components of the synthesis machinery caused by mutations in COQ genes generate the primary deficiency of CoQ₁₀ . Mutations in genes that are not directly related to the synthesis machinery cause secondary deficiency. Cases of CoQ₁₀ deficiency without genetic origin are also considered a secondary deficiency. Both types of deficiency can lead to similar clinical manifestations, but the knowledge about primary deficiency is deeper than secondary. However, secondary deficiency cases may be underestimated since many of their clinical manifestations are shared with other pathologies. This review shows the current state of secondary CoQ₁₀ deficiency, which could be even more relevant than primary deficiency for clinical activity. The analysis covers the fundamental features of CoQ₁₀ deficiency, which are necessary to understand the biological and clinical differences between primary and secondary CoQ₁₀ deficiencies. Further, a more in-depth analysis of CoQ₁₀ secondary deficiency was undertaken to consider its origins, introduce a new way of classification, and include aging as a form of secondary deficiency.

Endoplasmic Reticulum-Mitochondria Contact Sites-Emerging Intracellular Signaling Hubs

It has become apparent that our textbook illustration of singular isolated organelles is obsolete. In reality, organelles form complex cooperative networks involving various types of organelles. Light microscopic and ultrastructural studies have revealed that mitochondria-endoplasmic reticulum (ER) contact sites (MERCSs) are abundant in various tissues and cell types. Indeed, MERCSs have been proposed to play critical roles in various biochemical and signaling functions such as Ca²⁺ homeostasis, lipid transfer, and regulation of organelle dynamics. While numerous proteins involved in these MERCS-dependent functions have been reported, how they coordinate and cooperate with each other has not yet been elucidated. In this review, we summarize the functions of mammalian proteins that localize at MERCSs and regulate their formation. We also discuss potential roles of the MERCS proteins in regulating multiple organelle contacts.

Regulation and physiology of membrane contact sites

Membrane contact sites (MCSs) in addition to impacting the functions of membrane-limited organelles also have a role in the spatial and functional organization of cells, tissues and whole organisms. MCSs have been identified between all organelles and the identification of their molecular composition has progressed significantly in recent years. Equally important is how MCSs respond dynamically to physiological stimuli, how this is regulated, and the physiological roles of MCSs in tissues and at the organismal level, an area that still remains relatively unexplored. In the present review, we focus on the regulation of MCSs, considerations of their function at the organismal level, and how mutations of MCS components linked to genetic diseases might inform us about their physiological relevance.

PDZD8-mediated lipid transfer at contacts between the ER and late endosomes/lysosomes is required for neurite outgrowth

Membrane contact sites (MCSs) between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and late endosomes/lysosomes (LE/lys) are emerging as critical hubs for diverse cellular events, and changes in their extents are linked to severe neurological diseases. While recent studies show that the synaptotagmin-like mitochondrial-lipid-binding (SMP) domain-containing protein PDZD8 may mediate the formation of ER-LE/lys MCSs, the cellular functions of PDZD8 remain largely elusive. Here, we attempt to investigate the lipid transfer activities of PDZD8 and the extent to which its cellular functions depend on its lipid transfer activities. In accordance with recent studies, we demonstrate that PDZD8 is a protrudin (ZFYVE27)-interacting protein and that PDZD8 acts as a tether at ER-LE/lys MCSs. Furthermore, we discover that the SMP domain of PDZD8 binds glycerophospholipids and ceramides both in vivo and in vitro, and that the SMP domain can transport lipids between membranes in vitro. Functionally, PDZD8 is required for LE/lys positioning and neurite outgrowth, which is dependent on the lipid transfer activity of the SMP domain.

Interorganelle communication, aging, and neurodegeneration

Our cells are comprised of billions of proteins, lipids, and other small molecules packed into their respective subcellular organelles, with the daunting task of maintaining cellular homeostasis over a lifetime. However, it is becoming increasingly evident that organelles do not act as autonomous discrete units but rather as interconnected hubs that engage in extensive communication through membrane contacts. In the last few years, our understanding of how these contacts coordinate organelle function has redefined our view of the cell. This review aims to present novel findings on the cellular interorganelle communication network and how its dysfunction may contribute to aging and neurodegeneration. The consequences of disturbed interorganellar communication are intimately linked with age-related pathologies. Given that both aging and neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by the concomitant failure of multiple cellular pathways, coordination of organelle communication and function could represent an emerging regulatory mechanism critical for long-term cellular homeostasis. We anticipate that defining the relationships between interorganelle communication, aging, and neurodegeneration will open new avenues for therapeutics.

Correlation of organelle dynamics between light microscopic live imaging and electron microscopic 3D architecture using FIB-SEM

Correlative light and electron microscopy (CLEM) methods combined with live imaging can be applied to understand the dynamics of organelles. Although recent advances in cell biology and light microscopy have helped in visualizing the details of organelle activities, observing their ultrastructure or organization of surrounding microenvironments is a challenging task. Therefore, CLEM, which allows us to observe the same area as an optical microscope with an electron microscope, has become a key technique in cell biology. Unfortunately, most CLEM methods have technical drawbacks, and many researchers face difficulties in applying CLEM methods. Here, we propose a live three-dimensional CLEM method, combined with a three-dimensional reconstruction technique using focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy tomography, as a solution to such technical barriers. We review our method, the associated technical limitations and the options considered to perform live CLEM.

Getting in Touch Is an Important Step: Control of Metabolism at Organelle Contact Sites

Metabolic pathways are often spread over several organelles and need to be functionally integrated by controlled organelle communication. Physical organelle contact-sites have emerged as critical hubs in the regulation of cellular metabolism, but the molecular understanding of mechanisms that mediate formation or regulation of organelle interfaces was until recently relatively limited. Mitochondria are central organelles in anabolic and catabolic pathways and therefore interact with a number of other cellular compartments including the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and lipid droplets (LDs). An interesting set of recent work has shed new light on the molecular basis forming these contact sites. This brief overview describes the discovery of unanticipated functions of contact sites between the ER, mitochondria and LDs in de novo synthesis of storage lipids of brown and white adipocytes. Interestingly, the factors involved in mediating the interaction between these organelles are subject to unexpected modes of regulation through newly uncovered Phospho-FFAT motifs. These results suggest dynamic regulation of contact sites between organelles and indicate that spatial organization of organelles within the cell contributes to the control of metabolism.

Post-Translational Modification of Cysteines: A Key Determinant of Endoplasmic Reticulum-Mitochondria Contacts (MERCs)

Cells must adjust their redox state to an ever-changing environment that could otherwise result in compromised homeostasis. An obvious way to adapt to changing redox conditions depends on cysteine post-translational modifications (PTMs) to adapt conformation, localization, interactions and catalytic activation of proteins. Such PTMs should occur preferentially in the proximity of oxidative stress sources. A particular concentration of these sources is found near membranes where the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the mitochondria interact on domains called MERCs (Mitochondria-Endoplasmic Reticulum Contacts). Here, fine inter-organelle communication controls metabolic homeostasis. MERCs achieve this goal through fluxes of Ca²⁺ ions and inter-organellar lipid exchange. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) that cause PTMs of mitochondria-associated membrane (MAM) proteins determine these intertwined MERC functions. Chronic changes of the pattern of these PTMs not only control physiological processes such as the circadian clock but could also lead to or worsen many human disorders such as cancer and neurodegenerative diseases.

Lipid Transfer-Dependent Endosome Maturation Mediated by Protrudin and PDZD8 in Neurons

Endosome maturation refers to the conversion of early endosomes (EEs) to late endosomes (LEs) for subsequent fusion with lysosomes. It is an incremental process that involves a combination of endosome fusion and fission and which occurs at contact sites between endosomes and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), with knowledge of the underlying mechanisms having increased greatly in recent years. Protrudin is an ER-resident protein that was originally shown to regulate neurite formation by promoting endosome trafficking, whereas PDZD8 is a mammalian paralog of a subunit of the yeast ERMES (ER-mitochondrial encounter structure) complex that possesses lipid transfer activity. A complex of protrudin and PDZD8 was recently found to promote endosome maturation by mediating lipid transfer at ER-endosome membrane contact sites. This review focuses on the roles of the protrudin-PDZD8 complex in tethering of endosomes to the ER, in mediating lipid transfer at such contact sites, and in regulating endosome dynamics, especially in neuronal cells. It also addresses the physiological contribution of endosome maturation mediated by this complex to neuronal polarity and integrity.

Protrudin-deficient mice manifest depression-like behavior with abnormalities in activity, attention, and cued fear-conditioning

Protrudin is a protein that resides in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum and is highly expressed in the nervous system. Although mutations in the human protrudin gene (ZFYVE27, also known as SPG33) give rise to hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP), the physiological role of the encoded protein has been largely unclear. We therefore generated mice deficient in protrudin and subjected them to a battery of behavioral tests designed to examine their intermediate phenotypes. The protrudin-deficient mice were found to have a reduced body size and to manifest pleiotropic behavioral abnormalities, including hyperactivity, depression-like behavior, and deficits in attention and fear-conditioning memory. They exhibited no signs of HSP, however, consistent with the notion that HSP-associated mutations of protrudin may elicit neural degeneration, not as a result of a loss of function, but rather as a result of a gain of toxic function. Overall, our results suggest that protrudin might play an indispensable role in normal neuronal development and behavior.