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Stibbard-Hawkes DNE, Abarbanell L, Mabulla IA, Endeko ES, Legare CH, Apicella CL. Foreign-language effects in cross-cultural behavioral research: Evidence from the Tanzanian Hadza. PNAS NEXUS 2024; 3:pgae218. [PMID: 38915735 PMCID: PMC11194998 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/26/2024]
Abstract
Behavioral research in traditional subsistence populations is often conducted in a non-native language. Recent studies show that non-native language-use systematically influences behavior, including in widely used methodologies. However, such studies are largely conducted in rich, industrialized societies, using at least one European language. This study expands sample diversity. We presented four standard tasks-a "dictator" game, two sacrificial dilemmas, a wager task, and five Likert-risk tolerance measures-to 129 Hadza participants. We randomly varied study languages-Hadzane and Kiswahili-between participants. We report a moderate impact of study language on wager decisions, alongside a substantial effect on dilemma decisions and responses to Likert-assessments of risk. As expected, non-native languages fostered utilitarian choices in sacrificial dilemmas. Unlike previous studies, non-native-language-use decreased risk preference in wager and Likert-tasks. We consider alternative explanatory mechanisms to account for this reversal, including linguistic relativity and cultural context. Given the strength of the effects reported here, we recommend, where possible, that future cross-cultural research should be conducted in participants' first language.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Linda Abarbanell
- Department of Psychology, College of Sciences, San Diego State University, Imperial Valley Campus, Calexico, CA 92231-09021, USA
| | | | | | - Cristine H Legare
- Department of Psychology, Center for Applied Cognitive Science, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Coren L Apicella
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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2
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Pasin GL, Szekely A, Eriksson K, Guido A, di Sorrentino EP, Andrighetto G. Evidence from 43 countries that disease leaves cultures unchanged in the short-term. Sci Rep 2024; 14:6502. [PMID: 38499528 PMCID: PMC10948757 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-33155-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Did cultures change shortly after, and in response to, the COVID-19 outbreak? If so, then in what way? We study these questions for a set of macro-cultural dimensions: collectivism/individualism, duty/joy, traditionalism/autonomy, and pro-fertility/individual-choice norms. We also study specific perceptions and norms like perceived threats to society (e.g. immigration) and hygiene norms. We draw on Evolutionary Modernization Theory, Parasite Stress Theory, and the Behavioural Immune System, and existing evidence, to make an overarching prediction: the COVID-19 pandemic should increase collectivism, duty, traditionalism, conformity (i.e. pro-fertility), and outgroup prejudice. We derive specific hypotheses from this prediction and use survey data from 29,761 respondents, in 55 cities and 43 countries, collected before (April-December 2019) and recently after the emergence of COVID-19 (April-June 2020) to test them. We exploit variation in disease intensity across regions to test potential mechanisms behind any changes. The macro-cultural dimensions remained stable. In contrast, specific perceptions and norms related to the pandemic changed: norms of hygiene substantially increased as did perceived threats related to disease. Taken together, our findings imply that macro-cultural dimensions are primarily stable while specific perceptions and norms, particularly those related to the pandemic, can change rapidly. Our findings provide new evidence for theories of cultural change and have implications for policy, public health, daily life, and future trajectories of our societies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gian Luca Pasin
- Department of Social and Political Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Rome, Italy.
| | - Aron Szekely
- Collegio Carlo Alberto, Turin, Italy
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Rome, Italy
| | - Kimmo Eriksson
- Center for Cultural Evolution, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Andrea Guido
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Rome, Italy
- CEREN EA 7477, Burgundy School of Business, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | | | - Giulia Andrighetto
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Rome, Italy
- Institute for Futures Studies, Stockholm, Sweden
- Malardalens University, Västerås, Sweden
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3
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Molho C, De Petrillo F, Garfield ZH, Slewe S. Cross-societal variation in norm enforcement systems. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230034. [PMID: 38244602 PMCID: PMC10799737 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Across human societies, people are sometimes willing to punish norm violators. Such punishment can take the form of revenge from victims, seemingly altruistic intervention from third parties, or legitimized sanctioning from institutional representatives. Although prior work has documented cross-cultural regularities in norm enforcement, substantial variation exists in the prevalence and forms of punishment across societies. Such cross-societal variation may arise from universal psychological mechanisms responding to different socio-ecological conditions, or from cultural evolutionary processes, resulting in different norm enforcement systems. To date, empirical evidence from comparative studies across diverse societies has remained disconnected, owing to a lack of interdisciplinary integration and a prevalent tendency of empirical studies to focus on different underpinnings of variation in norm enforcement. To provide a more complete view of the shared and unique aspects of punishment across societies, we review prior research in anthropology, economics and psychology, and take a first step towards integrating the plethora of socio-ecological and cultural factors proposed to explain cross-societal variation in norm enforcement. We conclude by discussing how future cross-societal research can use diverse methodologies to illuminate key questions on the domain-specificity of punishment, the diversity of tactics supporting social norms, and their role in processes of norm change. This article is part of the theme issue 'Social norm change: drivers and consequences'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Molho
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Francesca De Petrillo
- School of Psychology and Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, Tyne and Wear NE2 4DR, UK
| | - Zachary H. Garfield
- Institute for Advanced Study in Toulouse, Université de Toulouse 1 Capitole, Toulouse 31015, France
- Africa Institute for Research in Economics and Social Sciences, Université Mohammed VI Polytechnique, 43150 Rabat, Morocco
| | - Sam Slewe
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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4
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Andersson PA, Vartanova I, Västfjäll D, Tinghög G, Strimling P, Wu J, Hazin I, Akotia CS, Aldashev A, Andrighetto G, Anum A, Arikan G, Bagherian F, Barrera D, Basnight-Brown D, Batkeyev B, Berezina E, Björnstjerna M, Boski P, Bovina I, Huyen BTT, Čekrlija Đ, Choi HS, Contreras-Ibáñez CC, Costa-Lopes R, de Barra M, de Zoysa P, Dorrough AR, Dvoryanchikov N, Engelmann JB, Euh H, Fang X, Fiedler S, Foster-Gimbel OA, Fülöp M, Gardarsdottir RB, Gill CMHD, Glöckner A, Graf S, Grigoryan A, Gritskov V, Growiec K, Halama P, Hartanto A, Hopthrow T, Hřebíčková M, Iliško D, Imada H, Kapoor H, Kawakami K, Khachatryan N, Kharchenko N, Kiyonari T, Kohút M, Leslie LM, Li Y, Li NP, Li Z, Liik K, Maitner AT, Manhique B, Manley H, Medhioub I, Mentser S, Nejat P, Nipassa O, Nussinson R, Onyedire NG, Onyishi IE, Panagiotopoulou P, Perez-Floriano LR, Persson M, Pirttilä-Backman AM, Pogosyan M, Raver J, Rodrigues RB, Romanò S, Romero PP, Sakki I, San Martin A, Sherbaji S, Shimizu H, Simpson B, Szabo E, Takemura K, Teixeira MLM, Thanomkul N, Tiliouine H, Travaglino GA, Tsirbas Y, Widodo S, Zein R, Zirganou-Kazolea L, Eriksson K. Anger and disgust shape judgments of social sanctions across cultures, especially in high individual autonomy societies. Sci Rep 2024; 14:5591. [PMID: 38454068 PMCID: PMC10920647 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-55815-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
When someone violates a social norm, others may think that some sanction would be appropriate. We examine how the experience of emotions like anger and disgust relate to the judged appropriateness of sanctions, in a pre-registered analysis of data from a large-scale study in 56 societies. Across the world, we find that individuals who experience anger and disgust over a norm violation are more likely to endorse confrontation, ostracism and, to a smaller extent, gossip. Moreover, we find that the experience of anger is consistently the strongest predictor of judgments of confrontation, compared to other emotions. Although the link between state-based emotions and judgments may seem universal, its strength varies across countries. Aligned with theoretical predictions, this link is stronger in societies, and among individuals, that place higher value on individual autonomy. Thus, autonomy values may increase the role that emotions play in guiding judgments of social sanctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per A Andersson
- Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, 581 83, Linköping, Sweden.
- JEDILab, Division of Economics, Department of Management and Engineering, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
| | - Irina Vartanova
- Institute for Futures Studies, Box 591, 101 31, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Daniel Västfjäll
- Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, 581 83, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Gustav Tinghög
- JEDILab, Division of Economics, Department of Management and Engineering, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- JEDILab, Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Linkoping University, Linkoping, Sweden
| | - Pontus Strimling
- Institute for Futures Studies, Box 591, 101 31, Stockholm, Sweden
- The Institute for Analytical Sociology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Junhui Wu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lincui Road 16, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100101, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Isabela Hazin
- Institute for Futures Studies, Box 591, 101 31, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, University of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Charity S Akotia
- Department of Psychology, University of Ghana, Legon, P.O. Box LG 84, Accra, Ghana
| | - Alisher Aldashev
- International School of Economics, Kazakh-British Technical University, 59 Tole Bi Street, 050000, Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - Giulia Andrighetto
- Institute for Futures Studies, Box 591, 101 31, Stockholm, Sweden
- Mälardalen University, 721 23, Västerås, Sweden
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Adote Anum
- Department of Psychology, University of Ghana, Legon, P.O. Box LG 84, Accra, Ghana
| | - Gizem Arikan
- Department of Political Science, Trinity College Dublin, 2-3 College Green, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Fatemeh Bagherian
- Faculty of Education and Psychology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, 1983969411, Iran
| | - Davide Barrera
- University of Turin and Collegio Carlo Alberto, Lungo Dora Siena 100, 10124, Turin, Italy
| | - Dana Basnight-Brown
- School of Humanities and Social Sciences, United States International University Africa, Box 14634 00800, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Birzhan Batkeyev
- International School of Economics, Kazakh-British Technical University, 59 Tole Bi Street, 050000, Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - Elizaveta Berezina
- Sunway University, No. 5, Jalan Universiti, Bandar Sunway, 47500, Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | | | - Paweł Boski
- SWPS University, Chodakowska 19-31, 03-815, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Inna Bovina
- Moscow State University of Psychology and Education, Sretenka Str., 29, 127051, Moscow, Russia
| | - Bui Thi Thu Huyen
- Hanoi National University of Education, 136 Xuan Thuy Street, Cau Giay District, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Đorđe Čekrlija
- Faculty of Philosophy, University of Banja Luka, Vojvode Petra Bojovića 1A, 78000, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Institute of Psychology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Hoon-Seok Choi
- Department of Psychology, Sungkyunkwan University, 25-2, Sungkyunkwan-Ro, Jongno-Gu, Seoul, 03063, Republic of Korea
| | - Carlos C Contreras-Ibáñez
- Departamento de Sociología, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Unidad Iztapalapa, Av. Rafael Atlixco 186, Col. Vicentina, 09340, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Rui Costa-Lopes
- Instituto de Ciências Sociais, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Anibal de Bettencourt, 9, 1600-189, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Mícheál de Barra
- Center for Culture and Evolution, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UB8 3PH, UK
| | - Piyanjali de Zoysa
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Kynsey Road, Colombo 8, Sri Lanka
| | - Angela R Dorrough
- Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, Richard-Strauss-Str. 2, 50931, Cologne, Germany
| | - Nikolay Dvoryanchikov
- Moscow State University of Psychology and Education, Sretenka Str., 29, 127051, Moscow, Russia
| | - Jan B Engelmann
- Center for Research in Experimental Economics and Political Decision Making (CREED), Amsterdam School of Economics, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 15867, 1001 NJ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hyun Euh
- Gies College of Business, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1206 S 6Th St., Champaign, IL, 61820, USA
| | - Xia Fang
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, 148 Tianmushan Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Susann Fiedler
- Vienna University of Economics and Business, Welthandelsplatz 1, 1020, Vienna, Austria
| | - Olivia A Foster-Gimbel
- Stern School of Business, New York University, 40 West 4Th Street, Tisch Hall, Suite 700, New York, NY, 10012, USA
| | - Márta Fülöp
- HUN-REN Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychology, Research Centre of Natural Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
- Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church, Bécsi Út 324, Budapest, 1034, Hungary
| | - Ragna B Gardarsdottir
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Iceland, Nyi Gardur, Saemundargata 12, IS-102, Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - C M Hew D Gill
- Sunway University, No. 5, Jalan Universiti, Bandar Sunway, 47500, Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
- Universal College Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Andreas Glöckner
- Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, Richard-Strauss-Str. 2, 50931, Cologne, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods, Kurt-Schumacher-Str. 10, 53113, Bonn, Germany
| | - Sylvie Graf
- Institute of Psychology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Veveří 97, 602 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ani Grigoryan
- Department of Personality Psychology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Vladimir Gritskov
- Saint Petersburg State University, 7-9 Universitetskaya Emb., St Petersburg, 199034, Russia
| | | | - Peter Halama
- Center for Social and Psychological Sciences, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska Cesta 9, 841 04, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Andree Hartanto
- School of Social Sciences, Singapore Management University, 90 Stamford Road, Singapore, 178903, Singapore
| | - Tim Hopthrow
- School of Psychology, University of Kent, Canterbury, CT2 7NP, UK
| | - Martina Hřebíčková
- Institute of Psychology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Veveří 97, 602 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Dzintra Iliško
- Daugavpils University, Latvia, Parades Street 1, Room 432, Daugvapils, 5400, Latvia
| | - Hirotaka Imada
- Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, TW20 0EX, UK
| | - Hansika Kapoor
- Department of Psychology, Monk Prayogshala, 4114, C Wing, Oberoi Garden Estates, Off Saki Vihar Road, Andheri East, Mumbai, Maharashtra, 400072, India
| | - Kerry Kawakami
- Department of Psychology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Narine Khachatryan
- Department of Personality Psychology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Natalia Kharchenko
- Kyiv International Institute of Sociology, Voloska Str., 8/5, Build. 4, Kyiv, 04070, Ukraine
| | - Toko Kiyonari
- Aoyama Gakuin University, 5-10-1, Fuchinobe, Chuo-Ku, Sagamihara-City, Kanagawa, 252-5258, Japan
| | - Michal Kohút
- Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, University of Trnava, Hornopotočná 23, 918 43, Trnava, Slovakia
| | - Lisa M Leslie
- Stern School of Business, New York University, 40 West 4Th Street, Tisch Hall, Suite 700, New York, NY, 10012, USA
| | - Yang Li
- Melbourne School of Psychological Science, University of Melbourne, 1116 Redmond Barry Building, Melbourne, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Norman P Li
- School of Social Sciences, Singapore Management University, 90 Stamford Road, Singapore, 178903, Singapore
| | - Zhuo Li
- Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond St, London, ON, N6A 5C2, Canada
| | - Kadi Liik
- School of Natural Sciences and Health, Tallinn University, Narva Rd 25, 10120, Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Angela T Maitner
- Department of Psychology, American University of Sharjah, PO Box 26666, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Bernardo Manhique
- Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Department of Sociology, Eduardo Mondlane University, Av. Julius Nyerere, 3453, Main Campus, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Harry Manley
- Faculty of Behavioral Sciences, Education, & Languages, HELP University Subang 2, Subang Jaya, Malaysia
- Faculty of Psychology, Chulalongkorn University, 254 Phayathai Road, Pathumwan, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
| | - Imed Medhioub
- Department of Finance, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), P.O. Box 5701, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sari Mentser
- Department of Education and Psychology, The Open University of Israel, 1 University Road, 4353701, Raanana, Israel
| | - Pegah Nejat
- Faculty of Education and Psychology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, 1983969411, Iran
| | - Orlando Nipassa
- Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Department of Sociology, Eduardo Mondlane University, Av. Julius Nyerere, 3453, Main Campus, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Ravit Nussinson
- Department of Education and Psychology, The Open University of Israel, 1 University Road, 4353701, Raanana, Israel
- Institute of Information Processing and Decision Making, University of Haifa, Abba Khoushy Ave 199, 3498838, Haifa, Israel
| | - Nneoma G Onyedire
- Department of Psychology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 41000, Nigeria
| | - Ike E Onyishi
- Department of Psychology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 41000, Nigeria
| | - Penny Panagiotopoulou
- Department of Education and Social Work, University of Patras, 26500, Rion, Patras, Greece
| | - Lorena R Perez-Floriano
- Facultad de Economía y Empresa, Universidad Diego Portales, Av. Sta. Clara 797, Huechuraba, Región Metropolitana, Chile
| | - Minna Persson
- Institute for Futures Studies, Box 591, 101 31, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anna-Maija Pirttilä-Backman
- Faculty of Social Sciences, Social Psychology, University of Helsinki, PO Box 54 (Unioninkatu 37), 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Marianna Pogosyan
- Leadership and Management, Amsterdam Business School, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 15953, 1001 NB, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jana Raver
- Queen's University, Goodes Hall, Kingston, ON, K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Ricardo Borges Rodrigues
- Instituto Universitário de Lisboa ISCTE-IUL, CIS, Avenida das Forças Armadas, 1649-026, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Sara Romanò
- Department of Culture, Politics and Society, University of Turin, 10135, Turin, Italy
| | - Pedro P Romero
- Experimental and Computational Economics Lab (ECEL), School of Economics, Universidad San Francisco de Quito USFQ, Diego de Robles y Pampite, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Inari Sakki
- Faculty of Social Sciences, Social Psychology, University of Helsinki, PO Box 42 (Unioninkatu 33), 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Alvaro San Martin
- IESE Business School, Camino del Cerro del Águila, 3, 28023, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sara Sherbaji
- Department of International Studies, American University of Sharjah, PO Box 26666, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Anthropology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Hiroshi Shimizu
- Kwansei Gakuin University, 1-155 Uegahara 1Bancho, Nishinomiya, Hyogo, 662-8501, Japan
| | - Brent Simpson
- Department of Sociology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - Erna Szabo
- Department of International Management, Johannes Kepler University, Altenberger Str. 69, 4040, Linz, Austria
| | - Kosuke Takemura
- Faculty of Economics, Shiga University, 1-1-1 Banba, Hikone, Shiga, 522-8522, Japan
| | - Maria Luisa Mendes Teixeira
- Mackenzie Presbyterian University, Business Administration Postgraduate Program, Consolação St, 930, São Paulo, CEP 01302-000, Brazil
| | - Napoj Thanomkul
- Faculty of Psychology, Chulalongkorn University, 254 Phayathai Road, Pathumwan, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
| | - Habib Tiliouine
- Labo-PECS, Faculty of Social Sciences, Université d'Oran 2, 31000, Oran, Algeria
| | - Giovanni A Travaglino
- Department of Law and Criminology, Institute for the Study of Power, Crime, and Society, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, TW20 0EX, UK
| | - Yannis Tsirbas
- Department of Political Science and Public Administration, University of Athens, 6 Themistokleous Street, 10678, Athens, Greece
| | - Sita Widodo
- Department of Psychology, Universitas Airlangga, Kampus B Unair Jalan Airlangga 4-6, Surabaya, 60286, Indonesia
| | - Rizqy Zein
- Department of Psychology, Universitas Airlangga, Kampus B Unair Jalan Airlangga 4-6, Surabaya, 60286, Indonesia
| | - Lina Zirganou-Kazolea
- Department of Political Science and Public Administration, University of Athens, 6 Themistokleous Street, 10678, Athens, Greece
| | - Kimmo Eriksson
- Institute for Futures Studies, Box 591, 101 31, Stockholm, Sweden
- Mälardalen University, 721 23, Västerås, Sweden
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5
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Andrighetto G, Szekely A, Guido A, Gelfand M, Abernathy J, Arikan G, Aycan Z, Bankar S, Barrera D, Basnight-Brown D, Belaus A, Berezina E, Blumen S, Boski P, Bui HTT, Cárdenas JC, Čekrlija Đ, de Barra M, de Zoysa P, Dorrough A, Engelmann JB, Euh H, Fiedler S, Foster-Gimbel O, Freitas G, Fülöp M, Gardarsdottir RB, Gill CMHD, Glöckner A, Graf S, Grigoryan A, Growiec K, Hashimoto H, Hopthrow T, Hřebíčková M, Imada H, Kamijo Y, Kapoor H, Kashima Y, Khachatryan N, Kharchenko N, León D, Leslie LM, Li Y, Liik K, Liuzza MT, Maitner AT, Mamidi P, McArdle M, Medhioub I, Teixeira MLM, Mentser S, Morales F, Narayanan J, Nitta K, Nussinson R, Onyedire NG, Onyishi IE, Osin E, Özden S, Panagiotopoulou P, Pereverziev O, Perez-Floriano LR, Pirttilä-Backman AM, Pogosyan M, Raver J, Reyna C, Rodrigues RB, Romanò S, Romero PP, Sakki I, Sánchez A, Sherbaji S, Simpson B, Spadoni L, Stamkou E, Travaglino GA, Van Lange PAM, Winata FF, Zein RA, Zhang QP, Eriksson K. Changes in social norms during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic across 43 countries. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1436. [PMID: 38365869 PMCID: PMC10873354 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-44999-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024] Open
Abstract
The emergence of COVID-19 dramatically changed social behavior across societies and contexts. Here we study whether social norms also changed. Specifically, we study this question for cultural tightness (the degree to which societies generally have strong norms), specific social norms (e.g. stealing, hand washing), and norms about enforcement, using survey data from 30,431 respondents in 43 countries recorded before and in the early stages following the emergence of COVID-19. Using variation in disease intensity, we shed light on the mechanisms predicting changes in social norm measures. We find evidence that, after the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, hand washing norms increased while tightness and punishing frequency slightly decreased but observe no evidence for a robust change in most other norms. Thus, at least in the short term, our findings suggest that cultures are largely stable to pandemic threats except in those norms, hand washing in this case, that are perceived to be directly relevant to dealing with the collective threat.
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Grants
- 2016.0167. Knut och Alice Wallenbergs Stiftelse (Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation)
- 20178TRM3F Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca (Ministry of Education, University and Research)
- 019.183SG.001 Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research)
- Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca (Ministry of Education, University and Research)
- Czech Science Foundation, 20-01214S Institute of Psychology, Czech Academy of Sciences, RVO: 68081740 Grant 23-061770S of the Czech Science Foundation RVO: 68081740 of the Institute of Psychology, Czech Academy of Sciences
- Shimabara Science Promotion Foundation
- RA Science Committee, research project N.20TTSH-020
- Open University of Israel, 511687
- HSE University Basic Research Program
- US Army Research Office Grant W911NF-19-1-910281
- Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, 019.183SG.001 Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, VI.Veni.201G.013 European Commission, Horizon 2020-ID 870827
- UKRI Grant “Secret Power” No. EP/X02170X/1 awarded under the European Commission’s “European Research Council - STG” Scheme
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Andrighetto
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Rome, Italy.
- Institute for Futures Studies, Stockholm, Sweden.
- Institute for Analytical Sociology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
| | - Aron Szekely
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Rome, Italy
- Collegio Carlo Alberto, Turin, Italy
| | - Andrea Guido
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Rome, Italy
- Institute for Futures Studies, Stockholm, Sweden
- CEREN EA 7477, Burgundy School of Business, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Michele Gelfand
- Graduate School of Business and Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, USA
| | - Jered Abernathy
- Department of Sociology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, USA
| | - Gizem Arikan
- Department of Political Science, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Zeynep Aycan
- Department of Psychology, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey
- Faculty of Management, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Davide Barrera
- Collegio Carlo Alberto, Turin, Italy
- Department of Culture, Politics, and Society, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | | | - Anabel Belaus
- Instituto de Investigaciones Psicológicas (IIPsi), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET); CABA, Córdoba, Argentina
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), Córdoba, Argentina
| | | | - Sheyla Blumen
- Departamento de Psicología, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima, Perú
| | | | | | - Juan Camilo Cárdenas
- Universidad de los Andes, Bogota, Colombia
- University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, USA
| | - Đorđe Čekrlija
- Faculty of Philosophy, University of Banja Luka, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Institute of Psychology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Mícheál de Barra
- Centre for Culture and Evolution, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UK
| | | | - Angela Dorrough
- Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Jan B Engelmann
- Center for Research in Experimental Economics and Political Decision Making (CREED), Amsterdam School of Economics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hyun Euh
- Gies College of Business, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, USA
| | - Susann Fiedler
- Vienna University of Economics and Business, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Gonçalo Freitas
- Instituto de Ciências Sociais, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Marta Fülöp
- HUN-REN Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychology, Research Centre of Natural Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
- Institute of Psychology, Karoli Gáspár University of the Reformed Churches, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | | | - Andreas Glöckner
- Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Sylvie Graf
- Institute of Psychology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ani Grigoryan
- Department of Personality Psychology, Yerevan State University, Yerevan, Armenia
| | | | | | - Tim Hopthrow
- School of Psychology, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Martina Hřebíčková
- Institute of Psychology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | | | | | - Hansika Kapoor
- Department of Psychology, Monk Prayogshala, Mumbai, India
| | - Yoshihisa Kashima
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Narine Khachatryan
- Department of Personality Psychology, Yerevan State University, Yerevan, Armenia
| | | | | | - Lisa M Leslie
- Stern School of Business, New York University, New York, USA
| | - Yang Li
- Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Kadi Liik
- School of Natural Sciences and Health, Tallinn University, Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Marco Tullio Liuzza
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, "Magna Græcia" University of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Angela T Maitner
- Department of Psychology, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | | | - Michele McArdle
- Department of Political Science, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Imed Medhioub
- Department of Finance and Investment, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Sari Mentser
- The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | | | | | | | - Ravit Nussinson
- Department of Education and Psychology, The Open University of Israel, Ra'anana, Israel
- Institute of Information Processing and Decision Making (IIPDM), University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | | | - Ike E Onyishi
- Department of Psychology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
| | | | - Seniha Özden
- Department of Psychology, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | | | | | | | - Marianna Pogosyan
- Leadership and Management, Amsterdam Business School (ABS), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jana Raver
- Queen's University at Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Cecilia Reyna
- Instituto de Investigaciones Psicológicas (IIPsi), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET); CABA, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Ricardo Borges Rodrigues
- Centro de Investigação e Intervenção Social, Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Sara Romanò
- Department of Culture, Politics, and Society, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Pedro P Romero
- School of Economics, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito, Ecuador
- Experimental and Computational Economics Lab (ECEL), Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Inari Sakki
- Faculty of Social Sciences, Social Psychology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Angel Sánchez
- Grupo Interdisciplinar de Sistemas Complejos (GISC), Departamento de Matemáticas, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Leganés, Spain
- Instituto de Biocomputación y Física de Sistemas Complejos (BIFI), Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Sara Sherbaji
- Department of Psychology, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Brent Simpson
- Department of Sociology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, USA
| | - Lorenzo Spadoni
- Department of Economics and Law, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Cassino (FR), Italy
| | - Eftychia Stamkou
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Paul A M Van Lange
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | - Kimmo Eriksson
- Institute for Futures Studies, Stockholm, Sweden
- Center for Cultural Evolution, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
- Malardalens University, Vasteras, Sweden
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6
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Gelfand MJ, Gavrilets S, Nunn N. Norm Dynamics: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Social Norm Emergence, Persistence, and Change. Annu Rev Psychol 2024; 75:341-378. [PMID: 37906949 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-033020-013319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2023]
Abstract
Social norms are the glue that holds society together, yet our knowledge of them remains heavily intellectually siloed. This article provides an interdisciplinary review of the emerging field of norm dynamics by integrating research across the social sciences through a cultural-evolutionary lens. After reviewing key distinctions in theory and method, we discuss research on norm psychology-the neural and cognitive underpinnings of social norm learning and acquisition. We then overview how norms emerge and spread through intergenerational transmission, social networks, and group-level ecological and historical factors. Next, we discuss multilevel factors that lead norms to persist, change, or erode over time. We also consider cultural mismatches that can arise when a changing environment leads once-beneficial norms to become maladaptive. Finally, we discuss potential future research directions and the implications of norm dynamics for theory and policy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele J Gelfand
- Graduate School of Business and Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA;
| | - Sergey Gavrilets
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, and Department of Mathematics, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Nathan Nunn
- Vancouver School of Economics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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7
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Mohamed NF, Jiun Ting T, Ab Manan N, Mohd Senari IF, Muhammad Firdaus Chan MF, Rahmatullah B, Govindasamy P, Abdulla K. Prevalence and predictors of social anxiety disorders among Malaysian secondary school students during the COVID-19 pandemic: Exploring the influence of internet gaming disorder and impulsivity. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry 2024:13591045231206967. [PMID: 38163335 DOI: 10.1177/13591045231206967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of social anxiety disorder (SAD) among Malaysian secondary school students during the COVID-19 pandemic and to explore its correlations with demographic variables, impulsivity behavior, and internet gaming disorder (IGD). A total of 1574 participants from 12 government secondary schools across five Malaysian states, comprising 569 males and 1005 females, completed an online questionnaire containing validated Malay versions of the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale, Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, and Internet Gaming Disorder Scale - Short Form. The findings revealed a notable SAD prevalence rate of 40.53% among Malaysian adolescents. Logistic regression analysis unveiled significant associations between SAD and factors such as attention impulsiveness (OR = 2.58, p < .001), motor impulsiveness (OR = 1.47, p = .03), female gender (OR = 2, p < .001), Malay ethnicity, and IGD (OR = 1.08, p < .001). In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into the extent of social anxiety experienced by Malaysian secondary school students during the pandemic, shedding light on the demographic and psychosocial factors linked to its emergence. Furthermore, the research underscores a robust link between IGD and SAD, emphasizing the need for comprehensive interventions addressing both issues concurrently. By recognizing the multifaceted nature of these associations, future interventions can be tailored to provide holistic support for adolescents' mental well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nor Firdous Mohamed
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Human Development, Sultan Idris Education University, Perak, Malaysia
| | - Tan Jiun Ting
- Department of Psychology, Sengkang General Hospital, Singapore
| | | | - Izatul Farhana Mohd Senari
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Human Development, Sultan Idris Education University, Perak, Malaysia
| | | | - Bahbibi Rahmatullah
- Department of Software Engineering and Smart Technology, Faculty of Computer and Meta-Technology, Sultan Idris Education University, Perak, Malaysia
| | - Priyalatha Govindasamy
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Human Development, Sultan Idris Education University, Perak, Malaysia
| | - Kahar Abdulla
- European Alliance Against Depression, Clinic for Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany
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8
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Yaman A, Leibo JZ, Iacca G, Wan Lee S. The emergence of division of labour through decentralized social sanctioning. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20231716. [PMID: 37876187 PMCID: PMC10598450 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.1716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Human ecological success relies on our characteristic ability to flexibly self-organize into cooperative social groups, the most successful of which employ substantial specialization and division of labour. Unlike most other animals, humans learn by trial and error during their lives what role to take on. However, when some critical roles are more attractive than others, and individuals are self-interested, then there is a social dilemma: each individual would prefer others take on the critical but unremunerative roles so they may remain free to take one that pays better. But disaster occurs if all act thus and a critical role goes unfilled. In such situations learning an optimum role distribution may not be possible. Consequently, a fundamental question is: how can division of labour emerge in groups of self-interested lifetime-learning individuals? Here, we show that by introducing a model of social norms, which we regard as emergent patterns of decentralized social sanctioning, it becomes possible for groups of self-interested individuals to learn a productive division of labour involving all critical roles. Such social norms work by redistributing rewards within the population to disincentivize antisocial roles while incentivizing prosocial roles that do not intrinsically pay as well as others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anil Yaman
- Computer Science Department, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Giovanni Iacca
- Department of Information Engineering and Computer Science, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Sang Wan Lee
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
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9
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Heu LC. The Loneliness of the Odd One Out: How Deviations From Social Norms Can Help Explain Loneliness Across Cultures. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2023:17456916231192485. [PMID: 37819246 DOI: 10.1177/17456916231192485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
Loneliness is an important health risk, which is why it is important to understand what can cause persistent or severe loneliness. Previous research has identified numerous personal or relational risk factors for loneliness. Cultural predictors, however, have been considered less. The new framework of norm deviations and loneliness (NoDeL) proposes that social norms, which are defining features of culture, can help explain loneliness within and across cultural contexts. Specifically, people who deviate from social norms are suggested to be at an increased risk for feeling lonely because they are more likely to experience alienation, inauthenticity, lower self-worth, social rejection, relationship dissatisfaction, and/or unfulfilled relational needs. Given that social norms vary by social, geographical, and temporal context, they can furthermore be considered cultural moderators between individual-level risk factors and loneliness: Personal or relational characteristics, such as shyness or being single, may increase the risk for loneliness particularly if they do not fit social norms in a specific environment. Integrating previous quantitative and qualitative findings, I hence offer a framework (NoDeL) to predict loneliness and cultural differences in risk factors for it. Thus, the NoDeL framework may help prepare culture-sensitive interventions against loneliness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luzia Cassis Heu
- Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences, Department of Interdisciplinary Social Science, Utrecht University
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10
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Eriksson K, Strimling P, Vartanova I. Appropriateness ratings of everyday behaviors in the United States now and 50 years ago. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1237494. [PMID: 37876843 PMCID: PMC10590884 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1237494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction A crucial aspect of social norms pertains to determining which behaviors are considered appropriate. Here we consider everyday behaviors. Some everyday behaviors are rated as more appropriate than others, and ratings of the appropriateness of a given behavior may vary over time. The objective of this study is to elucidate the reasons behind variation in appropriateness ratings of everyday behaviors in the United States. Our theory focuses on how the evaluation of the appropriateness of a behavior is influenced by its potential for externalities and internalities, and how this influence may cause a change in norms over time. Method Employing a preregistered design, we asked American participants to rate 37 different everyday behaviors based on their appropriateness in a range of common situations, as well as their potential negative externalities (e.g., being loud, being aggressive, taking up space) and positive internalities (e.g., pleasurability). Changes over time were calculated as the difference between mean ratings obtained in this study and ratings of the same behavior in a similar study conducted 50 years ago. Results As expected, overall appropriateness ratings of everyday behaviors are associated both with their externalities and their internalities, so that the least appropriate behaviors tend to have considerable potential for negative externalities and little potential for positive internalities. Moreover, behaviors that have considerable potential for negative externalities are perceived as less appropriate now than 50 years ago. Discussion By describing how social norms for everyday behaviors depend on the externalities and internalities of behaviors, this study contributes to theories about the emergence and change of social norms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimmo Eriksson
- School of Education, Culture and Communication, Mälardalen University, Västerås, Sweden
- Institute for Futures Studies, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Pontus Strimling
- Institute for Futures Studies, Stockholm, Sweden
- Institute for Analytical Sociology, Linköping University, Norrköping, Sweden
- Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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11
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Vishkin A, Tamir M. Emotion Norms Are Unique. AFFECTIVE SCIENCE 2023; 4:453-457. [PMID: 37744983 PMCID: PMC10514023 DOI: 10.1007/s42761-023-00188-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Emotion norms shape the pursuit, regulation, and experience of emotions, yet much about their nature remains unknown. Like other types of social norms, emotion norms reflect intersubjective consensus, vary in both content and strength, and benefit the well-being of people who adhere to them. However, we propose that emotion norms may also be a unique type of social norm. First, whereas social norms typically target behaviors, emotion norms can target both expressive behavior and subjective states. Second, whereas it may be possible to identify universally held social norms, norms for emotions may lack any universality. Finally, whereas social norms are typically stronger in more collectivist cultures, emotion norms appear to be stronger in more individualist cultures. For each of the potentially distinct features of emotion norms suggested above, we highlight new directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allon Vishkin
- Faculty of Data and Decision Sciences, Technion–Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Maya Tamir
- Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
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12
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Kupfer TR, Tybur JM. Third-party punishers who express emotions are trusted more. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230916. [PMID: 37644834 PMCID: PMC10465975 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Third party punishment (TPP) is thought to be crucial to the evolution and maintenance of human cooperation. However, this type of punishment is often not rewarded, perhaps because punishers' underlying motives are unclear. We propose that the expression of moral emotions could solve this problem by advertising such motives. In each of three experiments (n = 1711), a third-party punishment game was followed by a trust game. Third parties expressed anger or disgust instead of, or in addition to, financial punishment. Results showed that third parties who expressed these emotions were trusted more than those who didn't express (Experiment 1), and more than those who financially punished (Experiment 2). Moreover, third parties who expressed while financially punishing were trusted more than those who punished without expressing (Experiment 3). Findings suggest that emotion expression might play a role in the evolution and maintenance of cooperation by facilitating TPP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom R. Kupfer
- Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
| | - Joshua M. Tybur
- Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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13
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Dimant E, Gesche T. Nudging enforcers: how norm perceptions and motives for lying shape sanctions. PNAS NEXUS 2023; 2:pgad224. [PMID: 37484659 PMCID: PMC10360164 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
We conduct three studies, employing diverse methodologies (a behavioral experiment, a vignette experiment, and a norm elicitation experiment), to investigate when and how norm enforcement patterns can be modified using norm interventions in the context of dishonesty. Our preregistered, three-part data collection effort explores the extent to which norm violations are sanctioned, the impact of norm-nudges on punishment behavior, and the connection to norm perception. Using a representative sample of US participants in Study 1, we present robust evidence that norm enforcement is sensitive not only to the magnitude of the observed transgression (i.e. the size of the lie) but also to its consequences (whether the lie addresses or creates payoff inequalities). We also find that norm enforcers respond to norm-nudges conveying social information about actual lying behavior or its social disapproval. The results of a separate vignette experiment in Study 2 are consistent with the results in our behavioral experiment, thus hinting at the generalizability of our findings. To understand the interplay of norms, information about them, and punishment, we examine norm perceptions across different transgressions in Study 3. We find that norm perceptions are malleable and norm-nudges are most effective when preexisting norms are ambiguous. In sum, we show how norm enforcement can be nudged and which factors matter for doing so across various contexts and discuss their policy implications.
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14
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Li Y, Mifune N. Punishment in the public goods game is evaluated negatively irrespective of non-cooperators' motivation. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1198797. [PMID: 37457072 PMCID: PMC10346865 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1198797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The evolution of human cooperation toward strangers remains puzzling. While the punishment of non-cooperators is a possible explanation, whether punishments can help cooperation evolve depends on how people evaluate punishers. Thus, it is of vital importance to elucidate the perception of punishers. Previous studies have found that punishment is evaluated differently in different contexts; punishers are negatively and positively evaluated in the public goods game with punishment (PGG-P) and in the third-party punishment game (TPP), respectively. To disentangle the mixed evidence, our research focused on motivations for non-cooperation and examined whether different motivations for non-cooperation could explain the inconsistent findings. We hypothesized that people positively evaluate punishers when they punish those who non-cooperated to exploit others (greed), e.g., in a TPP situation. Contrastingly, people negatively evaluate punishers when they punish those who non-cooperated to avoid exploitation (fear), e.g., in a PGG-P situation. If so, in either game, punishers would be evaluated positively in situations where greed dominates, and negatively in situations where fear dominates the non-cooperation motivation. To test this, we conducted two online experiments with hypothetical scenarios in which the decision-making order was used to manipulate the motivations of non-cooperators. The results of Study 1 (N = 240) using only PGG-P and Study 2 (N = 602) using both PGG-P and TPP showed that the non-cooperation motivation did not have a significant effect on the evaluations of punishers and non-punishers. Punishers (vs non-punishers) were evaluated negatively in PGG-P and positively in TPP regardless of the decision-making order of non-cooperation. We discussed the role of higher-order information in the evaluation of punishment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Li
- School of Informatics, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Nobuhiro Mifune
- School of Economics and Management, Kochi University of Technology, Kochi, Japan
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15
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Lavender Forsyth GA, Chaudhuri A, Atkinson QD. Validating the dual evolutionary foundations of political values in a US sample. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1189771. [PMID: 37425180 PMCID: PMC10326618 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1189771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychological research repeatedly identifies two dimensions of political values. Recent work argues that these dimensions reflect the dual evolutionary foundations of human social and political life: a trade-off between cooperation and competition that generates differences in values about social inequality, and a trade-off in managing group coordination that generates differences in values about social control. Existing scales used to measure political values, however, were created prior to this framework. Here, we introduce the Dual Foundations Scale, designed to capture values about the two trade-offs. We validate the scale across two studies, showing it accurately and reliably measures both dimensions. Our results support key predictions of the dual foundations framework and pave the way for future work on the foundations of political ideology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ananish Chaudhuri
- Department of Economics, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Quentin Douglas Atkinson
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Centre for the Study of Social Cohesion, School of Anthropology and Museum Ethnography, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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16
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Balliet D, Lindström B. Inferences about interdependence shape cooperation. Trends Cogn Sci 2023; 27:583-595. [PMID: 37055313 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2023.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/15/2023]
Abstract
During social interactions in daily life, people possess imperfect knowledge of their interdependence (i.e., how behaviors affect each person's outcomes), and what people infer about their interdependence can shape their behaviors. We review theory and research that suggests people can infer their interdependence with others along several dimensions, including mutual dependence, power, and corresponding-versus-conflicting interests. We discuss how perceptions of interdependence affect how people cooperate and punish others' defection in everyday life. We propose that people understand their interdependence with others through knowledge of the action space, cues during social interactions (e.g., partner behaviors), and priors based on experience. Finally, we describe how learning interdependence could occur through domain-specific and domain-general mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Balliet
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Institute for Brain and Behaviour Amsterdam (IBBA), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1081BT, The Netherlands.
| | - Björn Lindström
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Institute for Brain and Behaviour Amsterdam (IBBA), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1081BT, The Netherlands
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17
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Dimcea A. The Impact of Social Norms on Stock Liquidity. STUDIA UNIVERSITATIS BABES-BOLYAI OECONOMICA 2023; 68:78-99. [DOI: 10.2478/subboec-2023-0005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/26/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
There is a growing body of research that shows the impact of culture on individual’s financial decisions. We aim to investigate how the strength of social norms and the tolerance for deviant behavior influence stock liquidity. Using a panel of 26 developed and 19 emerging countries we show that there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between the measure of cultural tightness-looseness, developed by Gelfand et al. (2011) and stock liquidity. Additionally, our results suggest that financial literacy has a moderating effect on the relationship between social norms and liquidity.
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18
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Krueger J, Eriksson K, Hazin I, Tibajev A, Strimling P. Acculturation of hygiene norms among immigrants to Sweden. Front Psychol 2023; 14:975361. [PMID: 36814662 PMCID: PMC9939453 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.975361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Hygiene norms in Sweden are generally loose compared to most other countries. Does this looseness affect the hygiene norms among people who immigrate to Sweden from other countries? In a study of hygiene norms among immigrants to Sweden, the change in the physical environment and material living conditions, acculturation to Swedish culture and norms, and selection effects were all expected to lead immigrant hygiene norms to be closer to Swedish looseness. However, in a sample of 447 immigrants from 12 different countries, immigrants reported hygiene norms that were even stricter than those found in their countries of origin. We propose an explanation based on a combination of uncertainty about prevailing hygiene norms and the social risk and stigma associated with being perceived as unhygienic. We conclude that acculturation processes may rely on mechanisms that are domain specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Krueger
- Institute for Futures Studies, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kimmo Eriksson
- Institute for Futures Studies, Stockholm, Sweden,School for Education, Culture and Communication, Mälardalen University, Västerås, Sweden,*Correspondence: Kimmo Eriksson,
| | | | - Andrey Tibajev
- Institute for Futures Studies, Stockholm, Sweden,Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Pontus Strimling
- Institute for Futures Studies, Stockholm, Sweden,Department of Management and Engineering, The Institute for Analytical Sociology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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19
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Engström E, Eriksson K, Björnstjerna M, Strimling P. Global variations in online privacy concerns across 57 countries. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR REPORTS 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chbr.2023.100268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
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20
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Sun S, Zhang H. Development of the Cultural Tightness-Looseness Orientation Scale for College Students. Psychol Res Behav Manag 2023; 16:665-681. [PMID: 36923298 PMCID: PMC10010131 DOI: 10.2147/prbm.s402850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Background "The cultural tightness-looseness orientation of college students", which involves college students' cognition about tolerance for non-learning-behavior in class, strength of learning-behavior norms in class, and strength of social norms in the generalized macro-context, offers a new perspective to explain college students' psychology and behavior and could effectively promote their all-round development. However, there is severely lack of a reliable and valid instrument. Hence, we seek to develop the Cultural Tightness-Looseness Orientation Scale for College Students (CTLOS-S) in the Chinese context. Methods We firstly pooled the initial 17 measuring items of CTLOS-S through literature review and the open-ended interview. After conducting questionnaire survey among 264 college students using the initial scale, we did a series of reliability and validity tests to get the formal CTLOS-S, based on which we further administered questionnaire survey among 755 college students to check its reliability, construct validity, criterion validity, content validity, and across-gender invariance. Results The formal CTLOS-S contains 7-item subscale of tolerance orientation for non-learning-behavior in class, 4-item subscale of strength orientation of learning-behavior norms in class, and 3-item subscale of strength orientation of social norms in the generalized macro-context. The testing results of the second-stage questionnaire survey data (N = 755) demonstrate that the reliability coefficients of CTLOS-S and its three subscales are 0.85, 0.85, 0.83, and 0.76 separately, the internal 3-factor structure validity of CTLOS-S is satisfactorily acceptable with χ 2(74) = 318.76, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.06, and SRMR = 0.04, and the content validity and criterion validity are satisfactory as the total score of CTLOS-S is positively correlated with each score of its three subscales and the total score of learning engagement scale. Besides, the 3-factor structure of CTLOS-S is invariant across gender. Conclusion The 14-item CTLOS-S we develop is a reliable and valid instrument for researchers to conduct quantitative studies on college students' cultural tightness-looseness orientation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuwei Sun
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, Xuzhou University of Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Haiyan Zhang
- Business School, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
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21
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Beyond Reciprocity: Forgiveness, Generosity, and Punishment in Continuing Dyadic Interactions. JOURNAL OF THEORETICAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1155/2022/7259257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
There is a long-standing debate in philosophy and the social sciences about how selfishness and cooperation function in dyadic social exchanges. Dyads are the foundation of our social lives, and reciprocity has long been considered the dominant strategy for dyadic interactions. We will argue the repertoire of human behavior during social exchanges ranges from punishment to generosity, and that the nuances of the relationship and interaction will dictate which behavior is likely to occur. We will examine emotional consequences of punishment, reciprocity, and forgiveness in long-term dyadic social exchanges. Finally, we argue that dyads move beyond reciprocity to a more forgiving, generous strategy to reestablish cooperation, and continue the relationship when noncooperation arises, once the motivations shift has occurred.
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22
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White CJ, Schaller M, Abraham EG, Rottman J. Navigating between punishment, avoidance, and instruction: The form and function of responses to moral violations varies across adult and child transgressors. Cognition 2022; 223:105048. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Revised: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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23
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Malle BF, Guglielmo S, Voiklis J, Monroe AE. Cognitive Blame Is Socially Shaped. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/09637214211068845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Blame is not only a cognitive process but also a social act of moral criticism. Such acts of criticism often serve to correct a transgressor’s behavior but can be costly—to the moral critic, the transgressor, and the community. To limit these costs, blame is socially regulated: Communities set standards of evidence for blame and expect individuals to provide warrant, or justification, for their expressed judgments by pointing to appropriate evidence. We describe the path model of blame, which captures the cognitive processes that underlie blame judgments and that specify the kind of evidence that counts as warrant for blame. We then show how the varying costs of blaming put social pressure on the moral critic to be accurate and fair. We also identify conditions under which these pressures are weakened and standards of evidence decline: for example, when the transgressor has low status or is an out-group member, when the critic has high status or is anonymous, or when interactions are online. We close with numerous open questions that we hope will inspire further research into the hypothesis that cognitive blame is socially shaped.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertram F. Malle
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic, and Psychological Sciences, Brown University
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24
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Maitner AT, DeCoster J, Andersson PA, Eriksson K, Sherbaji S, Giner-Sorolla R, Mackie DM, Aveyard M, Claypool HM, Crisp RJ, Gritskov V, Habjan K, Hartanto A, Kiyonari T, Kuzminska AO, Manesi Z, Molho C, Munasinghe A, Peperkoorn LS, Shiramizu V, Smallman R, Soboleva N, Stivers AW, Summerville A, Wu B, Wu J. Perceptions of Emotional Functionality: Similarities and Differences Among Dignity, Face, and Honor Cultures. JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/00220221211065108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Emotions are linked to wide sets of action tendencies, and it can be difficult to predict which specific action tendency will be motivated or indulged in response to individual experiences of emotion. Building on a functional perspective of emotion, we investigate whether anger and shame connect to different behavioral intentions in dignity, face, and honor cultures. Using simple animations that showed perpetrators taking resources from victims, we conducted two studies across eleven countries investigating the extent to which participants expected victims to feel anger and shame, how they thought victims should respond to such violations, and how expectations of emotions were affected by enacted behavior. Across cultures, anger was associated with desires to reclaim resources or alert others to the violation. In face and honor cultures, but not dignity cultures, shame was associated with the desire for aggressive retaliation. However, we found that when victims indulged motivationally-relevant behavior, expected anger and shame were reduced, and satisfaction increased, in similar ways across cultures. Results suggest similarities and differences in expectations of how emotions functionally elicit behavioral responses across cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Kimmo Eriksson
- Stockholm University, Sweden
- Institute for Futures Studies, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sara Sherbaji
- American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- University College London, UK
| | | | | | - Mark Aveyard
- American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Heather M. Claypool
- Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Richard J. Crisp
- Durham University, UK
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Vladimir Gritskov
- Saint Petersburg State University, Russian Federation
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Kristina Habjan
- Durham University, UK
- University of Fribourg, Switzerland
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Andree Hartanto
- Singapore Management University, Singapore
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Toko Kiyonari
- Aoyama Gakuin University, Kanagawa, Japan
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Anna O. Kuzminska
- University of Warsaw, Poland
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Zoi Manesi
- Singapore Management University, Singapore
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Catherine Molho
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Institute for Advanced Study in Toulouse, France
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Anudhi Munasinghe
- University of California, Santa Barbara, USA
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Leonard S. Peperkoorn
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Netherlands
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Victor Shiramizu
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
- University of Glasgow, UK
- University of Strathclyde, UK
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Rachel Smallman
- Texas A&M University, College Station, USA
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Natalia Soboleva
- National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russian Federation
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Adam W. Stivers
- Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA, USA
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Amy Summerville
- Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA
- Kairos Research, Dayton, OH, USA
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Baopei Wu
- Beijing Forestry University, China
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
| | - Junhui Wu
- Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Beijing Normal University, China
- These authors have contributed equally and are listed alphabetically
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25
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Children across societies enforce conventional norms but in culturally variable ways. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:2112521118. [PMID: 34969840 PMCID: PMC8740750 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2112521118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Individuals in all societies conform to their cultural group's conventional norms, from how to dress on certain occasions to how to play certain games. It is an open question, however, whether individuals in all societies actively enforce the group's conventional norms when others break them. We investigated third-party enforcement of conventional norms in 5- to 8-y-old children (n = 376) from eight diverse small-scale and large-scale societies. Children learned the rules for playing a new sorting game and then, observed a peer who was apparently breaking them. Across societies, observer children intervened frequently to correct their misguided peer (i.e., more frequently than when the peer was following the rules). However, both the magnitude and the style of interventions varied across societies. Detailed analyses of children's interactions revealed societal differences in children's verbal protest styles as well as in their use of actions, gestures, and nonverbal expressions to intervene. Observers' interventions predicted whether their peer adopted the observer's sorting rule. Enforcement of conventional norms appears to be an early emerging human universal that comes to be expressed in culturally variable ways.
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26
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Eriksson K, Dickins TE, Strimling P. Global sex differences in hygiene norms and their relation to sex equality. PLOS GLOBAL PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 2:e0000591. [PMID: 36962769 PMCID: PMC10021886 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0000591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Strict norms about hygiene may sometimes have health benefits but may also be a burden. Based on research in the United States, it has been suggested that women traditionally shoulder responsibility for hygiene standards and therefore tend to have stricter views on hygiene. However, there is little systematic research on sex differences in hygiene norms at the global scale. We set up two hypotheses: (1) Stricter hygiene norms among women than among men is a global phenomenon. (2) The size of this sex difference varies across nations with the level of sex equality. We examine these hypotheses using data from a recent international survey (N = 17,632). Participants in 56 countries were asked for their views of where it is not appropriate for people to spit and in which situations people should wash their hands. As a measure of sex equality, we use an existing country-level measure of attitudes to equality between the sexes, available for 49 nations in the study. Stricter hygiene norms among women than among men are observed almost everywhere, but there are a few exceptions (most notably Nigeria and Saudi Arabia). The size of the sex difference in hygiene norms varies strongly with the level of sex equality, but in a non-linear way. The sex difference is most pronounced in moderately egalitarian countries with the highest recorded difference being in Chile. In more egalitarian parts of the world, more sex equality is associated with a smaller sex difference in hygiene norms. In the less egalitarian parts of the world, the opposite relation holds. We offer an interpretation in terms of what different levels of sex equality mean for the content of sex roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimmo Eriksson
- Institute for Futures Studies, Stockholm, Sweden
- Division of Mathematics and Physics, School of Education, Culture and Communication, Mälardalen University, Västerås, Sweden
- * E-mail:
| | - Thomas E. Dickins
- Department of Psychology, School of Science & Technology, Middlesex University, Hendon, London, United Kingdom
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27
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Walkowitz G, Belianin A, Dorrough AR. Editorial: Inter-cultural cooperation: The role of attitudes, (shared) expectations, and behavioral standards. Front Psychol 2022; 13:1044588. [PMID: 36483723 PMCID: PMC9723368 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1044588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Gari Walkowitz
- Freiberg University of Mining and Technology, Freiberg, Germany.,Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Alexis Belianin
- National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
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28
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Molho C, Wu J. Direct punishment and indirect reputation-based tactics to intervene against offences. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20200289. [PMID: 34601906 PMCID: PMC8487740 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Punishment and reputation-based mechanisms play a major role in supporting the evolution of human cooperation. Theoretical accounts and field observations suggest that humans use multiple tactics to intervene against offences-including confrontation, gossip and ostracism-which have unique benefits and costs. Here, we draw a distinction between direct punishment tactics (i.e. physical and verbal confrontation) and indirect reputation-based tactics (i.e. gossip and ostracism). Based on this distinction, we sketch the common and unique social functions that different tactics are tailored to serve and describe information-processing mechanisms that potentially underlie decisions concerning how to intervene against offences. We propose that decision rules guiding direct and indirect tactics should weigh information about the benefits of changing others' behaviour versus the costs of potential retaliation. Based on a synthesis of existing evidence, we highlight the role of situational, relational and emotional factors in motivating distinct punishment tactics. We suggest that delineating between direct and indirect tactics can inform debates about the prevalence and functions of punishment and the reputational consequences of third-party intervention against offences. We emphasize the need to study how people use reputation-based tactics for partner recalibration and partner choice, within interdependent relationships and social networks, and in daily life situations. This article is part of the theme issue 'The language of cooperation: reputation and honest signalling'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Molho
- Institute for Advanced Study in Toulouse, Université Toulouse 1 Capitole, Toulouse, France
- Center for Research in Experimental Economics and Political Decision Making (CREED), University of Amsterdam, Roetersstraat 11, 1001 NJ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Junhui Wu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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29
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Dorrough AR, Froehlich L, Eriksson K. Cooperation in the cross-national context. Curr Opin Psychol 2021; 44:281-285. [PMID: 34801845 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this article, we outline the current state of research concerning cooperation in the cross-national context. We present several theoretical approaches and empirical findings regarding national differences in cooperation, as well as how cooperation may depend on the national background of the interaction partner. In addition, we discuss the influence of (national) group norms, cultural similarity, and ingroup membership. This review concludes with a call for research on cooperation to include more non-WEIRD nations and more systematically cover national background as one important social category determining the willingness to cooperate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Rachael Dorrough
- University of Cologne, Social Cognition Center, Richard-Strauss-Str. 2, 50931 Köln, Germany.
| | - Laura Froehlich
- FernUniversität in Hagen, Research Cluster D²L², Universitätsstr. 27, 58097 Hagen, Germany
| | - Kimmo Eriksson
- Institute for Futures Studies, Holländargatan 13, 111 36 Stockholm, Sweden; Mälardalen University, Högskoleplan 1, 722 20 Västerås, Sweden
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30
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Eriksson K, Simpson B, Vartanova I. The Power of Tolerance vs. Unselfishness as a Cultural Determinant of Cooperation. Front Psychol 2021; 12:678237. [PMID: 34557129 PMCID: PMC8452855 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.678237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cooperation in collective action problems and resource dilemmas is often assumed to depend on the values of the individuals involved, such as their degree of unselfishness and tolerance. Societal differences in cooperation and cooperative norms may therefore result from cultural variation in emphasis on these personal values. Here we draw on several cross-national datasets to examine whether society-level emphasis on unselfishness and tolerance and respect for other people predict how societies vary in cooperation [in a continuous prisoner's dilemma (PD)] and in norms governing cooperation [in a common pool resource dilemma (CPR)]. The results suggest that high levels of cooperation and cooperative norms are promoted specifically by a cultural emphasis on tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimmo Eriksson
- School of Education, Culture and Communication, Mälardalen University, Västerås, Sweden
- Institute for Futures Studies, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Brent Simpson
- Department of Sociology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States
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31
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Gross J, Vostroknutov A. Why do people follow social norms? Curr Opin Psychol 2021; 44:1-6. [PMID: 34520935 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Norms prescribe how to make decisions in social situations and play a crucial role in sustaining cooperative relationships and coordinating collective action. However, following norms often requires restricting behavior, demanding to curtail selfishness, or suppressing personal goals. This raises the question why people adhere to norms. We review recent theories and empirical findings that aim at explaining why people follow norms even in private, when violations are difficult to detect and are not sanctioned. We discuss theories of norm internalization, social and self-image concerns, and social learning (i.e. preferences conditional on what others do/believe). Finally, we present two behavioral, incentivized tasks that can be used to elicit norms and measure the individual propensity to follow them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Gross
- Social, Economic and Organizational Psychology, Leiden University, the Netherlands.
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32
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Van Lange PAM, Rand DG. Human Cooperation and the Crises of Climate Change, COVID-19, and Misinformation. Annu Rev Psychol 2021; 73:379-402. [PMID: 34339612 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-020821-110044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Contemporary society is facing many social dilemmas-including climate change, COVID-19, and misinformation-characterized by a conflict between short-term self-interest and longer-term collective interest. The climate crisis requires paying costs today to benefit distant others (and oneself) in the future. The COVID-19 crisis requires the less vulnerable to pay costs to benefit the more vulnerable in the face of great uncertainty. The misinformation crisis requires investing effort to assess truth and abstain from spreading attractive falsehoods. Addressing these crises requires an understanding of human cooperation. To that end, we present (a) an overview of mechanisms for the evolution of cooperation, including mechanisms based on similarity and interaction; (b) a discussion of how reputation can incentivize cooperation via conditional cooperation and signaling; and (c) a review of social preferences that undergird the proximate psychology of cooperation, including positive regard for others, parochialism, and egalitarianism. We discuss the three focal crises facing our society through the lens of cooperation, emphasizing how cooperation research can inform our efforts to address them. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Psychology, Volume 73 is January 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A M Van Lange
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, and Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam (iBBA), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
| | - David G Rand
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA;
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33
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Wanders F, Homan AC, van Vianen AEM, Rahal RM, van Kleef GA. How norm violators rise and fall in the eyes of others: The role of sanctions. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0254574. [PMID: 34324549 PMCID: PMC8324048 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Norm violators demonstrate that they can behave as they wish, which makes them
appear powerful. Potentially, this is the beginning of a self-reinforcing loop,
in which greater perceived power invites further norm violations. Here we
investigate the possibility that sanctions can break this loop by reducing the
power that observers attribute to norm violators. Despite an abundance of
research on the effects of sanctions as deterrents for norm-violating behavior,
little is known about how sanctions may change perceptions of individuals who do
(or do not) violate norms. Replicating previous research, we found in two
studies (N1 = 203,
N2 = 132) that norm violators
are perceived as having greater volitional capacity compared to norm abiders.
Qualifying previous research, however, we demonstrate that perceptions of
volition only translate into attributions of greater power in the absence of
sanctions. We discuss implications for social hierarchies and point out avenues
for further research on the social dynamics of power.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Wanders
- Work and Organizational Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands
| | - Astrid C. Homan
- Work and Organizational Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands
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34
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Gerlach P, Eriksson K. Measuring Cultural Dimensions: External Validity and Internal Consistency of Hofstede's VSM 2013 Scales. Front Psychol 2021; 12:662604. [PMID: 33889119 PMCID: PMC8056018 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.662604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cross-cultural comparisons often investigate values that are assumed to have long-lasting influence on human conduct and thought. To capture and compare cultural values across cultures, Geert Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory has offered an influential framework. Hofstede also provided a survey instrument, the Values Survey Module (VSM), for measuring cultural values as outlined in his Cultural Dimensions Theory. The VSM has since been subject to a series of revisions. Yet, data on countries have been derived from the original VSM — and not on one of the revised versions of VSM. We tested three scales (indulgence, power distance, and individualism) from the latest version, the VSM 2013, as part of a larger survey across 57 countries. Two main findings emerged. For one thing, country scores based on the VSM 2013 scales correlated only weakly with country scores of the same cultural dimensions obtained in a large previous study. Thus, the validity of the VSM 2013 is in doubt. For another thing, the internal consistency of the VSM 2013 scales was overall poor, indicating that the scales did not reliably measure well-defined constructs. We discuss implications for cross-cultural research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Gerlach
- Psychology School, Faculty of Business & Media, Fresenius University of Applied Sciences, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Kimmo Eriksson
- School for Education, Culture and Communication, Mälardalen University, Stockholm, Sweden.,Institute for Futures Studies, Stockholm, Sweden
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